ENCYCLOPEDIA ofPALEOCLIMATOLOGY ANDANCIENT ENVIRONMENTS

Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PALEOCLIMATOLOGY AND ANCIENT ENVIRONMENTS

Volume EditorVivien Gornitz is a Senior Research Scientist, Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia University and NASA Goddard Institute forSpace Studies. She holds a B.A. from Barnard College and a Ph.D. from Columbia University. Her research interests include global sea levelrise–past, present, and future, coastal hazards, climatic implications of land cover transformations, and planetary geology, including Mars.In addition to numerous scientific publications, she has edited Geology of the Planet Mars (Benchmark Papers in Geology, v. 48, Dowden,Hutchinson & Ross, Inc., 1979) and has contributed articles to several of the encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. She was a ContributingAuthor for the IPCC in 1990, 1995, 2001, and 2007.

Advisory Board

Caspar AmmannClimate and Global Dynamics Division–PaleoclimatologyNational Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR)Boulder, CO 80307USA

Mark A. Chandler5018 Woodburn DriveMadison, WI 53711USAandGoddard Institute for Space Studies2880 BroadwayNew York, NY 10025USA

Anthony HallamSchool of Earth SciencesUniversity of BirminghamEdgbastonBirmingham B15 2TTUK

Joseph OrtizDepartment of GeologyKent State UniversityKent, Ohio 44242-0001USA

Linda SohlGoddard Institute for Space Studies2880 BroadwayNew York, NY 10025USA

James D. WrightDepartment of Geological SciencesWright-Reiman LaboratoriesRutgers University610 Taylor Road, PiscatawayNJ 08854-8066USA

Aims of the SeriesThe Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences.Each volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrationsand reference lists.

These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and newworks published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatol-ogists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the back of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of EarthSciences Series. Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” on-line.

About the Series EditorProfessor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than 8 volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. For the past 25years he has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education & Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal ofCoastal Research. In addition to these duties, he is Principal Marine Geologist with Coastal Planning & Engineering, Inc. and Research Professorat Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida, USA. He is a graduate of the University of Western Australia (Perth) and previouslyworked for a wholly owned Australian subsidiary of the International Nickel Company of Canada (INCO). During his career, he acquiredfield experience in Australia; the Caribbean; South America; SW Pacific islands; Southern Africa; Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest,Midwest, and Southeast USA.

Founding Series EditorProfessor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has workedas a petroleum geologist in the Middle East, been a WW II intelligence officer in the SW Pacific and led expeditions to the Sahara, ArcticCanada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated withthe Goddard Institute for Space Studies.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES

ENCYCLOPEDIAof PALEOCLIMATOLOGY

AND ANCIENTENVIRONMENTS

edited by

VIVIEN GORNITZGoddard Institute for Space Studies

andColumbia University

New YorkUSA

Library of Congress Control Number: 2008934597

ISBN: 978-1-4020-4551-6This publication is available also as:Electronic publication under ISBN 978-1-4020-4411-3 andPrint and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-1-4020-5197-5

Published by SpringerPO Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands

Printed on acid-free paper

Cover photo: Landforms – Heart of the Colorado Plateau: The Story Behind the Scenery(KC Publications, 1995). Photo reproduced courtesy of G. Ladd

Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced from othersources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due acknowledgement may bemade in subsequent editions.

All Rights Reserved for Contributions on Coal Beds, Origin and Climate; Glendonite/Ikaite and Ostracodes© 2009 Springer ScienceþBusiness Media B.V.No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with theexception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusiveuse by the purchaser of the work.

Contents

List of Contributors xi

Preface xxv

Acknowledgements xxvii

Aerosol (Mineral) 1Ina Tegen

Albedo Feedbacks 2Andrew A. Lacis

Alkenones 4Mark Pagani

Ancient Cultures and Climate Change 6Vivien Gornitz

Animal Proxies, Invertebrates 10Robert R. Gaines and Mary L. Droser

Animal Proxies – Vertebrates 13Thomas H. Rich and Patricia Vickers-Rich

Antarctic Bottom Water and Climate Change 16Stan Jacobs

Antarctic Cold Reversal 22Vincent I. Morgan

Antarctic Glaciation History 24Kathy Licht

Antarctic Sea Ice History, Late Quaternary 31Xavier Crosta

Archean Environments 34William H. Peck and John W. Valley

Arctic Sea Ice 38Anne de Vernal

Arid Climates and Indicators 45Andrew Goudie

Astronomical Theory of Climate Change 51André Berger

Atmospheric Circulation During the Last GlacialMaximum 57

David Rind

Atmospheric Evolution, Earth 61James Farquhar

Atmospheric Evolution, Mars 66David C. Catling

Atmospheric Evolution, Venus 75Bruce Fegley, Jr.

Banded Iron Formations and the Early Atmosphere 85Bruce M. Simonson and Alan J. Kaufman

Basal Ice 89Peter G. Knight

Beachrock 89Ian D. Goodwin

Beetles as Quaternary and Late Tertiary ClimateIndicators 90

G. Russell Coope

Beryllium-10 92Jürg Beer

Binge-Purge Cycles of Ice Sheet Dynamics 94Martin J. Siegert

Bolide Impacts and Climate 96Michael R. Rampino

Bølling-Allerød Interstadial 100Wim Z. Hoek

vi CONTENTS

Borehole Climatology 103Hugo Beltrami and Daniela Nitoiu

Carbon Cycle 107Abraham Lerman

Carbon Dioxide and Methane, Quaternary Variations 118Bernhard Stauffer

Carbon Dioxide, Dissolved (Ocean) 123Richard E. Zeebe and Dieter A. Wolf-Gladrow

Carbon Isotope Variations Over Geologic Time 128Ján Veizer

Carbon Isotopes, Stable 133Steven W. Leavitt

Carbonate Compensation Depth 136Torsten Bickert

Carbonates, Cool Water 138Jonathan Clarke

Carbonates, Warm Water 143Dan Bosence

Cenozoic Climate Change 148James D. Wright

Cirques 155Peter G. Knight

CLAMP 156Robert A. Spicer

CLIMAP 158James D. Hays

Climate Change, Causes 164Thomas J. Crowley

Climate Forcing 174Andrew A. Lacis

Climate Variability and Change, Last 1,000 Years 178Michael E. Mann

Coal Beds, Origin and Climate 181C. Blaine Cecil and Sandra G. Neuzil

Coastal Environments 183Robert W. Dalrymple and Kyungsik Choi

Coccoliths 187Jeremy R. Young

COHMAP 188Thompson Webb III

Continental Sediments 192Marc S. Hendrix

Corals and Coral Reefs 198John E. N. Veron

Cordilleran Ice Sheet 206John J. Clague

Cosmogenic Radionuclides 211Jürg Beer

Cretaceous Warm Climates 213Erle G. Kauffman and Claudia C. Johnson

Cretaceous/Tertiary (K-T) Boundary Impact,Climate Effects 217

Elisabetta Pierazzo

Cryosphere 221Philippe Huybrechts

Cyclic Sedimentation (Cyclothem) 226Allen W. Archer

Dansgaard-Oeschger Cycles 229Irene A. Mogensen

Dating, Amino Acid Geochronology 233Gifford H. Miller

Dating, Biostratigraphic Methods 237Peter M. Sadler

Dating, Dendrochronology 239Brendan M. Buckley

Dating, Fission-Tracks 247John I. Garver

Dating, Luminescence Techniques 249Glenn W. Berger

Dating, Magnetostratigraphy 252Wout Krijgsman and C. G. Langereis

Dating, Radiometric Methods 255Chris M. Hall

Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) 260William W. Hay

Deltaic Sediments, Climate Records 265Steven L. Goodbred, Jr.

