ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES

ENCYCLOPEDIA of NATURAL HAZARDS

edited by

PETER T. BOBROWSKY Simon Fraser University

Canada

~ Springer Reference

Contents

Contributors XV Asteroid Impact Predictions 29

Preface xxxix Brian G. Marsden (Deceased)

Acknowledgments xli Automated Local Evaluation in Real Time (ALERT) 31

AA-LAVA Levl Dorman

Robert Buchwaldt Avalanches 31

Accelerometer 2 Chris Stethem

Zhengwen Zeng and Lin Fa Aviation (Hazards to) 34

Acid Rain 2 Thomas Gerz and Ulrich Schumann Mary J. Thombush

Avulsion 40 Adaptation 3 Joann Massa Philipp Schmidt-Thome and Sirkku Juhola

Base Surge 41 Airphoto and Satellite Imagery 5 Catherine J. Hickson J. D. Mol/ard

Beach Nourishment (Replenishment) 42 Albedo 9 Charles W Fink/

Alan W Harris Beaufort Wind Scale 42

Antecedent Conditions 10 Tom Beer

Michael James Crozier, Nick Preston and Biblical Events 45 Thomas Glade Jerry T. Mitchell

Arsenic in Groundwater 13 BodyWave 47 Arindam Basu Zhengwen Zeng and Lin Fa

Asteroid 14 Breakwaters 48 Alan W Harris Giovanni Cuomo

Asteroid Impact 18 Building Code 49 Christian Koeber/ Rohit Jigyasu

Asteroid Impact Mitigation 28 Building Failure 50 Clark R. Chapman Tiziana Rossetto

vi CONTENTS

Buildings, Structures, and Public Safety 51 Cost-Benefit Analysis ofNatural Hazard JohnM Logan Mitigation 121

Sven Fuchs Calderas 57 James W Cole Costs (Economic) ofNatural Hazards

and Disasters 125 Casualties Following Natural Hazards 59 Howard Kunreuther and Erwann Michel-Kerjan Kerrianne Watt and Philip Weinstein

Creep 129 Challenges to Agriculture 65 Piotr Migofz Julie A. March

Critical Incident Stress Syndrome 130 Civil Protection and Crisis Management 69 Ann M Mitchell and Kirstyn Kameg Scira Menoni and Antonio Pugliano

Critical Infrastructure 132 Classification ofNatural Disasters 78 Susanne Krings Thomas Glade and David E. Alexander

Cryological Engineering 132 Climate Change 82 Lukas U Arenson and Sarah M Springman Jasper Knight

Cultural Heritage and Natural Hazards 135 Cloud Seeding 92 Piotr Migofz Steven T. Siems

Damage and the Built Environment 141 Coal Fire (Underground) 92 Adriana Galderisi and Andrea Ceudech Glenn B. Stracher

Debris Avalanche 145 Coastal Erosion 94 Marco Giardino Wayne Stephenson

Coastal Zone Risk Management 97 Debris Flow 149 Oldrich Hungr

Norm Catto

Cognitive Dissonance 98 Deep-seated Gravitational Slope Deformation 151

Jaroslaw Dzialek Mauro Soldati

Collapsing Soil Hazards 99 Desertification 155

Andrew J. Stumpf Nicholas Lancaster

Comet 105 Disaster Diplomacy 158

Paul R. Weissman Ilan Kelman

Communicating Emergency Information 110 Disaster Relief 159 John H Sorensen Jane Carter Ingram

Community Management ofNatural Hazards 112 Disaster Research and Policy, History 160 William T. Hartwell J. C. Gaillard and Ilan Kelman

Complexity Theot)r 117 Disaster Risk Management 164 William H K. Lee N Nirupama

Concrete Structures 118 Disaster Risk Reduction 170 Murat Saatcioglu Walter J. Ammann

Convergence 118 Disasters 175 Ilan Kelman Jan Stewart

Coping Capacity 119 Dispersive Soil Hazards 186 Virginia R. Burkett Andrew J. Stumpf

