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2/7/2556 Endocrine system - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Endocrine systemFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The endocrine system is the system of glands, each of which secretes different types of hormones directly into
the bloodstream (some of which are transported along nerve tracts[citation needed]) to maintain homeostasis.The endocrine system is in contrast to the exocrine system, which secretes its chemicals using ducts. The wordendocrine derives from the Greek words "endo" meaning inside, within, and "crinis" for secrete. The endocrinesystem is an information signal system like the nervous system, yet its effects and mechanism are classifiablydifferent. The endocrine system's effects are slow to initiate, and prolonged in their response, lasting from a fewhours up to weeks. The nervous system sends information very quickly, and responses are generally short lived.Hormones are substances (chemical mediators) released from endocrine tissue into the bloodstream where theytravel to target tissue and generate a response. Hormones regulate various human functions, includingmetabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sleep, and mood. The field of study dealing with theendocrine system and its disorders is endocrinology, a branch of internal medicine.
Features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and usually the presence ofintracellular vacuoles or granules storing their hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands,sweat glands, and glands within the gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or ahollow lumen.
In addition to the specialised endocrine organs mentioned above, many other organs that are part of other bodysystems, such as the kidney, liver, heart and gonads, have secondary endocrine functions. For example thekidney secretes endocrine hormones such as erythropoietin and renin.
The endocrine system is made of a series of glands that produce chemicals called hormones. A number ofglands that signal each other in sequence are usually referred to as an axis, for example, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.
As opposed to endocrine factors that travel considerably longer distances via the circulatory system, othersignaling molecules, such as paracrine factors involved in paracrine signalling diffuse over a relatively shortdistance.
Contents
1 Endocrine organs and known secreted hormones
1.1 Hypothalamus1.2 Pineal body (epiphysis)
1.3 Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
1.3.1 Anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)
1.3.2 Posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)
1.4 Thyroid
1.5 Alimentary system
1.5.1 Stomach
1.5.2 Duodenum
1.5.3 Liver
1.5.4 Pancreas1.6 Kidney
1.7 Adrenal glands
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1.7.1 Adrenal cortex1.7.2 Adrenal medulla
1.8 Reproductive
1.8.1 Testes
1.8.2 Ovarian follicle and corpus luteum
1.8.3 Placenta (when pregnant)
1.8.4 Uterus (when pregnant)
1.9 Calcium regulation
1.9.1 Parathyroid
1.9.2 Skin
2 Targets
2.1 Heart2.2 Bone marrow
2.3 Adipose tissue
3 Diffuse Neuro-Endocrine System (DNES)
4 Major endocrine systems5 Interaction with immune system6 In other species
7 Diseases8 Other types of signaling
8.1 Autocrine8.2 Paracrine
8.3 Juxtacrine9 See also
10 References11 External links
Endocrine organs and known secreted hormones
Endocrine glands in the human head and neck and their hormones
Hypothalamus
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Secreted hormone Abbreviation Produced by Effect
Thyrotropin-releasinghormone
TRH
Parvocellular
neurosecretoryneurons
Stimulate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)release from anterior pituitary (primarily)
Dopamine
(Prolactin-inhibitinghormone)
DA or PIH
Dopamine
neurons of thearcuate nucleus
Inhibit prolactin released from anterior pituitary
Growth hormone-
releasing hormoneGHRH
Neuroendocrine
neurons of theArcuate nucleus
Stimulate Growth hormone (GH) release from
anterior pituitary
Somatostatin
(growth hormone-inhibiting hormone)
SS, GHIH, or
SRIF
Neuroendocrinecells of the
Periventricularnucleus
Inhibit Growth hormone (GH) release fromanterior pituitary
Inhibit thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)release from anterior pituitary
Gonadotropin-releasinghormone
GnRH orLHRH
Neuroendocrinecells of the
Preoptic area
Stimulate follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
release from anterior pituitaryStimulate luteinizing hormone (LH) release from
anterior pituitary
Corticotropin-releasing
hormoneCRH or CRF
Parvocellularneurosecretory
neurons of theParaventricular
Nucleus
Stimulate adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH) release from anterior pituitary
