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Jfuas No.1 December 2013

55

The Promotion of Environmentally Friendly and SustainablePest Management Systems through Applying Traditional

Methods with Special Reference to Darfur Region.Ibrahim AbdelRahman Ibrahim Abdel-Fattah ,Faculty of Environmental Sciences andNatural Resources, Department of Plant Protection, University of Al Fashir, Sudan.

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Abstract:

Recenty the major problem facing the third world is how to

overcome the acute shortages of food supplies. This shortage has

made the greatest immediate impact upon these societies, where

survival possibilities are endangered or lost on many occasions

particularity in Africa ( Ibrahim,1988), where crop productivity is low

compared to the tremendous increase in population growth. With the

exception of the recent event of drought as the main cause of this

condition .These losses are caused by pests’ attack which under

certain conditions their damaging levels, may amount to a complete

loss of crop yield, that usually occurs even under more stable

ecological conditions. Physical factors vary from year to year since

the beginning of 1 9 70s. up to date. Under these harsh conditions

most of the living agents were able to experience full adaptation. In


57

this regard true locusts (desert and tree locusts) and grasshoppers,

the( Sahelian species) as well as migrant and local bird species ,

in addition to the water melon bugs have emerged as critical

biological threat ,which are characterized by dynamic trends ,

to invade Savannah zone in western Sudan States. Traditional

methods involve accumulative experiences gained from the ever

ending fight between farmers and their pest enemies over

history.

Effective integrated control techniques comprise various

incorporated methods such as cultural, mechanical , biological ,

physical …etc. When these methods applied in appropriate

manner ,they tend to reduce pest population , but not eradicating

the species. However , these methods are efficient and safe to

the environment, especially in confined small holdings , but are

not that so to control wide scale infestations i.e. locusts or

grasshoppers plaques. Under these conditions selected suitable

pesticides is inevitable to apply .

Key words: drought, climate change, biological control, soil borne pests,predator. .

1-introduction

Agriculture is the main activity of a large sector in Darfur States,

where different crops are grown under different farming systems; it

ranges from rain fed to irrigated agriculture (the utilization of the


58

surface and underground water). The main staple food crops include

millet, sorghum, vegetables (okra, tomatoes, cucurbits etc) plus crops;

fruits (occasionally). Cash crops include ground nuts, sesame, water

melon seeds, Hibiscus spp. (kerkadide), and gum Arabic.

The socio- economic structure is typically traditional and

subsistent type of economy. It aims to the satisfaction of the basic

needs of the poor households. Selling the surplus products has also the

same objectives. Information gathered was specified as to the purpose

of use and to their heritages and culture.

Crop production in North Darfur State is largely controlled by

natural forces. These forces involve different biotic and a biotic

factors, which state the amount of the resources available and their

status. Such component interact with each other at varying degrees.

Under defined conditions the yield is expected to be high, otherwise

the reverse is true.

It is difficult to single out one parameter as being the key factor

responsible for causing crop damage unless other factors are kept

constant. However, the agricultural pests constantly constitute a major

biological threat to the farmers in the state, where considerable crop

damage permanently occurs.

Sudan falls within the Sahelian zone which include a number

of neighboring countries having similar geographical conditions

i.e. Senegal, Nigeria , Niger, Mali, Benin ,Borkinafaso and Chad .

This Region is characterized by irregular climatic conditions

specially the amount of annual rains, their distribution ,density and


59

period of fall. There exist in nature a mixture of grasshoppers ,

the principal species are Oedaleus senegalensis, Oedaleus

nigereriensis , Pyrgomrpha atcogne .These harmful pests invade

the cultivated crops, regardless of the geographical boundareis. In

the event of wanting to get more food and keep the environment

healthy and better strike a balance between the needs and the

resources available for the benefit of the coming generations. In

this sense the introduction and development of Metarhizium spp.

for the control of grasshoppers and locusts is an urgent claim

to attain (Lomer et al 1997).

This paper tries to give some answers to the farmers continuous

complains from pests attack through applying integrated pest

management techniques and encourage the adoption and modification

of the already existing long ago practices.

1.1. What is a pest?

The definition of a pest can be very subjective, varying according

to many criteria, but in the widest sense any animal or plant causing

harm or damage to man, his animals, his crops or possession, even if

just causing annoyance ( Hill, D.S.(1981).