Doppler Weather Radar Rodger A. Brown

Dose Rate Cathy Scheib

Drought Suzanne Hol/ins and John Dodson

CASE STUDY Dust Bowl Richard Seager and Benjamin 1 Cook

Dust Devil Nilton 0. Renn6

Dust Storm Nilton 0. Renn6

Dvorak Classification of Hurricanes Raymond Zehr

Early Warning Systems Graham S. Leonard, Chris E. Gregg and David M Johnston

Earthquake John F. Cassidy

Earthquake Damage Nicolas Desramaut, Hormoz Modaressi and Goneri Le Cozannet

Earthquake Prediction and Forecasting Alik T. Ismail-Zadeh

Earthquake Resistant Design Tiziana Rossetto and Philippe Duffour

Economic Valuation of Life Mohammed H 1 Dore and Rajiv G. Singh

Economics of Disasters Pierre-Alain Schieb

Education and Training for Emergency Preparedness

Kevin R. Ronan

Elastic Rebound Theory John Ristau

Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR) Norman Kerle

El Nifio/Southem Oscillation Michael Ghil and flya Zaliapin

CONTENTS

188

188

189

197

201

202

203

207

208

223

225

231

240

242

247

249

250

250

Emergency Management Michael K. Lindell

Emergency Mapping Frank Fiedrich and Sisi Zlatanova

Emergency Planning Scira Menoni

Emergency Shelter Camillo Boano and William Hunter

Epicenter Valerio Comerci

Epidemiology ofDisease in Natural Disasters Gilbert M Burnham

Erosion Matija Zorn and Blaz Komac

Erosivity Matija Zorn and Blaz Komac

Eruption Types (Volcanic Eruptions) Catherine J. Hickson, T. C. Spurgeon and R.1 Tilling

Evacuation Graham A. Tobin, Burrell E. Montz and Linda M Whiteford

Expansive Soils and Clays Ghulappa S. Dasog and Ahmet R. Mermut

Expert (Knowledge-Based) Systems for Disaster Management

Jean-Marc Tacnet and Corinne Curt

Exposure to Natural Hazards Jörn Birkmann

Extensometers Erik Eberhardt

Extinction Ross D. E. MacPhee

Extreme Value Theory Gianfausto Salvadori

CASE STUDY Eyjafjallajökull Eruptions 2010 Freysteinn Sigmundsson

Fault William A. Bryant

vii

263

272

276

280

284

285

288

289

290

293

297

300

305

306

307

310

311

317

viii

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

Vincent R. Parisi

Fetch Norm Catto

Fire and Firestorms JohnRadke

Flash Flood Yang Hang, Pradeep Adhikari and Jonathan J. Gourley

Flood Deposits Janos Kovacs

Flood Hazard and Disaster Yang Hang, Pradeep Adhikari and Jonathan J. Gourley

Flood Protection Fernando Nardi

Flood Stage Fernando Nardi

Floodplain Klement Tockner

Floodway Armand LaRocque

Fog Hazard Mitigation Steve LaDochy and Michael R. Witiw

Fog Hazards Paul J. Croft

Föhn Anita Bokwa

Forest and Range Fires George Eftychidis

Frequency and Magnitude ofEvents Liane/ E. Jacksi>n, Jr.