Oxytocin OT or OXT
Magnocellularneurosecretory
neurons of theSupraoptic
nucleus and
Paraventricularnucleus
Uterine contractionLactation (letdown reflex)
Vasopressin
(antidiuretic hormone)
ADH or AVP
or VP
Parvocellular
neurosecretory
neurons,
Magnocellular
neurosecretoryneurons of the
Paraventricular
nucleus andSupraopticnucleus
Increases water permeability in the distalconvoluted tubule and collecting duct of
nephrons, thus promoting water reabsorption
and increasing blood volume
Pineal body (epiphysis)
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Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Melatonin Pinealocytes
Antioxidant
Monitors the circadian rhythm including inducement of
drowsiness and lowering of the core body temperature
Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
The pituitary gland (or hypophysis) is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 5 grams (0.18 oz)in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and rests in a small,bony cavity (sella turcica) covered by a dural fold (diaphragma sellae). The pituitary is functionally connected tothe hypothalamus by the median eminence via a small tube called the infundibular stem or pituitary stalk. Thepituitary fossa, in which the pituitary gland sits, is situated in the sphenoid bone in the middle cranial fossa at thebase of the brain. The pituitary gland secretes nine hormones that regulate homeostasis and the secretion of
other hormones.[citation needed]
Anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)
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Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Growth hormone(somatotropin)
GH Somatotrophs
Stimulates growth and cell reproduction
Stimulates Insulin-like growth factor 1 releasefrom liver
Thyroid-stimulating
hormone
(thyrotropin)
TSH Thyrotrophs
Stimulates thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine
(T3) synthesis and release from thyroid gland
Stimulates iodine absorption by thyroid gland
Adrenocorticotropic
hormone(corticotropin)
ACTH Corticotrophs
Stimulates corticosteroid (glucocorticoid and
mineralcorticoid) and androgen synthesis andrelease from adrenocortical cells
Beta-endorphin - Corticotrophs Inhibits perception of pain
Follicle-stimulating
hormoneFSH Gonadotrophs
In females: Stimulates maturation of ovarianfollicles in ovary
In males: Stimulates maturation of seminiferous
tubules
In males: Stimulates spermatogenesisIn males: Stimulates production of androgen-
binding protein from Sertoli cells of the testes
Luteinizing hormone LH Gonadotrophs
In females: Stimulates ovulation
In females: Stimulates formation of corpus
luteumIn males: Stimulates testosterone synthesis from
Leydig cells (interstitial cells)
Prolactin PRL Lactotrophs
Stimulates milk synthesis and release from
mammary glands
Mediates sexual gratification
Melanocyte-stimulating
hormoneMSH
Melanotropes inthe Pars
intermedia of the
Anterior Pituitary
Stimulates melanin synthesis and release from
skin/hair melanocytes
Posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)
Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
OxytocinMagnocellularneurosecretory
cells
Uterine contraction
Lactation (letdown reflex)
Vasopressin
(antidiuretic hormone)ADH or AVP
Parvocellular
neurosecretory
neurons
Increases water permeability in the distal
convoluted tubule and collecting duct of
nephrons, thus promoting water reabsorptionand increasing blood volume
Oxytocin and anti-diuretic hormone are not secreted in the posterior lobe, merely stored.
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Thyroid
Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Triiodothyronine T3Thyroid epithelial
cell
(More potent form of thyroid hormone)
Stimulates body oxygen and energyconsumption, thereby increasing the basal
metabolic rate
Stimulates RNA polymerase I and II, therebypromoting protein synthesis
Thyroxine
(tetraiodothyronine)T4
Thyroid epithelial
cells
(Less active form of thyroid hormone)
(Acts as a prohormone to triiodothyronine)
Stimulates body oxygen and energyconsumption, thereby increasing the basal
metabolic rate
Stimulates RNA polymerase I and II, thereby
promoting protein synthesis
CalcitoninParafollicular
cells
Stimulates osteoblasts and thus boneconstruction
Inhibits Ca2+ release from bone, thereby
reducing blood Ca2+
Alimentary system
Stomach
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Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Gastrin (Primarily) G cells Secretion of gastric acid by parietal cells
Ghrelin P/D1 cells
Stimulate appetite,
secretion of growth hormone from anteriorpituitary gland
Neuropeptide Y NPYincreased food intake and decreased physical
activity. It can be associated with obesity.
