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Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF COASTAL SCIENCE
Volume EditorsCharles W. FinklCoastal Education and Research Foundation, Asheville, NC, USA
Christopher MakowskiCoastal Education and Research Foundation, Coconut Creek, FL, USA
Editorial BoardRobin Davidson-Arnott (Emeritus)Department of GeographyUniversity of GuelphGuelph, ON, Canada
Omar DefeoMarine Science UnitUniversidad de la RepúblicaMontevideo, Uruguay
Kazimierz FurmańczykInstitute of Marine and Coastal SciencesUniversity of SzczecinSzczecin, Poland
Pramod T. HanamgondGuruprasad ColonyBelagavi, India
James R. HoustonCorps of EngineersU.S. Army Engineer Research and Development CenterVicksburg, MS, USA
Federico Ignacio IslaInstituto de Geología de Costas y del CuaternarioUniversidad Nacional de Mar del PlataMar Del Plata, Argentina
Victor V. KlemasCollege of Earth, Ocean and EnvironmentUniversity of DelawareNewark, DE, USA
Charles LemckertFaculty of Arts and DesignUniversity of CanberraBruce, ACT, Australia
Nobuo MimuraIberaki UniversityBunkyo, MitoIberaki, Japan
Andrew D. ShortSchool of GeosciencesUniversity of SydneySydney, NSW, Australia
Marcel J. F. Stive (Emeritus)Department of Hydraulic EngineeringFaculty Civil Engineering and GeosciencesDelft University of TechnologyDelft, The Netherlands
Colin WoodroffeSchool of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of WollongongWollongong, NSW, Australia
Aims of the SeriesThe Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Each volume comprises afocused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations and reference lists. These books represent one ofthe world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new works published so that the volumes will continue to beessential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatologists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the back ofthis volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series.Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” online.
About the Series EditorProfessor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than eight volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. He has been the Executive Directorof the Coastal Education and Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal of Coastal Research for the past 35 years. He is also the SeriesEditor of the Coastal Research Library (Springer). In addition to these duties, he is Distinguished University Professor Emeritus at Florida Atlantic University (FAU)(Boca Raton, Florida). He is a graduate of Oregon State University (Corvallis) and the University of Western Australia (Perth). Work experience includes theInternational Nickel Company of Australia (Perth), Coastal Planning & Engineering (Boca Raton, Florida), and Technos Geophysical Consulting (Miami, Florida). Hehas published numerous peer-reviewed technical research papers and edited or coedited and contributed to many books. Dr. Finkl is a Certified ProfessionalGeological Scientist (Arvada, Colorado), a Certified Professional Soil Scientist (Madison, Wisconsin), a Certified Wetland Scientist (Lawrence, Kansas), and aChartered Marine Scientist (London). Academically, he served as a Demonstrator at the University of Western Australia, Courtesy Professor at Florida InternationalUniversity (Miami), Program Professor and Director of the Institute of Coastal and Marine Studies at Nova Southeastern University (Port Everglades, Florida), andFull Professor at FAU. During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia; the Bahamas; Puerto Rico; Jamaica; Brazil; Papua New Guinea and other SWPacific islands; southern Africa; Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA. Dr. Finkl is a member of several professional societiesincluding the Geological Society of America; Soil Science Society of America; Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology; and the Society of WetlandSpecialists. He is a recipient of the International Beach Advocacy Award (Florida Shore and Beach Preservation Association), Certificate of George V. ChilingarMedal of Honor (Russian Academy of Natural Sciences), and Lifetime Commitment to Coastal Science Award (International Coastal Symposium).
Founding Series EditorProfessor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked as a petroleumgeologist in the Middle East, been a WWII intelligence officer in the SW Pacific, and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil, andNew Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard Institute for Space Studies.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES
ENCYCLOPEDIA of
COASTAL SCIENCESecond Edition
edited by
CHARLES W. FINKLCoastal Education and Research Foundation,
Asheville, NC, USA
CHRISTOPHER MAKOWSKICoastal Education and Research Foundation,
Coconut Creek, FL, USA
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018966552
ISBN: 978-3-319-93805-9
This publication is available also as:Electronic publication under ISBN 978-3-319-93806-6 andPrint and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-3-319-93807-3Cover photo: Twelve Apostles in Victoria, Australia. Credit: iStock.com/fon_thachakul
Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced fromother sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that dueacknowledgement may be made in subsequent editions.
All rights reserved for the contributions: Coastal Modeling; Geohydraulic Research Centers
1st edition: © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2005© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material isconcerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction onmicrofilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation,computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to betrue and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express orimplied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.