1.2. A pest from agricultural point of view.

An animal or plant out of context is regarded as a pest even

though it may not belong to a pest species.

1.3. Crops – Pests Interactions.

Man has probably been faced by pest problem ever since he

began to grow crops, because he wants the same things pests want.


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Field observations revealed, that there exist in nature variety of pests

both, national and local species, estimates of not less than 50% of

crop yield is devastated in the region.

Crops attack by pests experience a sequential pattern due to

ecological synchronization between the pests and their foods. Thus

early enemies appear, soon, the seeds are sown or transplanted, these

agents include different pests species like, birds rodents and soil borne

insects, which attack seeds and seedlings. Weeds are also considered

as pests since they compete with crops for nutrients, space, light and

water. Infestation by different species is continued according to crop

stage and pest preference, where roots, stems leaves, flowers, grains or

fruits are destroyed in a systematic manner. Though some species are

polyphagous being able to feed on different parts of different

crops. While pesticides can help poor countries valuable crops, the

hazardous and effects on farmers, consumers and the environment

must not be overlooked(FAO,1998).

. The food relations and feeding behavior of each species is

governed by it’s food ecology, thus along the course of attack the crop

is subjected to an steadily decline in it’s reproductive potential.

1.3.1.Classification of Crop Pests according to Plant Protection

Directorate (P.P.D) in the Sudan.

Pests are classified into two major groups according to their

economic importance:-


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1.3.2. National Pests (key species)

These groups include the most economically important species,

whose damage nature is catastrophic and characterized by a high

population dynamics and biological potential i.e. Locusts/

grasshoppers, rodents (rats), birds (Oulea.sp.Passer luteus, Sudan

sparrows and local bird species), Dura and at (Agonoscelis

pubescence) (thbg).

1.3.3. Local pests (minor species)

This term is used to denote these species whose damage nature

is of minor importance and local. Though, they may become serious

under suitable conditions. This group include a very wide spectrum of

pest species i.e. beetles, butterflies and moths, bugs , weeds, leaf

hoppers, white flies, aphids etc.

1.4. Traditional methods of pest management practiced by

farmers in Darfur.

Generally the current agricultural practices rely on the

indigenous methods (but not exclusive), which were gained through

farmers long experiences. Although these methods are inefficient and

back warded but they are quite safe to the environment as compared

with the deleterious effects of chemical pesticides.

The traditional methods of pest management have got a

multidimensional scope, since these practices link crop production

with social values and believes to maintain human survival. While

controlling pests, extra benefits are also achieved, where some animal

species are used as foods or medicines such as locusts, birds, rabbits,


62

foxes, rats etc, more over folklore ceremonies are being practiced as a

part of the social traditions i.e. Hunting and Dumbarei ceremonies.

However, the need for investigating and testing these indigenous

practices is important in the view of wanting to maximize crop

production and protect the environment from pesticides hazards.

2. Materials and Methods.

The information was collected by following the method described

by Huis(1996) and by making use of past experiences in pest control

in Darfur Region.

The stated objectives were achieved through the management of

the local components by incorporating them with the modern

techniques. The indigenous pests control methods involve inherited

long ago agricultural practices, as mentioned below:-

2.1. Field Studies. Information was collected by reviewing the

literature, conducting, interviews and by making use of past

experiences in pest control during the period (1983-1997). However,

because of the budget limitations orientated and individual contact

method were made of areas characterized by high infestations of pests

traditional breading zones, while dealing with annual surveys and

control operations(P.P.D.Elfasher,1997) as shown below:


63

Tabe1: Areas surveyed in North Darfur during the period 1983-1997.

Areas

InterviewedPerson

ElFahser

Kebkabyia Kutum Mellit ElietGaralnabi

total

Cropprotectionofficertechnicians

5 2 1 1 2 11

Farmer 10 10 5 5 5 35Local leader 20 15 8 7 5 55Subtotal 35 27 14 13 12 1012-2 Cultural Methods

Cultural methods involve the steps taken by the farmer to improve theconditions under which the crop plants are grown..2-3.Mechanical Methods:Involve different tools for controlling vertebrate pests as shown

below:-

Table 2: Mechanical Traps used by farmers in North DarfurTrap type Pests captured1. Kajama Foxes, rabbits, wolves2. Nubal or Dimbel Rats, rabbits, squirrels wild hens,

Hystrixs crestata3. Robes Rabbits, wild hens,Hytrix crestata4. Nets (Umkofayia) Birds ie. Oulea sp. Passer luteus

2.4. Biological control methods.

Different biological agents, parasites, predators and pathogens

were used by nature or as a natural acts.