Somatostatin D cells
Suppress release of gastrin, cholecystokinin(CCK), secretin, motilin, vasoactive intestinal
peptide (VIP), gastric inhibitory polypeptide
(GIP), enteroglucagon
Lowers rate of gastric emptying Reducessmooth muscle contractions and blood flow
within the intestine.[1]
Histamine ECL cells stimulate gastric acid secretion
Endothelin X cells Smooth muscle contraction of stomach[2]
Duodenum
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Secretin S cells
Secretion of bicarbonate from liver, pancreas andduodenal Brunner's glands
Enhances effects of cholecystokinin, stops productionof gastric juice
Cholecystokinin I cells
Release of digestive enzymes from pancreas
Release of bile from gallbladder, hunger suppressant
Liver
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Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Insulin-like growthfactor (or somatomedin)
(Primarily)
IGF Hepatocytes
insulin-like effects
regulate cell growth and development
Angiotensinogen and
angiotensinHepatocytes
vasoconstriction
release of aldosterone from adrenal cortexdipsogen.
Thrombopoietin THPO Hepatocytesstimulates megakaryocytes to produce
platelets[3]
Hepcidin Hepatocytesinhibits intestinal iron absorption and iron release
by macrophages
Pancreas
Pancreas is a mixed endocrine and exocrine gland and it secretes both enzymes and hormones.
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Insulin (Primarily) β Islet cells
Intake of glucose, glycogenesis and glycolysis in liver
and muscle from blood
intake of lipids and synthesis of triglycerides inadipocytes Other anabolic effects
Glucagon (Also
Primarily)α Islet cells
glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver
increases blood glucose level
Somatostatin δ Islet cells
Inhibit release of insulin[4]
Inhibit release of glucagon[4] Suppress the exocrinesecretory action of pancreas.
Pancreatic polypeptide PP cellsSelf regulate the pancreas secretion activities and
effect the hepatic glycogen levels.
Kidney
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Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Renin (Primarily) Juxtaglomerular cellsActivates the renin-angiotensin system by producingangiotensin I of angiotensinogen
Erythropoietin (EPO)Extraglomerular mesangial
cellsStimulate erythrocyte production
Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3)
Active form of vitamin D3
Increase absorption of calcium and phosphate fromgastrointestinal tract and kidneys inhibit release of PTH
Thrombopoietin stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets[3]
Adrenal glands
Adrenal cortex
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Glucocorticoids (chiefly
cortisol)
zona fasciculata and zona
reticularis cells
Stimulates gluconeogenesis
Stimulates fat breakdown in adipose tissue
Inhibits protein synthesis
Inhibits glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue
Inhibits immunological responses (immunosuppressive)
Inhibits inflammatory responses (anti-inflammatory)
Mineralocorticoids
(chiefly aldosterone)Zona glomerulosa cells
Stimulates active sodium reabsorption in kidneys
Stimulates passive water reabsorption in kidneys, thus
increasing blood volume and blood pressure
Stimulates potassium and H+ secretion into nephron of
kidney and subsequent excretion
Androgens (including
DHEA and
testosterone)
Zona fasciculata and Zona
reticularis cells
In males: Relatively small effect compared to
androgens from testes
In females: masculinizing effects
Adrenal medulla
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Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Adrenaline(epinephrine)
(Primarily)
Chromaffin cells
Fight-or-flight response:
Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the
brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate andstroke volume, vasodilation, increasing catalysis
of glycogen in liver, breakdown of lipids in fat
cells)
Dilate the pupils
Suppress non-emergency bodily processes
(e.g., digestion)
Noradrenaline
(norepinephrine)Chromaffin cells
Fight-or-flight response:
Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the
brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and
stroke volume, vasoconstriction and increased
blood pressure, breakdown of lipids in fat cells)
Increase skeletal muscle readiness.
Dopamine Chromaffin cells Increase heart rate and blood pressure
Enkephalin Chromaffin cells Regulate pain
Reproductive
Testes
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Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Androgens (chiefly
testosterone)Leydig cells
Anabolic: growth of muscle mass and strength,
increased bone density, growth and strength,
Virilizing: maturation of sex organs, formation ofscrotum, deepening of voice, growth of beard andaxillary hair.
Estradiol Sertoli cells Prevent apoptosis of germ cells[5]
Inhibin Sertoli cells Inhibit production of FSH
Ovarian follicle and corpus luteum
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Progesterone Granulosa cells, theca cells
Support pregnancy:[6]
Convert endometrium to secretory stage
Make cervical mucus thick and impenetrable to
sperm.