Frost Hazard Leanne Webb and Richard L. Snyder

Fujita Tornado Scale Thomas W Schmid/in

Fumarole Travis W Heggie

CONTENTS

CASE STUDY 321 Galeras Volcano, Colombia 369

Barry Voight and Marta L. Calvache

322 Gas-Hydrates 377 Harsh K. Gupta and Kalachand Sain

323 Geographie Information Systems (GIS) and Natural Hazards 378

Paolo Tarolli and Marco Cavalli 324

Geographie Information Technology 385 Brigitte Leblon

325 Geohazards 387 Blaz Komac and Matija Zorn

326 GeologicaVGeophysical Disasters 387 Richard Guthrie

Glacier Hazards 400

336 John J. Clague

Global Change and Its Implications for

336 Natural Disasters 405

Goneri Le Cozannet, Hormoz Modaressi and Nicolas Desramaut

337 Global Dust 409 Edward Derbyshire

338 Global Network of Civil Society Organizations for Disaster Reduction 416

338 Terry Gibson

Global Positioning Systems (GPS) and Natural Hazards 416

342 Norman Kerle

346 Global Seismograph Network (GSN) 417 Allison Bent

346 CASE STUDY Haiti Earthquake 2010: Psychosocial Impacts 419 James M Shultz, Louis Herns Marcelin,

359 Zelde Espinel, Sharon B. Madanes, Andrea Allen and Yuval Neria

363 Harmonie Tremor 425 Melanie Kelman

366 Hazard 425 Farrokh Nadim

367 Hazard and Risk Mapping 426 Brian R. Marker

Hazardousness of a Place Netra Raj Regmi, John Rick Giardino and John D. Vitek

HeatWaves Gerd Tetzlaff

High-Rise Buildings in Natural Disaster Murat Saatcioglu

Historical Events Suzanne A. G. Leroy and Raisa Gracheva

Hospitals in Disaster Jeffrey N Rubin

Human Impacts of Hazards Douglas Paton, David Johnston and Sarb Johal

Humanity as an Agent ofNatural Disasters Thomas Glade and Andreas Dix

Hurricane (Typhoon, Cyclone) Robert Korty

CASE STUDY Hurricane Katrina Joann Mossa

Hydrocompaction Subsidence Andrew J. Stumpf

Hydrograph, Flood Fernando Nardi

Hydrometeorological Hazards Gordon McBean

Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015 Pedro Basabe

Hypocenter Maurice Lam'ontagne

Ice and lcebergs Norm Catto

Ice Storms Ronald E. Stewart

Impact Airblast Natalia Artemieva

Impact Ejecta Christian Koeberl

Impact Fireball Peter Brown

CONTENTS

435

447

451

452

471

474

478

481

494

496

497

497

508

516

519

520

522

Impact Firestorms Tamara Goldin

Impact Tsunamis Galen Gis/er

Impact Winter Owen Brian Toon

Inclinometers Erik Eberhardt

CASE STUDY Indian Ocean Tsunami, 2004 Franck Lavigne, Raphael Paris, Frederic Leone, J. C. Gaillard and Julie Morin

Induced Seismicity Maurice Lamontagne

Information and Communication Technology Peter S. Anderson

Insect Hazards Philip Weinstein

Insurance Jaroslaw Dzialek

Integrated Emergency Management System Frank Fiedrich

Intensity Scales David Giles

International Strategies for Disaster Reduction (IDNDR and ISDR)

Karl-Otto Zentel and Thomas Glade

Internet, World Wide Web and Natural Hazards Lucy Stanbrough

Isoseismal Valerio Comerci

Jökulhlaups Marten Geertsema

Karst Hazards Viacheslav Andreychouk and Andrzej Tyc

CASE STUDY 523 Krakatoa (Krakatau)

Bill McGuire

524 Lahar Richard B. Waitt

ix

525

525

528

529

529

535

536

540

542

544

544

552

563

565

567

571

576

579

X CONTENTS

Land Degradation Matija Zorn and Blaz Komac

Land Subsidence Brian R. Marker

Land Use, Urbanization, and Natural Hazards Brian Marker

Landsat Satellite Maria Asuncion Soriano

580

583

590

594

Landslide 594 John J. Clague

Landslide Dam 602 Reginald L. Hermanns

Landslide Impacts 606 Michael James Crozier, Nick Preston and Thomas G/ade

Landslide Inventory 610 Javier Herwis

Landslide Triggered Tsunami, Displacement Wave 611

Reginald L. Hermanns, Jean-Sebastien L' Heureux and Lars H. Blikra

Landslide Types 615 David Cruden

Land-Use Planning 618 Stefan Greiving and Philipp Schmidt-Thome

Lateral Spreading 623 Steven L. Kramer

Lava 623 Robert Buchwaldt

Levee 624 JoannMossa

Lightning 625 Leopoldo C. Cancio

Liquefaction 629 Steven L. Kramer

Livelihoods and Disasters 633 J C. Gaillard

Loess 637 Janos Kovacs and György Varga

Macroseismic Survey 639 Roger M W. Musson

Magma Catherine J Hickson, T. C. Spurgeon and R. I Tilling

Magnitude Measures David Gi/es

Marginality Ben Wisner

Marine Hazards Tore Jan K valstad

Mass Media and Natural Disasters Wojciech Biernacki

Mass Movement Roy C. Sidle

Megacities and Natural Hazards Norman Kerle and Annemarie Müller

CASE STUDY Mega-Fires in Greece (2007) George Eftychidis

Mercalli, Giuseppe (1850-1914) Valerio Comerci

Meteorite JayMelosh

Methane Release from Hydrate Graham Westbrook

Mining Subsidence lnduced Fault Reactivation Laurance Donnelly

Misconceptions About Natural Disasters Timothy R. H. Davies

Mitigation Farrokh Nadim

Modified Mercalli (MM) Scale Valerio Comerci

Monitoring Natural Hazards Michel Jaboyedoff, Pascal Horton, Marc-Henri Derron, Celine Longchamp and Clement Michoud