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3- Results and Discussion

Information collected was processed, in away as to represent

various mechanisms of environmentally friendly and good farmers

interests. However, when these mechanisms are employed in

sequential pattern with the plant growth , pest attack is assumed

to be augmented.

3.1. Seed selection (Tairab)

Despite of the fact that improved seeds perform better in terms

of yielding capacity and consumers taste as compared with the local

varieties. However indigenous seeds are still used and do well

particularly with regard to environmental adaptability and pests

resistance i.e. Millet (Dimbei and Abosoof (Spiny varieties) Tomatoes

(Abokafa),Okra (Wad-Tantonj), Melons (Saphinja) etc.

During harvest farmers select their seeds (Tairab) according to

certain specifications i.e. good characters, high germination% and

high yielding capacity, drought and pest resistance healthy, quick

maturity etc. which they gained from their long ago experiences,

fathers and grand fathers. Selected seeds are tested before storage

i.e. tomato seeds are mixed with ash (Rum ad) and dried under

sun action, okra fingers and millet heads are stored in the kitchen

(Tokol) to be protected from insects by smoking. Selected seeds are

preserved in cloths and put in pots, metallic containers like tins or

sometimes in Dabangs.


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3.2. Sanitary practices (Nadafa or Jewada)

Cleaning the farm from old crops (rations) trashes, debris,

volunteers, small bushes etc, that harbor pests specially rats and birds

is normally practiced before sowing (May- June).

3.3. Tillage (Hirata)

This practice is carried out in clays by using animals (camels,

horses and donkeys) drawn tools Maharit during summer season. The

main purpose of this step is to improve the physical properties of the

soil to improve water infiltration rate, as well as controlling soil

borne pests by exposing them to sun action and predators i.e. disposed

pupae, weed rhizomes etc.

3.4. Dry sowing (Ram ail)

Early sowing on dry conditions is usually practiced before rains

(Ram ails).This type of sowing is a good tactic against rats and birds

where seed attack is avoided by escaping. On early raining ,the holes

are covered and it is difficult for the pests to find them .This

was then , followed by a rapid growth of the crop.

3.5. Weeding (Hishasha)

Early control of weeds is applied by using hand operated tools, the

weeding hoes ie. Jarayas (different types, males (Dakar) and females

(Intaya), Kadanka to prevent competition from the rapid growing

weeds. When labour availability becomes short farmers tend to co

operate and work in groups (Nafeer) to control weeds in ajoint group

singing and practicing good ceremony.


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3-1-6 Reweeding (Jankab)

The late germinated weed seeds and the regenerated parts of some

rhizomenous species i.e. Cyperus rotundus (sida) requires reweeding

to reduce weed population density below injury level. This step is

followed by the first weeding.

3.7. Crop thinning (Shalikh, tafneed or burbar)

Crop thinning means the reduction of the plant density per hole by

removing the smallest and weaken plants to limit intra specific

competition for growing factors.

3.8. Irrigation

Irrigation is confined to certain areas in the state i.e. Korma

Gaili,Tiena,Martal,Abu-Sakeen,Sayah,Dar-Alsalaam Kutum,

Kebkabyia , farmers benefit from the underground water for irrigating

their crops by using pumps (modern) and hand lifting systems(

traditional). Regular irrigation intervals inhibit infestations by

termites and other soil borne insects.

3.2. Mechanical Methods

3.2.1. Trapping (Sharak)

Trapping is one of the oldest methods of pest management

practiced long ago by farmers, where many types of animal traps are

used for capturing different vertebrate pest species, some traps are

specific to certain animals others are non- specific, where many

species are captured with. Although trapping is confined to smaller

areas but it is effective especially for the large animal pests like foxes,

rabbits, wolves.


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3.2.2. Digging animals burrow

Physical power has been used to dig animal shelters for controlling

some vertebrate pest species like rats, squirrels and foxes, the exposed

animals are killed. Rats and squirrels are consumed by certain

communities, where foxes hides are used for making shoes, hats and

their fats as medicines. The up-setting of the pest habitat living homes

will enforce them to immigrate elsewhere or live as scattered group.