Dendroclimatology 269Brendan M. Buckley

Desert Varnish as a Paleoclimate Proxy 275Ronald I. Dorn

Deuterium, Deuterium Excess 278Gilles Delaygue

Diamicton 278John Menzies

Diatoms 279Amy Leventer

Dinoflagellates 280Anne de Vernal

CONTENTS vii

Dole Effect 282Georg Hoffmann

Drumlins 284Peter G. Knight

Duricrusts 284David J. Nash

Dust Transport, Quaternary 286Karen E. Kohfeld and Ina Tegen

Early Paleozoic Climates (Cambrian-Devonian) 291Arthur J. Boucot

Earth Laws and Paleoclimatology 294Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased)and Vivien Gornitz

Eccentricity 301Marie-France Loutre

Eemian (Sangamonian) Interglacial 302Ulrich C. Müller

Electrical Conductivity 308Kendrick Taylor

Eolian Dust, Marine Sediments 308David K. Rea

Eolian Sediments and Processes 312Daniel R. Muhs

Eolianite 319David B. Loope

Eskers 320Peter G. Knight

Evaporites 321Stefano Lugli

Evolution and Climate Change 325David A. T. Harper

Faint Young Sun Paradox 333James Farquhar

Flood Basalts: Climatic Implications 335Andrew D. Saunders

Foraminifera 338Harry J. Dowsett

Geochemical Proxies (Non-Isotopic) 341Matthew J. Higginson

Glacial Erratics 354Patrick M. Colgan

Glacial Eustasy 354Stephen F. Pekar

Glacial Geomorphology 361John Menzies

Glacial Isostasy 374Kurt Lambeck

Glacial Megalakes 380Victor R. Baker

Glacial Sediments 382Douglas I. Benn

Glaciations, Pre-Quaternary 384Emmanuelle Arnaud and I. Peter Martini

Glaciations, Quaternary 389Shawn J. Marshall

Glaciofluvial Sediments 394Douglas I. Benn

Glaciomarine Sediments 395Kathy Licht

Glendonite/Ikaite 396Ian P. Swainson

“Greenhouse” (Warm) Climates 397Darren R. Gröcke

Heat Transport, Oceanic and Atmospheric 407Dan Seidov

Heinrich Events 409Sidney Hemming

History of Paleoclimatology 414Rhodes W. Fairbridge(deceased)

History of Paleoclimatology – Biographies 428Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased)and Vivien Gornitz

Holocene Climates 438Neil Roberts

Holocene Treeline Fluctuations 442Mel A. Reasoner and Willy Tinner

Human Evolution and Climate Change 446Gail M. Ashley

Hypsithermal 451Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased)

Ice Cores, Antarctica and Greenland 453Dominique Raynaud and Frédéric Parrenin

Ice Cores, Mountain Glaciers 457Lonnie G. Thompson

“Icehouse” (Cold) Climates 463Paul K. Link

Ice-Rafted Debris (IRD) 471Julian A. Dowdeswell

viii CONTENTS

Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) 473Manik Talwani

Interstadials 477Wim Z. Hoek

Iron and Climate Change 478David Archer

Isotope Fractionation 479Dieter A. Wolf-Gladrow and Richard E. Zeebe

Kames 483Peter G. Knight

Kettles 483Peter G. Knight

Lacustrine Sediments 485Bernd Zolitschka and Dirk Enters

Lake-Level Fluctuations 489Mark B. Abbott and Lesleigh Anderson

Last Glacial Maximum 493David Q. Bowen

Last Glacial Termination 495Didier Paillard

Late Paleozoic Paleoclimates 498Anne Raymond and Christopher R. Scotese

Late Quaternary Megafloods 504Victor R. Baker

Late Quaternary-Holocene Vegetation Modeling 507Jed O. Kaplan

Laterite 514Michael Widdowson

Laurentide Ice Sheet 517Arthur S. Dyke

Little Ice Age 520Drew T. Shindell

Loess Deposits 522Konstantin G. Dlussky

Marine Biogenic Sediments 525Wolfgang H. Berger and Gerold Wefer

Marine Carbon Geochemistry 533David Archer

Marine Clay Minerals 539Alastair Ruffell

Mars: Water and Past Climates 540Phillip R. Christensen

Mass Extinctions: Role of Climate 547Garland R. Upchurch, Jr.

Maunder Minimum 550Drew T. Shindell

Medieval Warm Period 551Rhodes W. Fairbridge(deceased)

Mesozoic Climates 554Gregory D. Price

Messinian Salinity Crisis 559Stefano Lugli

Methane Hydrates, Carbon Cycling, andEnvironmental Change 560

Gerard R. Dickens and Clayton Forswall

Mid-Pliocene Warming 566Mark A. Chandler

Millennial Climate Variability 568Gerard Bond (deceased)

Mineral Indicators of Past Climates 573Vivien Gornitz

Monsoons: Pre-Quaternary 583Pinxian Wang and Qianyu Li

Monsoons, Quaternary 589Anil K. Gupta

Moraines 594Peter G. Knight

Mountain Glaciers 595Lonnie G. Thompson

Mountain Uplift and Climate Change 596Douglas W. Burbank

Nearest-Living-Relative Method 607Volker Mosbrugger

Neogene Climates 609Carin Andersson

Nitrogen Isotopes 612Julian P. Sachs

North Atlantic Deep Water and Climate Change 614Thomas M. Marchitto, Jr.

North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) Records 619Heidi M. Cullen

Obliquity 625Marie-France Loutre

Ocean Anoxic Events 626Bradley Sageman

Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) 630Joanne C. Reuss

CONTENTS ix

Ocean Paleocirculation 634Roger Francois

Ocean Paleoproductivity 644Adina Paytan

Ocean Paleotemperatures 651Mara Weinelt

Organic Geochemical Proxies 659Philip A. Meyers

Ostracodes 663Thomas M. Cronin

Outwash Plains 665Peter G. Knight

Oxygen Isotopes 666Gilles Delaygue

PAGES 675Keith Alverson and Christoph Kull

Paleobotany 679Elizabeth A. Kowalski and David L. Dilcher

Paleocean Modeling 683Matthew Huber

Paleoceanography 690Katrin J. Meissner, Alvaro Montenegro, and Chris Avis

Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum 696Gavin A. Schmidt

Paleoclimate Modeling, Pre-Quaternary 700Christopher J. Poulsen

Paleoclimate Modeling, Quaternary 709Robert J. Oglesby and Kirk A. Maasch

Paleoclimate Proxies, an Introduction 716Vivien Gornitz

Paleo-El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Records 721Michael K. Gagan