Monsoons Song Yang, Viviane Silva and Wayne Higgins

639

640

651

652

655

657

660

664

671

672

672

673

678

682

683

686

696

CASE STUDY Montserrat Eruptions Katherine Donovan

Mortality and Injury in Natural Disasters Shannon Doocy

CASE STUDY Mt Pinatubo Katherine Donovan

Mud Volcanoes Behruz M Panahi

Mudflow Christophe Ancey

Myths and Misconceptions in Disasters Alejandro L6pez Carresi

Natural Hazard ' AnitaBokwa

Natural Hazards in Developing Countries PaoloParon

Natural Radioactivity Cathy Scheib

Neotectonics James P. McCalpin

CASE STUDY Nevado del Ruiz Volcano, Colombia 1985 Barry Voight, Marta L. Calvache, Minard L. Hall and Maria Luisa Monsalve

North Anatolian Fault Thomas Rockwell

Nuee Ardente Catherine J. Hickson, T. C. Spurgeon and R. !. Tilling

Overgrazing Norm Catto

Ozone Tom Beer

Ozone Loss Mary J. Thornbush

Pacific Tsunarni Warning and Mitigation System (PTWS)

Laura S. L. Kong

CONTENTS xi

Pahoehoe Lava 748

697 Robert Buchwaldt

Paleoflood Hydrology 748 699 Gerardo Benito

Paleoseismology 749 Alan R. Nelson

703 Paraglacial 750 Jasper Knight

705 Perception ofNatural Hazards and Disasters 756 Jaroslaw Dzialek

706 Permafrost 759 Julian B. Murton

706 Piezometer 764 Sylvi Haldorsen

711 Piping Hazard 764 Michael James Crozier, Nick Preston and

718 Thomas Glade

Planning Measures and Political Aspects 765 726 Brian R. Marker

Plate Tectonics 769 730 John Ristau

Pore-Water Pressure 772 MarkE. Reid

732 Post Disaster Mass Care Needs 773 Frank Fiedrich, John R. Harrald and Theresa Je.fferson

738 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) 776 Fran H. Norris

740 Primary Wave (P-Wave) 777 Allison Bent

741 Probable Maximum Flood (PMF) 777 Armand LaRocque

741 Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) 778 Gerd Tetzla.ff and Janek Zimmer

743 Psychological Impacts ofNatural Disasters 779 James M Shultz, Yuval Neria, Andrea Allen and Zelde Espinel

747 Pyroclastic Flow 791 Robert Buchwaldt

xii

CASE STUDY Queensland Floods (2010-2011) and "Tweeting" France Cheong and Christopher Cheong