Inhibit immune response, e.g., towards the
human embryo
Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility[6]
Inhibit lactationInhibit onset of labor.
Other:
Raise epidermal growth factor-1 levels
Increase core temperature during ovulation[7]
Reduce spasm and relax smooth muscle (widen
bronchi and regulate mucus)
Anti-inflammatory
Reduce gall-bladder activity[8]
Normalize blood clotting and vascular tone, zincand copper levels, cell oxygen levels, and use of
fat stores for energyAssist in thyroid function and bone growth by
osteoblastsIncrease resilience in bone, teeth, gums, joint,tendon, ligament, and skin
Promote healing by regulating collagenProvide nerve function and healing by regulating
myelinPrevent endometrial cancer by regulating effects
of estrogen
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Androstenedione Theca cells Substrate for estrogen
Estrogens (mainlyestradiol)
Granulosa cells
Structural:
Promote formation of female secondary sexcharacteristics
Accelerate height growthAccelerate metabolism (burn fat)
Reduce muscle massStimulate endometrial growthIncrease uterine growth
Maintain blood vessels and skinReduce bone resorption, increase bone
formation
Protein synthesis:
Increase hepatic production of binding proteins
Coagulation:
Increase circulating level of factors 2, 7, 9, 10,antithrombin III, plasminogen
Increase platelet adhesivenessIncrease HDL, triglyceride, height growth
Decrease LDL, fat deposition
Fluid balance:
Regulate salt (sodium) and water retention
Increase growth hormoneIncrease cortisol, SHBG
Gastrointestinal tract:
Reduce bowel motilityIncrease cholesterol in bile
Melanin:
Increase pheomelanin, reduce eumelanin
Cancer:
Support hormone-sensitive breast cancers[9]
(Suppression of production in the body of
estrogen is a treatment for these cancers.)
Lung function:
Promote lung function by supporting alveoli.[10]
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Inhibin Granulosa cells Inhibit production of FSH from anterior pituitary
Placenta (when pregnant)
Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Progesterone(Primarily)
Support pregnancy:[6]
Inhibit immune response, towards the
fetus.Decrease uterine smooth muscle
contractility[6]
Inhibit lactation
Inhibit onset of labor.Support fetal production of adrenal
mineralo- and glucosteroids.
Other effects on mother similar to ovarianfollicle-progesterone
Estrogens (mainlyEstriol) (Also Primarily)
Effects on mother similar to ovarian follicleestrogen
Human chorionicgonadotropin
HCG Syncytiotrophoblast
Promote maintenance of corpus luteum during
beginning of pregnancy
Inhibit immune response, towards the humanembryo.
Human placentallactogen
HPL Syncytiotrophoblast
Increase production of insulin and IGF-1
Increase insulin resistance and carbohydrateintolerance
Inhibin Fetal Trophoblasts Suppress FSH
Uterus (when pregnant)
Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Prolactin PRL Decidual cells milk production in mammary glands
Relaxin Decidual cells Unclear in humans and animals
Calcium regulation
Further information: Calcium metabolism
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Parathyroid
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Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Parathyroid hormone PTHParathyroid chief
cell
Calcium:
Stimulates Ca2+ release from bone,
thereby increasing blood Ca2+
Stimulates osteoclasts, thus breaking
down bone
Stimulates Ca2+ reabsorption in kidneyStimulates activated vitamin D productionin kidney
Phosphate:
Stimulates PO3-4 release from bones,
thereby increasing blood PO3-4.
Inhibits PO3-4 reabsorption in kidney, so
more PO3-4 is excreted
Overall, small net drop in serum PO3-4.
Skin
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Calcidiol (25-
hydroxyvitamin D3)Inactive form of vitamin D3
Targets
Heart
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Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect
Atrial-natriureticpeptide
ANPCardiacmyocytes
Reduce blood pressure by:
reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducingblood water, sodium and fats
Brain natriureticpeptide
BNPCardiacmyocytes
(To a lesser degree than ANP) reduce bloodpressure by:
reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducingblood water, sodium and fats
Bone marrow
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Thrombopoietin liver and kidney cells stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets[3]
Adipose tissue
Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Leptin (Primarily) Adipocytes decrease of appetite and increase of metabolism.