Paleogene Climates 728Donald R. Prothero

Paleohydrology 733Françoise Gasse

Paleolimnology 738Philip Barker

Paleo-Ocean pH 743Martin R. Palmer

Paleo-Precipitation Indicators 746Paul A. Baker

Paleosols, Pre-Quaternary 748Steven G. Driese

Paleosols, Quaternary 752Tatiana D. Morozova and Andrei A. Velichko

Paleotemperatures and Proxy Reconstructions 757Thomas M. Cronin

Paleotempestology, the Sedimentary Record of IntenseHurricanes 763

Jeffrey P. Donnelly

Palynology 766Margaret Kneller and Sarah Fowell

Patterned Ground 768Matthew R. Bennett

Periglacial Geomorphology 770Brigitte Van Vliet-Lanoë

Phosphorite 775Yehoshua Kolodny

Phosphorus Cycle 780Gabriel M. Filippelli

Pingos 783Matthew R. Bennett

Plate Tectonics and Climate Change 784Robert M. DeConto

Pleistocene Climates 798David Q. Bowen

Pliocene Climates 804Alan M. Haywood

PMIP 813Vivien Gornitz

Pollen Analysis 815Margaret Kneller

Potassium-Argon/Argon-Argon Dating 823Chris M. Hall

Precession, Climatic 825Marie-France Loutre

Pre-Quaternary Milankovitch Cycles and ClimateVariability 826

Paul E. Olsen and Jessica H. Whiteside

Proglacial Lacustrine Sediments 835Wibjörn Karlén

Proterozoic Climates 836Grant M. Young

Quaternary Climate Transitions and Cycles 841Mark Maslin

Quaternary Vegetation Distribution 856John Jack W. Williams

Radiocarbon Dating 863R. Ervin Taylor

x CONTENTS

Radiolaria 869Adolfo Molina-Cruz (deceased) and Kjell R. Bjørklund

Red Beds 871Nathan D. Sheldon

Roches Moutonnées 873Matthew R. Bennett

Sapropels 875Kay-Christian Emeis

Scandinavian Ice Sheet 877Jan Mangerud

Sea Level Change, Last 250 Million Years 879Kenneth G. Miller

Sea Level Change, Post-Glacial 887Vivien Gornitz

Sea Level Change, Quaternary 893John M. Chappell

Sea Level Indicators 899Michael S. Kearney

Sedimentary Indicators of Climate Change 902Joseph P. Smoot

Snowball Earth Hypothesis 907Grant M. Young

SPECMAP 911Franck C. Bassinot

Speleothems 916Yemane Asmerom

Stable Isotope Analysis 918Germán Mora

Strontium Isotopes 923Ján Veizer

Sulfur Isotopes 926Harald Strauss and Ján Veizer

Sun-Climate Connections 929Peter F. Almasi and Gerard Bond (deceased)

Tephrochronology 937Andrew J. Dugmore and Anthony Newton

The 8,200-Year BP Event 938Allegra N. LeGrande

Thermohaline Circulation 943Andrew J. Weaver and Oleg A. Saenko

Tills and Tillites 948Douglas I. Benn

Time–Series Analysis of Paleoclimate Data 949David J. Thomson

Transfer Functions 959Stephen Juggins

Triassic-Jurassic Climates 962Gregory J. Retallack

Uranium-Series Dating 969Yemane Asmerom

Varved Sediments 973Matti Saarnisto and Antti E. K. Ojala

Volcanic Eruptions and Climate Change 976Richard B. Stothers

Weathering and Climate 981Louis A. Derry

Wisconsinan (Weichselian, Würm) Glaciation 986John T. Andrews

Younger Dryas 993Dorothy M. Peteet

Author Index 997

Subject Index 999

Appendix 1049

Contributors

Mark B. AbbottDepartment of Geology and Planetary SciencesUniversity of Pittsburgh4107 O'Hara StreetPittsburgh PA 15260–3332USAmabbott1@pitt.edu

Peter F. AlmasiLamont-Doherty Earth Observatory (LDEO)102 Core Lab61 Route 9WPalisades NY 10964USApalmasi@ldeo.columbia.edu

Keith AlversonGlobal Ocean Observing System (GOOS)IOC/UNESCO1 rue Miollis75732 Paris Cedex 15Francek.alverson@unesco.org

Lesleigh AndersonU.S. Geological SurveyDenver Federal CenterBox 25046Denver CO 80225USAland@usgs.gov

Carin AnderssonBjerknes Centre for Climate ResearchAllégaten 555007 BergenNorwaycarin.andersson@bjerknes.uib.no

John T. AndrewsInstitute for Arctic and Alpine ResearchUniversity of ColoradoBoulder CO 80309–0450USAJohn.T.Andrews@colorado.edu

Allen W. ArcherDepartment of GeologyKansas State University108 Thompson HallManhattan KS 66506–3201USAaarcher@ksu.edu

David ArcherDepartment of the Geophysical SciencesUniversity of Chicago5734 South Ellis AvenueHGS 419Chicago IL 60637USAd-archer@uchicago.edu

Emmanuelle ArnaudDepartment of Land Resource ScienceUniversity of GuelphGuelph ON N1G 2W1Canadaearnaud@uoguelph.ca

Gail M. AshleyDepartment of Geological SciencesRutgers University610 Taylor RoadPiscataway NJ 08854USAgmashley@rci.rutgers.edu

xii CONTRIBUTORS

Yemane AsmeromDepartment of Earth and Planetary SciencesUniversity of New Mexico200 Yale Blvd. NEAlbuquerque NM 87131USAasmerom@unm.edu

Chris AvisSchool of Earth and Ocean SciencesUniversity of VictoriaPetch Building 168, 3800 Finnerty Road (Ring Road)Victoria BC V8W 3P6Canadacaavis@uvic.ca

Victor R. BakerDepartment of Hydrology and Water ResourcesUniversity of Arizona1133 James E. Rogers WayTucson AZ 85721–0011USAbaker@hwr.arizona.edu

Paul BakerDivision of Earth and Ocean SciencesDuke UniversityBox 90227Durham NC 27705–0227USApbaker@duke.edu

Philip A. BarkerLancaster Environment CentreLancaster UniversityBailriggLancaster LA1 4YQUKp.barker@lancaster.ac.uk

Franck BassinotLSCECNRS/CEA/UVSQDomaine du CNRS (bat. 12)91198 Gif-sur-YvetteFranceFranck.Bassinot@lsce.ipsl.fr

Jürg BeerSurface WatersEawagPO Box 6118600 DübendorfSwitzerlandbeer@eawag.ch

Hugo BeltramiEnvironmental Sciences Research CentreSt. Francis Xavier University1 West StreetAntigonish NS B2G 2W5Canadahugo@stfx.ca

Douglas I. BennSchool of Geography and GeosciencesUniversity of St. Andrews, FifeScotland KY16 9ALUKdoug@st-andrews.ac.uk

Matthew R. BennettSchool of Conservation SciencesBournemouth UniversityTalbot Campus, Fern BarrowPoole BH12 5BBUKmbennett@bournemouth.ac.uk

André BergerUniversité Catholique de LouvainInstitut d'Astronomie et de Geophysique G. Lemaitre2 Chemin du Cyclotron1348 Louvain-la-NeuveBelgiumberger@astr.ucl.ac.be

Glenn W. BergerDivision of Earth and Ecosystem SciencesDesert Research Institute2215 Raggio ParkwayReno NV 89512USAglenn.berger@dri.edu

Wolfgang H. BergerScripps Institution of OceanographyUniversity of California, San DiegoLa Jolla, CA 92093–0244USAwberger@ucsd.edu

Torsten BickertMARUM (Centre for Marine Environmental Sciences)University of BremenLeobener Str. 228359 BremenGermanybickert@uni-bremen.de