Quick Clay Marten Geertsema

Quick Sand Janos Kovacs

Radiation Hazards Levl Dorman

Radon Hazards James D. Appleton

Recovery and Reconstruction After Disaster Michael K. Linde/l

Recurrence Interval Glenn Biasi

Red Cross and Red Crescent Donald J. Shropshire

Red Tides Philip Weinstein

Reflections on Modeling Disaster David A. Etkin

Release Rates Pat E. Rasmussen

Religion and Hazards Heather Sangster, Angus M Duncan and David K. Chester

Remote Sensing ofNatural Hazards and Disasters

Norman Kerle

Reservoir, Dams, and Seismicity Maurice Lamontagne

Resilience Adriana Galdeltisi and Floriana F. Ferrara

Richter, Charles Francis ( 1900- 1985) Susan Hough

Rights and Obligations in International Humanitarian Assistance

George Kent

Rip Current Wayne Stephenson

CONTENTS

Risk 856

797 Jörn Birkmann

Risk Assessment 862 803 Suzanne Lacasse

Risk Governance 863 804 Stefan Greiving and Thomas Glade

Risk Perception and Communication 870 807 Michael K. Lindell

808 Rock Avalanche (Sturzstrom) 875 Reginald L. Hermanns

812 Rockfall 875 Fausto Guzzetti

824 Rogue Wave 877 Norm Catto

825 Rotational Seismology 877 William H. K. Lee

826 Sackung 881 Michael J. Bovis

827 Saffir- Simpson Hurricane Intensity Scale 882 Ilan Kelman

835 San Andreas Fault 883 William A. Bryant

836 CASE STUDY Santorini, Eruption 884 Yuri Gorokhovich

837 Sea Level Change 895 Peter J. Hawkes

847 Secondary Wave (S-Wave) 901 Allison Bent

849 Sedimentation of Reservoirs 901 Anton J. Schleiss

850 Seiche 905 Giovanni Cuomo

851 Seismic Gap 906 John F. Cassidy

855 Seismograph/Seismometer 907 Allison Bent

Seismology Alik T. Jsmail-Zadeh

Shear Murat Saatcioglu

Shield Volcano Raphael Paris

Sinkhole Maria Asuncion Soriano

Slide and Slump Lionel E. Jackson, Jr.

Slope Stability KaareHeeg

Snowstorm and Blizzard Thomas W. Schmid/in

Social-Ecological Systems Fabrice G. Renaud

Sociology of Disaster Alison Herring

Solar Flares David H. Bote/er

Solifluction Piotr Migon

Space Weather David H. Bote/er

CONTENTS

907 Sunspots David H Bote/er

908 Supernova Lev /. Dorman

910 Surge Giovanni Cuomo

911 Susceptibility Maria Jose Dominguez-Cuesta

913 CASE STUDY Tangshan, China (1976 Earthquake)

919 Zhengwen Zeng and Chenghu Wang

Tectonic and Tectono-Seismic Hazards 924 James P. McCalpin

Tectonic Tremor 926 David She//y

Thunderstorms 926 Co/in Price

Tidal Bores 936 Hubert Chanson

Tiltmeters 936 En'k Eberhardt

Time and Space in Disaster 937 Thomas Glade, Michael James Crozier and

Nick Preston

Storm Surges 940 CASE STUDY Goneri Le Cozannet, Hormoz Modaressi, Rodrigo Pedreros, Manuel Garcin, Yann Krien and Nicolas Desramaut

Storms Norm Catto

Stratovo lcanoes Shane J. Cronin

Structural Damage Caused by Earthquakes Murat Saatcioglu

Structural Mitigation Murat Saatcioglu

Subduction Alik T. /smai/-Zadeh

Subsidence Induced by Underground Extraction Devin L. Galloway

941

941

947

959

979

979

Tohoku, Japan (2011 Earthquake and Tsunami) Kerzji Satake

Torino Scale Norm Catto

Tomadoes Matthew R. C/ark and R. P. Knightley

Triggered Earthquakes Harsh K. Gupta

Tsunami William Power and Graham S. Leonard

Tsunami Loads on Infrastructure Dan Palermo, Ioan Nistor and Murat Saatcioglu

Uncertainty Philipp Schmidt-Thome

xiii

986

986

987

988

989

994

1004

1006

1007

1009

1009

1015

1019

1019

1031

1036

1046

1055

xiv

United Nations Organizations and Natural Disasters

BadaouiRouhban

Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) Armand LaRocque

Unreinforced Masonry Buildings Fabio Taucer

Urban Environments and Natural Hazards Pat E. Rasmussen

CASE STUDY Usoi Landslide and Lake Sarez Alexander Strom

CASE STUDY Vaiont Landslide, Italy Monica Ghirotti and Doug Stead

CASE STUDY Vesuvius Bill McGuire

Volcanic Ash Thomas Wilson and Carol Stewart

Volcanic Gas Travis W Heggie

CONTENTS

Volcanoes and Volcanic Eruptions 1056 Sue C. Loughlin

Vulnerability 1062 Susan L. Cutter

Waming Systems 1062 Graham S. Leonard, David M. Johnston and

Chris E. Gregg

1063 Waterspout Miquel Gaya

CASE STUDY 1065 Wenchuan, China (2008 Earthquake)

Zhengwen Zeng and Chenghu Wang

1069

1073

1074

1076

Wildfire Brigitte Leblon and Laura Bourgeau-Chavez

World Economy, Impact of Disasters Ilan Noy

Worldwide Trends in Natural Disasters Margreth Keiler

Zoning Philipp Schmidt-Thome and Stefan Greiving

Author Index

Subject Index

1077

1088

1091

1096

1097

1102

1107

11 1 1

111 5

111 7

111 9