3.2.3. Hunting (Ganees)

Although hunting is conducted as hobby and or a food source,

however, sometimes when the population density of certain species

grow up around the farms such as wild hens foxes, squirrels and

rabbits. The villagers conduct what is so called ganees folklore. With

the help of high speed dogs, they aim to capture as many animals as

they could. When the action wound up, some pest individuals will be

killed, others flee to safer ecosystems. This operation will reduce the

population of pests at least for a temporary period.

3.2.4. Destruction of birds nest

The most serious grainvorous birds, that can destroy a larger

amounts of cereal grains (Millet, Rize and Sorghum) are weaver birds

(Qulea qulea aethiopica) and Sparrows (Passer luteus) seeds are

removed whole from milky stage until harvest. Under farmers

conditions the most effective method of control is to reduce the

population size of the birds by destroying the roots and colonies. In

this case, the chance of increasing the number is declined sharp by up-

setting the breeding cycle. Large amounts of birds are also eaten by


68

the farmers during campaign. Finally the remaining bird

community is enforced to fly one go.

3.2. 5. Digging trenches for hopper control (Karaiet)

This method is an old practice; it is used for the control of the

marching immature stages of the desert locusts (1-5th instars). The

trench is made across the direction of the movement of the nymph

instars, as a barrier. The trench is roughly, ½ - 1 meter wide, ½ meter

deep and its length depends on the population size of the stages. The

marching locusts are driven by tree branches to fall into the trench

which where then buried by using spades.

3.2.6. Hand picking

This method is confined to small holdings where adults and larvae

of some insect species are collected by hands and buried i.e. Boll

worms, Bugs i.e. Spongypus vidatus = (Coridius vidatus).. Beetles

i.e. Red melon beetle, Africa melon lady birds. Weeds are also up-

rooted by using hands when hoeing is impracticable.

3.3. Biological control

It is a natural act, where some biological components interact-

negatively i.e. Predators, parasites and pathogens with their respective

preys and hosts. What could be considered a biological control by man

under traditional agriculture, is the direct eating of some incest species

where a large amounts are consumed as food or medicines and sold

at wide scale in small and big markets (Hajar Guddo

market).Farmers gain more money during locust control

campaigns. -In the Sudan people unlike feeding on some species i.e.


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Zonocerus .variegatus(L.) and Poekilocerus bufonius hieroglyphicus(

Kug,1832 )(M. Lecoq and M.H. Lunois) which feed on noxious

plants I.e. Ipomea fistulosa and Calotropis procera and some other

asclepiads such as Pergularia respectively. It is quite puzzling to

mention that Zonocerus variegatus(L.) is reported roasted and

eaten in Akok area of Ondo State 1 in Southern Nigeria (The

Food Insect News Letter,1992).But this behavior is mainly due

to differences in nations culture. The insect water melon bug

locally known as ( Umbaga) , Coridius viduatus (L.)is used as

food diet in some countries. Production of oil is utilized both as

food and as an antibacterial agent in some skin diseases and

biodiesel from this insect.(Sener Tarla. et al,2013).For vertebrate

pests , Zeese. W.Burgstaller .H.,and Tahir.A.(1984) reported that so

many rodent species attack stores and field crops in the Sudan .

Some rodents have got large sizeable species with tasted meat

i.e. Abo –Shook, Sytrix cerstata,(Abdel-Karim . H.A. Elmustafa.) is

eaten as food and used as medicine by local people in many

areas in Darfur.


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Table 3: Important insects and vertebrate species eaten by man inNorth Darfur.