Estrogens[11] (mainly
Estrone)Adipocytes
Diffuse Neuro-Endocrine System (DNES)
Main article: Diffuse neuro-endocrine system
The Diffuse Neuro-Endocrine System (DNES) comprises hormone-secreted cells, that have commonalities withneurons and are found in the Epithelium of organs of the body.
Major endocrine systems
The human endocrine system consists of several systems that operate via feedback loops. Several important
feedback systems are mediated via the hypothalamus and pituitary.[12]
TRH - TSH - T3/T4GnRH - LH/FSH - sex hormones
CRH - ACTH - cortisolRenin - angiotensin - aldosterone
leptin vs. insulin
Interaction with immune system
Extensive bidirectional interactions exist between the endocrine system and the immune system.[13] Cortisol has
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Disability-adjusted life year for
endocrine disorders per
100,000 inhabitants in 2002.[25]
no data
less than 80
80-160
160-240
240-320
320-400
400-480
480-560
560-640
640-720
720-800
800-1000
more than 1000
Extensive bidirectional interactions exist between the endocrine system and the immune system.[13] Cortisol has
major immunosuppressive effects,[14][15] and dopamine has immunomodulatory functions.[16] On the other hand,cytokines produced during inflammation activate the HPA axis at all three levels, sensible to negative
feedback.[17] Moreover cytokines stimulate hepcidin release from the liver, which is eventually responsible for
the anemia of chronic disease.[18]
In other species
A neuroendocrine system has been observed in all animals with a nervous system and all vertebrates have an
hypothalamus-pituitary axis.[19] All vertebrates have a thyroid, which in amphibians is also crucial for
transformation of larvae into adult form.[20][21] All vertebrates have adrenal gland tissue, with mammals unique in
having it organized into layers.[22] All vertebrates have some form of renin-angiotensin axis, and all tetrapods
have aldosterone as primary mineralocorticoid.[23][24]
Diseases
Main article: Endocrine diseases
Diseases of the endocrine system are common,[26] includingconditions such as diabetes mellitus, thyroid disease, and obesity.Endocrine disease is characterized by disregulated hormone release (aproductive pituitary adenoma), inappropriate response to signaling(hypothyroidism), lack of a gland (diabetes mellitus type 1, diminishederythropoiesis in chronic renal failure), or structural enlargement in acritical site such as the thyroid (toxic multinodular goitre).Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result of loss ofreserve, hyposecretion, agenesis, atrophy, or active destruction.Hyperfunction can occur as a result of hypersecretion, loss ofsuppression, hyperplastic or neoplastic change, or hyperstimulation.
Endocrinopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary.Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands.Secondary endocrine disease is indicative of a problem with thepituitary gland. Tertiary endocrine disease is associated withdysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing
hormones.[citation needed]
As the thyroid, and hormones have been implicated in signaling distanttissues to proliferate, for example, the estrogen receptor has beenshown to be involved in certain breast cancers. Endocrine, paracrine,and autocrine signaling have all been implicated in proliferation, one of
the required steps of oncogenesis.[27]
Other types of signaling
The typical mode of cell signaling in the endocrine system is endocrine signaling. However, there are also other
modes, i.e., paracrine, autocrine, and neuroendocrine signaling.[28] Purely neurocrine signaling between neurons,on the other hand, belongs completely to the nervous system.
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Autocrine
Main article: Autocrine signalling
Autocrine signaling is a form of signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger (called theautocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on the same cell, leading to changes in the cells.
Paracrine
Main article: Paracrine signalling
Paracrine signaling is a form of cell signaling in which the target cell is near the signal-releasing cell, altering thebehavior or differentiation of those competent cells.
Juxtacrine
Main article: Juxtacrine signalling
Juxtacrine signaling is a type of intercellular communication that is transmitted via oligosaccharide, lipid, orprotein components of a cell membrane, and may affect either the emitting cell or the immediately adjacent cells.
It occurs between adjacent cells that possess broad patches of closely opposed plasma membrane linked bytransmembrane channels known as connexons. The gap between the cells can usually be between only 2 and4 nm.
Unlike other types of cell signaling (such as paracrine and endocrine), juxtacrine signaling requires physicalcontact between the two cells involved.
Juxtacrine signaling has been observed for some growth factors, cytokine and chemokine cellular signals.
See also
Releasing hormonesNeuroendocrinology
Nervous systemEndocrine disruptor
Human anatomy#Major organ systemsEndocrine diseaseEndocrinology
References
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