Kjell R. BjørklundNatural History Museum (Geology)University of OsloP.O. Box 1172 Blindern0318 OsloNorwayk.r.bjorklund@nhm.uio.no

Gerard Bond (deceased)

Dan BosenceDepartment of GeologyRoyal Holloway University of LondonEgham Surrey TW20 0EXUKd.bosence@gl.rhul.ac.uk

CONTRIBUTORS xiii

Arthur J. BoucotDepartment of ZoologyOregon State UniversityCorvallis OR 97331–2914USAboucota@science.oregonstate.edu

David Q. BowenSchool of Earth and Ocean SciencesCardiff UniversityCardiff Wales CF10 3YEUKbowendq@cardiff.ac.uk

Brendan BuckleyLamont-Doherty Earth Observatory61 Route 9W - PO Box 1000Palisades NY 10964–8000USAbmb@ldeo.columbia.edu

Douglas W. BurbankDepartment of Geological SciencesUniversity of California, Santa BarbaraWebb Hall 1031Santa Barbara CA 93106–9630USAburbank@crustal.ucsb.edu

David C. CatlingDepartment of Atmospheric SciencesUniversity of WashingtonBox 351640Seattle WA 98195–1640USAdavidc@atmos.washington.edu

C. Blaine CecilU.S. Geological Survey12201 Sunrise Valley Drive Mail Stop 956Reston VA 20192–0002USAbcecil@usgs.gov

Mark A. ChandlerNASA Goddard Institute for Space StudiesColumbia University2880 BroadwayNew York NY 10025USAmchandler@giss.nasa.gov

John M. ChappellResearch School of Earth SciencesThe Australian National UniversityCanberra ACT 200Australiajohn.chappell@anu.edu.au

Kyungsik ChoiFaculty of Earth Systems and Environmental SciencesChonnam National University300 Yongbong-dong, Buk-gu

Gwangju 500–757Koreatidalchoi@hotmail.com

Phillip R. ChristensenMars Space Flight Facility, School of Earth and SpaceExplorationArizona State UniversityBox 876305Tempe AZ 85287–6305USAphil.christensen@asu.edu

John ClagueDepartment of Earth SciencesSimon Fraser University8888 University Dr.Burnaby BC V5A 1S6Canadajclague@sfu.ca

Jonathan ClarkeGeoscience AustraliaP.O. Box 378Canberra ACT 2601Australiajon.clarke@ga.gov.au

Patrick M. ColganDepartment of GeologyGrand Valley State UniversityPadnos Hall of ScienceAllendale MI 49401USAcolganp@gvsu.edu

G. Russell CoopeDepartment of GeographyRoyal HollowayUniversity of LondonEgham Surrey TW20 0EXUKcoope@foss5.freeserve.co.uk

Thomas M. CroninU.S. Geological Survey12201 Sunrise Valley Dr., Mail Stop 926AReston VA 20192–0002USAtcronin@usgs.gov

Xavier CrostaUMR-CNRS 5805 EPOCUniversité Bordeaux 1Avenue des Facultés33405 Talence CedexFrancex.crosta@epoc.u-bordeaux1.fr

xiv CONTRIBUTORS

Thomas J. CrowleyGrant Institute, School of GeosciencesUniversity of EdinburghKing's BuildingsEdinburgh N/A EH9 3JWUKthomas.crowley@ed.ac.uk

Heidi M. CullenClimate ExpertThe Weather Channel300 Interstate North ParkwayAtlanta GA 30339USAhcullen@weather.com

Robert W. DalrympleDepartment of Geological Sciences and Geological EngineeringQueen's UniversityKingston ON K7L 3N6Canadadalrymple@geol.queensu.ca

Anne de VernalDépartement des Sciences de la Terre et de l'AtmosphèreUniversité du Québec à MontrealQuébec QC H3C 3P8Canadadevernal.anne@uqam.ca

Robert M. DeContoDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of MassachusettsMorrill Science CenterAmherst MA 1002USAdeconto@geo.umass.edu

Gilles DelaygueCEREGEAix-Marseille UniversitéEuropôle de l'Arbois BP8013545 Aix-en-ProvenceFrancedelaygue@cerege.fr

Louis A. DerryDepartment of Earth and Atmospheric SciencesCornell University4142 Snee HallIthaca NY 14853USAlad9@cornell.edu

Gerard R. DickensDepartment of Earth SciencesRice University6100 Main StreetHouston TX 77005USAjerry@rice.edu

David DilcherFlorida Museum of Natural HistoryUniversity of Florida254 Dickinson HallMuseum Road & Newell DriveGainesville FL 32611USAdilcher@flmnh.ufl.edu

Konstantin G. DlusskyAXYS Environmental Consulting Ltd.4208–97 St., Suite 203Edmonton AB T6E 5Z9Canadakdlusskiy@axys.net

Jeffrey P. DonnellyGeology and Geophysics DepartmentWoods Hole Oceanographic InstitutionMS 22Woods Hole MA 02543USAjdonnelly@whoi.edu

Ronald I. DornSchool of Geographical SciencesArizona State UniversityTempe AZ 85287USAronald.dorn@asu.edu

Julian A. DowdeswellScott Polar Research InstituteCambridge UniversityLensfield RoadCambridge CB2 1ERUKjd16@cam.ac.uk

Harry J. DowsettEastern Earth Surface ProcessesU.S. Geological Survey926A National CenterReston VA 22192USAhdowsett@usgs.gov

Steven G. DrieseDepartment of GeologyBaylor UniversityOne Bear Place # 97354Waco TX 76798USAsteven_driese@baylor.edu

Mary L. DroserDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of California900 University AvenueRiverside CA 92521USAmary.droser@ucr.edu

CONTRIBUTORS xv

Andrew J. DugmoreInstitute of Geography, School of GeosciencesUniversity of EdinburghDrummond StreetEdinburgh Scotland EH8 9XPUKandrew.dugmore@ed.ac.uk

Arthur S. DykeGeological Society of Canada601 Booth StreetOttawa ON K1A OE8Canadaadyke@nrcan.gc.ca

Kay Christian EmeisInstitut für Biogeochemie und MeereschemieUniversität HamburgBundesstr. 5520146 HamburgGermanyemeis@geowiss.uni-hamburg.de

Dirk EntersEnvironnements Dynamiques et Territoires de Montagne(EDYTEM)Université de SavoieTechnolac77376 Le Bourget du LacFrancedirk.enters@univ-savoie.fr

Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased)

James FarquharESSIC and Dept. of GeologyUniversity of MarylandCollege Park MD 20742USAjfarquha@geol.umd.edu

Bruce Fegley, Jr.Department of Earth and Planetary SciencesWashington UniversityCampus Box 1169St. Louis MO 63130USAbfegley@wustl.edu

Gabriel FilippelliEarth SciencesIndiana University – Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)723 W. Michigan St.Indianapolis IN 46202–5132USAgfilippe@iupui.edu

Clayton Forswallaci consulting1001 Mopac Circle, Suite 100Austin TX 78746USAcforswall@aci-group.net

Sarah FowellDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsUniversity of AlaskaBox 755780Fairbanks AK 99775–5780USAffsjf@uaf.edu

Roger FrancoisDepartment of Earth and Ocean SciencesUniversity of British Columbia6339 Stores RoadVancouver BC V6T 1Z4Canadarfrancois@eos.ubc.ca