Type of thevertebrate orinsect

Scientific name Common name Local name

-Schistocena gregariaAn - acridiummelanorhodon- Anacridiumwernerellum

Desert locustTree locustTree locust

ShaowSari Alail-

Grasshoppers - Kraussariaangulifera- Cataloipuscymbiferus- Diabolocatantopsaxilllaris- Hieroglyphusdaganensis

----

UmjorkumUmi-ajainUm-simaindoEsabi-Elmolok

3. Bugs Agonoscelis pubescens Sudan millet faing

4. Birds (manyspecies)

- Qulea sp.- passer luteus- Sparrows-

Sudan dioch, redbilled-Sudan goldenwild hens

AbuhatabKiteiw

sparrowDajaj Alwadi,ie halfawe,Zargawi

5-Rodents, Foxes,many (species)

i.e.Abo-Shook,Sytrixcrestata-Arvicanthis niloticus-0ryctolagus cuniculus- Rattus rattus

FoxesGround SquirrelHaresRats

Bashom, AbohalimaSabarArnabFar (Kidik)

3.4. Behavioural Control (Khalaa,Fazaa).

This is one of the effective methods against birds and foxes, where

farmers fix dead hauwks, with spreaded wings in different sites in

millet farms, when moved by wind action, birds feel fear of and fly

away. In the case of foxes, scarecrow ie. man-like structures in white


71

dress are fixed in different sites in watermelon farms when moved by

winds foxes feel fear from and run away.

3.5. Physical methods

3.5.1. Smoking (Dukhan)

It is one of the oldest methods of control, where farmers used to burn

animal dungs and green plants in the late evenings and early mornings

to repel insects by developing smokes, ie. Moths, butterflies, fruit flies

etc.

3.5.2. Burning birds nests (Harig)

Farmers used to set fire on the birds nests around their millet farms.

The action is coincided with the breeding cycles of birds where eggs,

fledglings are destroyed. Although it is an effective method but it is a

wrong practice and very hazardous to the environment.

3.5.3. Burning insects (Nafasha) larvae

This is an especial practice against millet head worm larvae when

millet heads are being attacked, the larvae of Rhaguva albipunctella

(Nafasha) are collected mixed with cocking oil and burned. The bad

odours developed repel moths and butter flies.

3.6. Social believes

3.6.1 Religious values (Duaa)

When man being in danger, he always back to God (Allah) asking

for help. It is a part of the religious values that farmers say their

prayers (Du a a) when plagued by pests and diseases.


72

3.7.2. Ritual practices ( Dambary ceremony)

Dambary is a super power man (magician), who is monitoring

locusts (Desert locust, only, shaow) or birds (Passer luteus, only,

kitiow) by practicing special ceremonies derived from special believes

which is unknown, he experiences folklore ceremonies which is very

odd. He rides on his horse back wearing dirty clothes, with birds

feathers fixed on head, a stick pointed sky high for directing locusts or

beating a drum in case of birds.

The birds or locusts are not killed but are moved from one place to

another depending on how much farmers can pay- farmers respect him

and react very positively towards his claims.

The driven swarms of locusts or birds are restored in remote areas;

usually Dambary lives in, until the next season. I have consulted

professor Magzoub Omer Bashir, the head of the Biological Control

Unit, Faculty of Agriculture University of Khartoum, for further

explanations he mentioned that taking off the birds one go as fear

from the drum noise is acceptable. This practice is compatible with

some novel methods of pests management, but for locusts still further

investigations are needed.

Sometimes personal prejudices override public objectives, where a

Dambary is called to react negatively against some farmers by moving

locusts into their farms where farmers strongly believe on him. In this

case the message of Dambary is reversed and tends to be more

harmful.


73

3.8. Legitimate measures.

Local policies were drawn upon by local institutions for the better

use of chemical pesticides in the agricultural environment to reduce

pollution and to maximize crop yield ,and this activity was taken

over by the subject matter specialist in Extension Department.

4. Conclusion

Crop production in the marginal areas is very risky, where

production factors are uncontrollable in most cases, specially

biological and physical components. These events necessitate making

use of all possible local means to maximize crop yield.

Although modern technologies are highly efficient, but negative

environmental impact is always experienced from their uses specially

chemical pesticides. However the need for investigating these

traditional practices, incorporating them with the new technical

innovations is important since these practices are cheap and

compatible with the environment. However, outbreaks of locusts

and grasshoppers are controlled by large applications of chemical

pesticides. Integrated Pest Management ( I.P.M.) techniques have

been applied rarely and still rely heavily on chemical spraying the

major control mechanism (Cunning-ham,1992).

This simple work is an attempt to formulate the structure of some

indigenous methods of pests’ management and highlighting their

ecological importance. The bulk of the knowledge concerning the

issue is personal experience in the field of pest management in

Darfur.


74

I think the option of pest management by using non-

chemical methods is an interesting area of research work

specially for those who deal with chemical alternatives.

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