Printed on acid-free paper
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Dedication
To RhodesW. Fairbridge, colleague, mentor, and friend who inspired my professional interests in the coast. His persistentnudging, teasing, and invitations to everything coastal drewme away frommy first professional interest, soil science, to anew and exciting world of coastal science. His inspirations led me to coastal research, publication, and teaching in thecoastal realm, and this interest has passed through me to Chris Makowski, my coeditor.
Contents
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Dedication
About the Editors
Contributors
Preface to the Second Edition x
Preface to the First Edition
Accretion and Erosion Waves on BeachesDouglas L. Inman and Scott A. Jenkins
Africa, Coastal EcologyAnton McLachlan
Africa, Coastal GeomorphologyAntony R. Orme
Algal RimsJacques Laborel
Alluvial-Plain CoastsDaniel F. Belknap
Altimeter Surveys, Coastal Tides, and ShelfCirculation
Guoqi Han
Antarctica, Coastal Ecology and GeomorphologyAndrew McMinn
AquacultureRobert R. Stickney
ArchaeologyLucille Lewis Johnson
Archaeology and Sea-Level ChangeNiki Evelpidou and Anna Karkani
Arctic, Coastal EcologyJean-François Hamel and Annie Mercier
Arctic, Coastal GeomorphologyH. Jesse Walker
Artificial IslandsMarcel J. F. Stive
Asia, Eastern, Coastal EcologyDonald Macintosh
Asia, Eastern, Coastal GeomorphologyD. Eisma
Asia, Middle East, Coastal Ecology andGeomorphology
Paul Sanlaville and Abel Prieur
Asteroid-Impact CoastsRhodes W. Fairbridge
Atlantic Ocean Islands, Coastal EcologyAnnie Mercier and Jean-François Hamel
Atlantic Ocean Islands, CoastalGeomorphology
J. D. Hansom
AtollsDavid Hopley
Australia, Coastal EcologyKaren S. Edyvane
Australia, Coastal GeomorphologyEric Bird
BarrierEric Bird
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viii CONTENTS
Barrier Island Formation and DevelopmentModes
Ervin G. Otvos
Barrier Island LandformsIlya V. Buynevich and Duncan M. FitzGerald
BARSBrian Greenwood
Bay BeachesKarl F. Nordstrom and Nancy L. Jackson
Beach and Nearshore InstrumentationRobin Davidson-Arnott
Beach Awards and CertificationsCamilo M. Botero
Beach DrainageAlessandra Saponieri
Beach Environmental QualityCamilo M. Botero, Ganivetth Manjarrés, ElinMárquez and Cristina I. Pereira
Beach ErosionEdward J. Anthony
Beach FeaturesMichael J. Chrzastowski
Beach Management ToolsCamilo M. Botero and Carlos Pereira da Silva
Beach NourishmentCharles W. Finkl and H. Jesse Walker
Beach ProcessesJohn R. Dingler
Beach ProfileNicholas C. Kraus
Beach RidgesErvin G. Otvos
Beach Safety ResearchRobert W. Brander
Beach Sediment CharacteristicsAlan S. Trenhaile
Beach StratigraphyToru Tamura and Yoshiki Saito
Beach Use and BehaviorsNiels West
BeachrockRobert J. Turner
Beaufort Wind ScaleDilip K. Barua
BioconstructionWilliam T. Fox
Bioengineered Shore ProtectionKevin R. Hall
BioerosionWilliam T. Fox
BiogeomorphologyMartin J. Baptist
Bioherms and BiostromesJacques Laborel
Black and Caspian Seas, Coastal Ecology andGeomorphology
Yuri Dolotov and Pavel Kaplin
BogsMartyn Waller
Boulder BarricadesPeter S. Rosen
Boulder BeachesJohn McKenna
Boulder PavementsJ. D. Hansom
Capping of Contaminated Coastal AreasRam K. Mohan
Carbonate BeachesAndrew D. Short
Caribbean Islands, Coastal Ecology andGeomorphology
Gillian Cambers
Carrying Capacity in Coastal AreasM. MacLeod and J. Andrew G. Cooper
Cave and Karst in Coastal SettingsMichael J. Lace
CaysScott Smithers and David Hopley
Chalk CoastsVincent May
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CONTENTS ix
Changing Sea LevelsNils-Axel Mörner
CheniersErvin G. Otvos
Cliffed CoastsAlan S. Trenhaile
Cliffs, Erosion RatesTsuguo Sunamura
Cliffs, Lithology Versus Erosion RatesTsuguo Sunamura