Michael K. GaganResearch School of Earth SciencesThe Australian National UniversityBldg 61, Mills RoadCanberra, ACT 0200Australiamichael.gagan@anu.edu.au

Robert R. GainesGeology DepartmentPomona College185 East 6th StreetClaremont CA 91711USARobert.Gaines@pomona.edu

John I. GarverDepartment of GeologyUnion College807 Union AveSchenectady NY 12308–2311USAgarverj@union.edu

Françoise GasseCEREGEUniversité d'Aix-Marseille IIIBP 8013545 Aix-en-ProvenceFrancegasse@cerege.fr

Steven L. Goodbred, Jr.Department of Earth and Environmental SciencesVanderbilt UniversityVU Station B 351805Nashville TN 37235USAsteven.goodbred@vanderbilt.edu

Ian D. GoodwinClimate Risk CoREDepartment of Physical GeographyBuilding E7AMacquarie University NSW 2109Australiaigoodwin@els.mq.edu.au

xvi CONTRIBUTORS

Vivien GornitzNASA Goddard Institute for Space StudiesColumbia University2880 BroadwayNew York NY 10025USAvgornitz@giss.nasa.gov

Andrew GoudieSt Cross CollegeOxford UniversitySt GilesOxford OX1 3LZUKandrew.goudie@stx.ox.ac.uk

Darren GröckeDepartment of Earth SciencesDurham UniversityDurham DH1 3LEUKd.r.grocke@durham.ac.uk

Anil K. GuptaDepartment of Geology & GeophysicsIndian Institute of TechnologyIIT CampusKharagpur – 721302 W.B.Indiaanilg@gg.iitkgp.ernet.in

Chris M. HallDepartment of Geological SciencesUniversity of Michigan1100 North University Av.Ann Arbor MI 48109–1005USAcmhall@umich.edu

David A. T. HarperNatural History Museum (Geological Museum)University of CopenhagenØster Voldgade 5–71350 CopenhagenDenmarkDHarper@snm.ku.dk

William W. HayDepartment of Geological SciencesUniversity of Colorado at Boulder2200 Colorado Ave.Boulder CO 80309–0399USAwhay@gmx.de

James D. HaysLamont-Doherty Earth Observatory61 Route 9W – PO Box 1000Palisades NY 10964–8000USAjimhays@ldeo.columbia.edu

Alan M. HaywoodBritish Antarctic SurveyGeological Sciences Division, High CrossMadingley RoadCambridge CB3 OETUKahay@bas.ac.uk

Sidney HemmingLamont-Doherty Earth Observatory61 Route 9W - PO Box 1000Palisades NY 10964–8000USAsidney@ldeo.columbia.edu

Marc S. HendrixDepartment of GeosciencesThe University of Montana32 Campus DriveMissoula MT 59812USAmarc.hendrix@umontana.edu

Matthew J. HigginsonLGC ForensicsF5 Culham Science CentreAbingdon OX14 3EDUKmatthew.higginson@lgcforensics.com

Wim Z. HoekDepartment of Physical GeographyUniversity of UtrechtHeidelberglaan 23584 CS UtrechtThe Netherlandsw.hoek@geog.uu.nl

Georg HoffmannLaboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnementl'Ormes des Merisiers, Commissariat a l'Energie AtomiqueSaclay91191 Gif sur Yvette CedexFranceGeorg.Hoffmann@cea.fr

Matthew HuberDepartment of Earth and Atmospheric SciencePurdue University550 Stadium Mall Dr.West Lafayette IN 47907USAhuberm@purdue.edu

Philippe HuybrechtsDepartement GeografieVrije Universiteit BrusselPleinlaan 21050 BrusselBelgiumphuybrec@vub.ac.be

CONTRIBUTORS xvii

Stan JacobsLamont-Doherty Earth ObservatoryColumbia UniversityRoute 9WPalisades NY 10964USAsjacobs@ldeo.columbia.edu

Claudia C. JohnsonDepartment of Geological SciencesIndiana University1001 E. 10th St.Bloomington IN 47405–1405USAclaudia@indiana.edu

Stephen JugginsSchool of GeographyUniversity of Newcastle upon TyneRoom: 4.14b, Daysh BuildingNewcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RUUKstephen.juggins@ncl.ac.uk

Jed KaplanEPFL-ENAC-ECOSStation 21015 LausanneSwitzerlandjed.kaplan@epfl.ch

Wibjörn KarlénDepartment of Social and Economic GeographyUppsala UniversityBox 51375 120 UppsalaSwedenwibjorn.karlen@kultgeog.uu.se

Erle G. KauffmanDepartment of Geological SciencesIndiana University1001 E. 10th St.Bloomington IN 47405–1403USAkauffman@indiana.edu

Alan J. KaufmanDepartment of GeologyUniversity of MarylandGEOL #237College Park MD 20742–4211USAkaufman@geol.umd.edu

Michael KearneyDepartment of GeographyUniversity of MarylandCollege Park MD 20742USAmk11@umail.umd.edukearneym@glue.umd.edu

Margaret KnellerJohn Cabot UniversityVia della Lungara 233Rome 00165Italymkneller@john.cabot.edu

Peter G. KnightSchool of Physical and Geographical SciencesKeele UniversityWilliam Smith BuildingKeele Staffordshire ST5 5BGUKp.g.knight@esci.keele.ac.uk

Karen E. KohfeldSchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesQueens College65–30 Kissena Blvd.Flushing NY 11367USAkaren@kohfeld.com

Yehoshua KolodnyThe Institute of Earth SciencesEdmond Safra Campus, Givat RamThe Hebrew University91904 JerusalemIsraelkolodny@vms.huji.ac.il

Elizabeth A. KowalskiDepartment of Geology and Geological EngineeringSouth Dakota School of Mines and Technology501 E Saint Joseph StreetRapid City, SD 57701USAekowalsk@umich.edukowalski@flmnh.ufl.edu

Wout KrijgsmanPaleomagnetic Laboratory, Faculty of Earth SciencesUtrecht UniversityBudapestlaan 173584 CD UtrechtThe Netherlandskrijgsma@geo.uu.nl

Christoph KullOcCC (Swiss advisory body on climate change)Schwarztorstrasse 93007 BernSwitzerlandchristoph.kull@scnat.ch

Andrew A. LacisNASA Goddard Institute for Space StudiesColumbia University2880 BroadwayNew York NY 10025USAalacis@giss.nasa.gov

xviii CONTRIBUTORS

Kurt LambeckResearch School of Earth SciencesThe Australian National UniversityCanberra ACT 0200AustraliaKurt.Lambeck@anu.edu.au

C. G. LangereisPaleomagnetic Laboratory ‘Fort Hoofddijk’Utrecht UniversityBudapestlaan 43584 CD UtrechtThe Netherlandslanger@geo.uu.nl

Steven W. LeavittLaboratory of Tree Ring ResearchUniversity of ArizonaTucson AZ 85721USAsleavitt@ltrr.arizona.edu

Allegra LeGrandeNASA Goddard Institute for Space StudiesColumbia University2880 BroadwayNew York NY 10025USAallegra.n.legrande@nasa.gov

Abraham LermanDepartment of Earth and Planetary SciencesNorthwestern University1850 Campus Dr.Evanston IL 60208USAalerman@northwesterrn.edu

Amy LeventerDepartment of GeologyColgate University13 Oak Dr.Hamilton NY 13346USAaleventer@mail.colgate.edu

Qianyu LiSchool of Ocean and Earth SciencesTongji UniversitySiping Rd. 1239Shanghai 200092Chinaqli01@mail.tongji.edu.cnqianyu.li@adelaide.edu.au

Kathy LichtDepartment of Earth SciencesIndiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis723 West Michigan StreetIndianapolis IN 46202–5132USAklicht@iupui.edu

Paul K. LinkDepartment of GeosciencesIdaho State University921 S. 8th Avenue, Stop 8072Pocatello ID 83209USAlinkpaul@isu.edu

David B. LoopeDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of Nebraska214 Bessey HallLincoln NE 68588USAdloope1@unl.edu

Marie-France LoutreInstitut d'Astronomie et de Geophysique G. LemaitreUniversité Catholique de Louvain2 chemin du Cyclotron1348 Louvain-la-NeuveBelgiummarie-france.loutre@uclouvain.be

Stefano LugliDipartimento di Scienze della TerraUniversità degli Studi di Modena e Reggio EmiliaLargo S. Eufemia 1941100-ModenaItalylugli.stefano@unimore.it

Kirk A. MaaschClimate Change InstituteUniversity of Maine5790 BGSCOrono ME 04469–5790USAkirk.maasch@maine.edu

Jan MangerudDepartment of Geoscience and Bjerknes Centre for ClimateResearchUniversity of BergenAllégt. 415007 BergenNorwayJan.Mangerud@geo.uib.no

Michael E. MannDepartment of MeteorologyPennsylvania State University523 Walker Bldg.University Park PA 16802USAmann@meteo.psu.edu

Thomas M. Marchitto, Jr.INSTAAR and Department of Geological SciencesUniversity of ColoradoCampus Box 450Boulder CO 80309USAtom.marchitto@colorado.edu

CONTRIBUTORS xix

Shawn J. MarshallDepartment of GeographyUniversity of Calgary2500 University Dr. N.W.Calgary AB T2N 1N4Canadashawn.marshall@ucalgary.ca

I. Peter MartiniDepartment of Land Resource ScienceUniversity of GuelphGuelph ON N1G 2W1Canadapmartini@uoguelph.ca

Mark MaslinDepartment of GeographyUniversity College LondonPearson BuildingGower StreetLondon WC1E 6BTUKmmaslin@geog.ucl.ac.uk

Katrin J. MeissnerSchool of Earth and Ocean SciencesUniversity of VictoriaP.O. Box 3055, Stn CSCVictoria BC V8W 3P6Canadakatrinm@ocean.seos.uvic.ca

John MenziesDepartment of Earth Sciences and GeographyBrock University500 Glenridge AvenueSt. Catherines ON L2S 3A1Canadajmenzies@brocku.ca

Philip MeyersGeological SciencesThe University of Michigan1100 North University AvenueAnn Arbor MI 48109–1005USApameyers@umich.edu

Gifford H. MillerINSTAAR and Dept. of Geological SciencesUniversity of ColoradoBoulder CO 80309–0450USAgmiller@colorado.edu

Kenneth MillerDepartment of Geological SciencesWright Geological LaboratoryRutgers University610 Taylor RoadPiscataway NJ 8854USAkgm@rci.rutgers.edu

Irene A. MogensenSortemosevej 2072730 HerlevDenmarkiamb@mailme.dkDanish Meteorological InstituteLyngbyvej 1002100 CopenhagenDenmarkiam@dmi.dkmas@dmi.dk

A. Molina-Cruz (deceased)

Álvaro MontenegroSchool of Earth and Ocean SciencesUniversity of VictoriaPetch Building 168, 3800 Finnerty Road (Ring Road)Victoria BC V8W 3P6Canadaalvaro@ocean.seos.uvic.ca

German MoraDepartment of Geological and Atmospheric SciencesIowa State University12 Science IAmes IA 50011USAgmora@iastate.edu

Vincent I. MorganAntarctic Cooperative Research Centre (CRC)University of TasmaniaPrivate Bag 80Hobart Tasmania 7001Australiavin.morgan@utas.edu.au

Tatiana MorozovaLaboratory of Evolutionary GeographyRussian Academy of SciencesStaromonetny 29119017 MoscowRussiapaleo_igras@mail.ru

Volker MosbruggerSenckenberg Research Institute and Natural History MuseumSenckenberganlage 2560325 FrankfurtGermanyvolker.mosbrugger@senckenberg.devmosbrugger@senckenberg.de

Daniel R. MuhsU.S. Geological SurveyDenver Federal CenterMS 980, Box 25046Denver CO 80225–0046USAdmuhs@usgs.gov

xx CONTRIBUTORS

Ulrich C. MüllerInstitute of Geology and PaleontologyJohann Wolfgang Goethe University-FrankfurtSenckenberganlage 32–3460054 FrankfurtGermanyulrich.mueller@em.uni-frankfurt.de

David J. NashSchool of Environment and TechnologyUniversity of BrightonLewes RoadBrighton BN2 4GJUKd.j.nash@bton.ac.uk

Sandra G. NeuzilU.S. Geological Survey12201 Sunrise Valley Dr., MS 956Reston VA 20192USAsneuzil@usgs.gov

Anthony NewtonInstitute of Geography, School of GeosciencesUniversity of EdinburghDrummond StreetEdinburgh Scotland EH8 9XPUKajd@geo.ed.ac.ukanthony.newton@ed.ac.uk

Daniela NitoiuInstitute of Geodynamics of the Romanian Academy19–21 Jean-Louis Calderon St.020032 Bucharest–37Romanianitoiu@geodin.ro

Robert OglesbyDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of Nebraska Lincoln214 Bessey HallPO Box 880340Lincoln NE 68588–0340USAroglesby2@unl.edu

Antti OjalaGeological Survey of FinlandP.O. Box 962150 EspooFinlandantti.ojala@gtk.fi

Paul E. OlsenLamont-Doherty Earth Observatory61 Route 9WPalisades NY 10964USApolsen@ldeo.columbia.edu

Mark PaganiDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsYale UniversityP.O. Box 208109New Haven CT 06520–8109USAmark.pagani@yale.edu

Didier PaillardLaboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'EnvironnementCEA-CNRSCentre d'Etudes de SaclayOrme des Merisiers91191 Gif-sur-YvetteFrancedidier.paillard@cea.fr

Martin R. PalmerSouthampton Oceanography CentreUniversity of SouthamptonEuropean WaySouthampton SO14 32HUKpmrp@soc.soton.ac.uk

Frédéric ParreninLaboratoire deGlaciologie et deGéophysique de l'EnvironnementCNRS BP 9638402 Grenoble, St. Martin d'Hères CedexFranceparrenin@lgge.obs.ujf-grenoble.fr

Adina PaytanInstitute of Marine SciencesEarth & Marine Sciences Build.University of California Santa Cruz1156 High St.Santa Cruz CA 95064USAapaytan@ucsc.edu

William H. PeckDepartment of GeologyColgate University13 Oak Dr.Hamilton NY 13346USAwpeck@mail.colgate.edu

Stephen F. PekarQueens CollegeSchool of Earth and Environmental Sciences65–30 Kissena Blvd.Flushing, NY 11367USAstephen.pekar@qc.cuny.edu

Dorothy M. PeteetNASA Goddard Institute for Space StudiesColumbia University2880 BroadwayNew York NY 10025USAdpeteet@giss.nasa.govpeteet@ldeo.columbia.edu

CONTRIBUTORS xxi

Elisabetta PierazzoPlanetary Science Institute1700 E. Ft. Lowell, Suite 106Tucson AZ 85719USAbetty@psi.edu

Christopher J. PoulsenDepartment of Geological SciencesUniversity of Michigan1100 North University Ave.Ann Arbor MI 48109USApoulsen@umich.edu

Gregory D. PriceDepartment of GeologyUniversity of PlymouthDrake CircusPlymouth PL4 8AAUKg.price@plymouth.ac.uk

Donald R. ProtheroDepartment of GeologyOccidental College1600 Campus RoadLos Angeles CA 90041USAprothero@oxy.edu

Michael RampinoEarth and Environmental Science ProgramNew York University1009 Silver Center100 Washington Square EastNew York NY 10003–6688USAmmr1@nyu.edu

Anne RaymondDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsTexas A and M UniversityCollege Station TX 77843–3115USAraymond@geo.tamu.edu

Dominique RaynaudLaboratoire de Glaciologie et de Géophysiquede l'Environnement CNRS BP 9638402 Grenoble, St. Martin d'Hères CedexFranceraynaud@lgge.obs.ujf-grenoble.fr

David K. Rea1232 Regency CourtLas Cruces NM 88007USAdavidrea@umich.edu

Mel A. Reasoner(no address)

Gregory J. RetallackDepartment of Geological SciencesUniversity of Oregon1260 Franklin BoulevardEugene OR 97403–1272USAgregr@uoregon.edu

JoAnne ReussIODP Interim Planning Committee, Department of GeologicalSciencesUniversity of Michigan425 E. University Ave.Ann Arbor MI 48109–1063USAjor@umich.edu

Thomas H. RichCurator of Vertebrate PaleontologyMuseum VictoriaP.O. Box 666Melbourne Victoria 3001Australiatrich@museum.vic.gov.au

David H. RindNASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies2880 BroadwayNew York NY 10025USAdavid.h.rind@nasa.gov

Neil RobertsSchool of GeographyUniversity of PlymouthDrake CircusPlymouth PL4 8AAUKc.n.roberts@plymouth.ac.uk

Alastair RuffellSchool of Geosciences, School of Geography, Archaeology andPalaeoecologyQueens UniversityBelfast Northern Ireland BT7 1NNUKa.ruffell@qub.ac.uk

Matti SaarnistoSuomalainen TiedeakatemiaFinnish Academy of Science and LettersPääsihteeri, Secretary GeneralMariankatu 500170 HelsinkiFinlandmatti.saarnisto@acadsci.fi

xxii CONTRIBUTORS

Julian SachsSchool of Oceanography & The Program on Climate ChangeUniversity of WashingtonOcean Sciences Building, Room 521Box 355351Seattle WA 98195–5351USAjsachs@u.washington.edu

Peter SadlerDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of CaliforniaRiverside CA 92521USApeter.sadler@ucr.edu

Oleg A. SaenkoCanadian Centre for Climate Modelling and AnalysisUniversity of VictoriaP.O. Box 3055Victoria BC V8W 3P6Canadaoleg.saenko@ec.gc.ca

Bradley SagemanEarth and Planetary SciencesNorthwestern University1850 Campus DriveEvanston IL 60208USAbrad@earth.northwestern.edu

Andrew D. SaundersDepartment of GeologyUniversity of LeicesterLeicester LE1 7RHUKads@le.ac.uk

Gavin A. SchmidtNASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies2880 BroadwayNew York NY 10025USAgschmidt@giss.nasa.gov

Christopher R. ScoteseDepartment of GeologyUniversity of TexasArlington TX 76012USAcscotese@uta.edu

Dan SeidovNOAA NODC/Ocean Climate LaboratorySSMC-III, E/OC5, Room 43261315 East-West HighwaySilver Spring, MD 20910USAdan.seidov@noaa.gov

Nathan D. SheldonDepartment of GeologyRoyal Holloway University of LondonEgham, Surrey TW20 0EXUKn.sheldon@gl.rhul.ac.uk

Drew T. ShindellNASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies2880 BroadwayNew York NY 10025USAdrew.t.shindell@nasa.gov

Martin J. SiegertSchool of Geosciences, Grant InstituteUniversity of EdinburghWest Mains RoadEdinburgh EH9 3JWUKm.j.siegert@ed.ac.uk

Bruce M. SimonsonGeology DepartmentOberlin College52 West Lorain StreetOberlin OH 44074–1052USAbruce.simonson@oberlin.edu

Joseph P. SmootU.S. Geological Survey12201 Sunrise Valley Drive MS 926AReston VA 20192USAjpsmoot@usgs.gov

Robert A. SpicerDepartment of Earth SciencesThe Open UniversityWalton HallMilton Keynes MK7 6AAUKr.a.spicer@open.ac.uk

Bernhard StaufferClimate and Environmental Physics Department,Physics InstituteUniversity of BernSidlerstrasse 53012 BernSwitzerlandstauffer@climate.unibe.ch

Richard StothersNASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies2880 BroadwayNew York NY 10025USArstothers@giss.nasa.gov

CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

Harald StraussGeologisch-Paläontologisches Institut und MuseumWestfälischen Wilhelms-Universität MünsterCorrensstraße 2448149 MünsterGermanyhstrauss@uni-muenster.de

Ian P. SwainsonCanadian Neutron Beam CentreSteacie Institute for Molecular SciencesNational Research Council of CanadaChalk River LaboratoriesChalk River ON K0J 1J0Canadaian.swainson@nrc.gc.ca

Manik TalwaniIODP-MI, Inc.#210, 815 Connecticut Av., NWWashington DC 20006USAmtalwani@iodp.org

Kendrick TaylorDesert Research Institute2215 Raggio ParkwayReno NV 89512USAkendrick@dri.edu

R. Ervin TaylorRadiocarbon Laboratory, Department of AnthropologyUniversity of California at RiversideWatkins Hall 1303 ARiverside CA 92521–0423USAervin.taylor@ucr.eduretaylor@ucr.edu

Ina TegenInstitute for Tropospheric ResearchPermoserstrasse 1504318 LeipzigGermanyitegen@tropos.de

Lonnie G. ThompsonDepartment of Geological Sciences, School of Earth SciencesOhio State University275 Mendenhall Laboratory, 125 S. Oval MallColumbus OH 43210–1002USAthompson.3@osu.edu

David J. ThomsonMathematics and StatisticsQueen's University411 Jeffery HallKingston ON K7L 3N6Canadadjt@mast.queensu.ca

Willy TinnerInstitute of Plant Sciences and Oeschger Centre for ClimateChange Research (OCCR)University of BernAltenbergrain 213013 BernSwitzerlandwilly.tinner@ips.unibe.ch

Garland R. Upchurch, Jr.Department of BiologyTexas State University601 University DriveSan Marcos TX 78666USAgu01@txstate.edu

John W. ValleyDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsUniversity of Wisconsin1215 W Dayton St.Madison WI 53706USAvalley@geology.wisc.edu

Brigitte Van Vliet-LanoëUMR 6538 CNRS, Domaines OcéaniquesIUEM29280 PlouzanéFrancebrigitte.vanvlietlanoe@univ-brest.fr

Ján VeizerDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of OttawaOttawa ON K1N 6N5Canadajveizer@uottawa.ca

Andrei A. VelichkoLaboratory of Evolutionary GeographyRussian Academy of SciencesStaromonetny 29119017 MoscowRussiaPaleo_igras@mail.ru

John E. N. VeronAustralian Institute of Marine SciencePMB 3Townsville Queensland 4810Australiajveron@aims.gov.auorCoral Reef Research10 Benalla RoadOak ValleyTownsville Queensland 4811Australiaj.veron@coralreefresearch.com

xxiv CONTRIBUTORS

Patricia Vickers-RichSchool of GeosciencesMonash UniversityClayton Victoria 3800Australiapat.rich@sci.monash.edu.au

Pinxian WangSchool of Ocean and Earth SciencesTongji UniversitySiping Rd. 1239Shanghai 200092Chinapxwang@online.sh.cn

Andrew J. WeaverSchool of Earth and Ocean SciencesUniversity of VictoriaP.O. Box 3055Victoria BC V8W 3P6Canadaweaver@uvic.ca

Thompson Webb IIIDepartment of Geological SciencesBrown University324 Brook Street, Box 1846Providence RI 2912USAThompson_Webb_III@brown.edu

Gerold WeferGeneral Geology – Marine GeologyUniversity of BremenMarum, Leobener Straße28359 BremenGermanygwefer@rcom-bremen.de

Mara WeineltInstitut für GeowissenschaftenUniversity of KielLudwig Meyn Strasse 1424118 KielGermanymw@gpi.uni-kiel.de

Jessica H. WhitesideGeological SciencesBrown University324 Brook StreetBox 1846Providence RI 02912USAJessica_Whiteside@brown.edu

Michael WiddowsonDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesThe Open UniversityWalton Hall

Milton Keynes MK7 6AAUKm.widdowson@open.ac.uk

John W. WilliamsDepartment of GeographyUniversity of Wisconsin-MadisonRooms 421 or 213 Science Hall550 North Park St.Madison WI 53706–1404USAjww@geography.wisc.edu

Dieter A. Wolf-GladrowAlfred Wegener Institut für Polar und Meeresforschung (AWI)Am Handelshafen 1227570 BremerhavenGermanyDieter.Wolf-Gladrow@awi.de

James D. WrightDepartment of Geological SciencesRutgers University, Wright-Reiman Labs610 Taylor Rd.Piscataway NJ 08854–8066USAjdwright@rci.rutgers.edu

Grant M. YoungDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of Western OntarioLondon ON N6A 5B7Canadarokchip@rogers.com

Jeremy R. YoungPalaeontology DepartmentThe Natural History MuseumCromwell RoadLondon SW7 5BDUKj.young@nhm.ac.uk

Richard E. ZeebeSchool of Ocean and Earth Science and TechnologyDepartment of OceanographyUniversity of Hawaii, Manoa1000 Pope Road MSB 504Honolulu HI 96822USAzeebe@soest.hawaii.edu

Bernd ZolitschkaGEOPOLAR, Institute of GeographyUniversity of BremenCelciusstrasse FVG-M28359 BremenGermanyzoli@uni-bremen.de

Preface

The growing levels of atmospheric greenhouse gases generatedby anthropogenic activities are already beginning to affect theEarth's climate, according to the latest report by the Intergovern-mental Panel on Climate Change, and concern is mounting overpotential adverse consequences to society. However, Earth's cli-mate has shifted dramatically and frequently during the last fewmillion years, alternating between ice ages, when vast glacierscovered Northern Europe and much of North America, andinterglacials—warm periods much like today. Farther back ingeologic time, climates have differed even more from the pre-sent. Could human actions push the Earth's climate system intoan unstable mode, beyond the relatively mild oscillations of thelast few millennia? To fully understand the unusual changes ofthe 20th century and possible future trends, these need to beplaced in a longer-term context extending well beyond the periodof instrumental records. Paleoclimatology—the study of climatesof the past–may provide us with insights into the workings of themodern climate system. By reconstructing ancient climates usingnatural “archives” of environmental change recorded in trees, cor-als, cavedeposits, ice cores, lake andocean sediments, and runningcomputer models, paleoclimatologists can place bounds on pastclimate variability and help us anticipate possible future changes.

The Encyclopedia of Paleoclimatology and Ancient Envi-ronments, a companion volume to the recently-published

Encyclopedia of World Climatology, provides the reader withan entry point to the rapidly expanding field of paleoclimatol-ogy. Highly interdisciplinary, paleoclimatology integrates infor-mation from a broad array of disciplines in the geosciences,spanning across stratigraphy, geomorphology, glaciology, paleoe-cology, paleobotany, isotope geochemistry, geochronology, andgeophysics, among others. The encyclopedia covers the entirespan of the Earth's climate history from the early Precambrianto the Little Ice Age, and also offers an interplanetary compari-son with the contrasting climates of Mars and Venus in 230 infor-mative articles written by over 200 well known internationalexperts. The climates of the past were the product of closelyinter-connected processes that shaped the Earth's atmosphere,lithosphere, and biosphere. Therefore, the separation betweentopics is somewhat arbitrary and a certain degree of overlapis inevitable. However, since authors often approach similartopics from differing perspectives, these differences can providea fuller picture overall. The volume is abundantly illustrated withline-drawings, black-white and color photographs. Articles arearranged alphabetically, with extensive bibliographies and cross-references.

March 2008Vivien Gornitz

Acknowledgements

This volume is offered in tribute to the memory of Rhodes W.Fairbridge, Senior Editor of the Encyclopedia of Earth SciencesSeries, who sadly passed away before this encyclopedia couldbe completed. It was upon his recommendation and inspirationthat this project was undertaken. Rhodes Fairbridge took a keeninterest in paleoclimatology, which ties together many aspectsof the geosciences. He wrote several articles especially for thisencyclopedia, including a detailed history of paleoclimatologyand “Earth Laws and Paleoclimatology”, which summarizesmany of the ideas he had covered in his long and distinguishedcareer. He was way ahead of his time in his early acceptance ofWegener's theory of continental drift, the role of orbital cyclesin climate change (i.e., theMilankovitch theory), solar influenceson climate, and recognition of general aridity during glacial per-iods. Hewas among the first to report the twentieth century rise inglobal sea level in the 1960s. One of the recurrent themes inRhodes’ many publications is the role of cyclical phenomenaon all timescales. A 1961 symposium that he organized atColumbia University was among the earliest to explore theconnections between Earth cycles and paleoclimates. With his

colleagues, he investigated planetary alignments, their possibleeffects on solar activity, and ultimately on Earth's paleoclimates.While still controversial, a growing body of literature points tosome solar influence on climate and one of the articles in thisvolume addresses this particular issue. His ability to see beyondthe minutiae of narrow specialties combined with an amazingmemory served him well as senior series editor. He will be sorelymissed and fondly remembered.

I thank the contributing authors for their efforts in bringingthis Encyclopedia to fruition. Thanks are also extended to themembers of the Editorial Advisory Board for their helpful sug-gestions and recommendations. Appreciation is also expressedto Ms. Eden Licardo, for her secretarial assistance, to Mr. JoséMendoza for graphics support, and to Dr. Cynthia Rosenzweig,Head, Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia Univer-sity and NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies, New York,for her encouragement and understanding during this lengthyundertaking.

Vivien Gornitz