Climate Patterns in the Coastal ZoneDouglas L. Inman and Scott A. Jenkins
Coastal Barrier Preservation andDestruction
Ervin G. Otvos
Coastal BoundariesCelene Milanés Batista
Coastal Changes, GradualB. G. Thom and P. J. Cowell
Coastal Changes, RapidDavid B. Scott
Coastal ClimateDavid Greenland
Coastal CurrentsGuy Gelfenbaum
Coastal DynamicsNils-Axel Mörner
Coastal ErosionNils-Axel Mörner and Charles W. Finkl
Coastal Erosion ManagementNelson Rangel-Buitrago and William J. Neal
Coastal Evolution in Microtidal Seasin Holocene
Kazimierz Furmańczyk
Coastal Flood Hazard MappingCelene Milanés Batista
Coastal Hazard IndicatorsÓscar Ferreira
Coastal HoodoosShin Wang
Coastal Lake SystemsAnja M. Scheffers and Dieter H. Kelletat
Coastal Management PracticesFrank van der Meulen and Bert van der Valk
Coastal ModelingHonghai Li
Coastal RiskCelene Milanés Batista
Coastal SceneryA. T. Williams, Nelson Rangel-Buitrago, E. Pranzini,Giorgio Anfuso and Camilo M. Botero
Coastal Seafloor Geomorphological Features,Classification
Charles W. Finkl and Christopher Makowski
Coastal Sedimentary FaciesH. Edward Clifton
Coastal SoilsCharles W. Finkl
Coastal SubsidenceZhongyuan Chen and John Rybczyk
Coastal Temperature TrendsGeorge A. Maul
Coastal Upwelling and DownwellingDilip K. Barua
Coastal WarfarePeter L. Guth
Coastal WellsYaacov Nir
Coastal Wind EffectsTerry R. Healy
Coastline ChangesEric Bird
Coasts, Coastlines, Shores, and ShorelinesGeorge F. Oertel
Cohesive Sediment TransportParmeshwar L. Shrestha and Alan F. Blumberg
Conservation of Coastal SitesVincent May
Continental ShelvesA. W. Niedoroda
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x CONTENTS
Coral Reef CoastsCharles R. C. Sheppard
Coral Reef IslandsGisèle Muller-Parker
Coral ReefsScott Smithers and David Hopley
Coral Reefs, EmergedDavid Hopley
Cross-Shore Sediment TransportRichard J. Seymour
Cross-Shore Variation of Grain Sizeon Beaches
Philip D. Osborne
Cuspate ForelandsStephen J. Craig-Smith
Dalmatian CoastsDieter H. Kelletat
Dams, Effect on CoastsJiyu Chen
Deltaic EcologyJohn Rybczyk
DeltasShea Penland and Mark A. Kulp
Demography of Coastal PopulationsGeorge A. Maul and Iver W. Duedall
Depth of Closure on SandyCoasts
Andrew Morang and William A. Birkemeier
Depth of DisturbanceJohn P. Ahrens
DesalinationBénédicte Cherbuy and Jean-Christophe Aznar
Desert CoastsRodman E. Snead
Developed CoastsNancy L. Jackson and Karl F. Nordstrom
DikesPieter G. E. F. Augustinus
Dissipative BeachesDouglas J. Sherman
Dredging of Coastal EnvironmentsPer Bruun
Drift and Swash AlignmentsEric Bird
DriftwoodThomas A. Terich
Dune RidgesTerry R. Healy
Dynamic Equilibrium of BeachesRobert G. Dean
Economics of BeachesWilliam B. Stronge
El Niño–Southern Oscillation(ENSO)
Henry F. Diaz
Endogenic and Exogenic FactorsHenry Bokuniewicz
Energy and Sediment Budgets of the GlobalCoastal Zone
Douglas L. Inman and Scott A. Jenkins
Engineering Applications of CoastalGeomorphology
John R. C. Hsu
Environmental QualityMichael J. Kennish
Eolian ProcessesPatrick A. Hesp
EolianiteEric Bird
Erosion of Coastal SystemsLuciana S. Esteves
Erosion ProcessesMichael R. Rampino
Erosion: Historical Analysis andForecasting
Mark Crowell, Stephen P. Leatherman andBruce Douglas
EstuariesTerry R. Healy
Estuaries: Anthropogenic ImpactsMichael J. Kennish
Europe, Coastal EcologyJ. Pat Doody
Europe, Coastal GeomorphologyAnja M. Scheffers and Dieter H. Kelletat
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CONTENTS xi
EustasyVivien Gornitz
Eustasy and Sea LevelErvin G. Otvos
Faulted CoastsRoland P. Paskoff
GeochronologyGerhard Schellmann, Helmut Brückner andDominik Brill
GeodesyMike P. Stewart
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)Shawn M. Boeser and Sarah M. Hamylton
Geographical Coastal ZonalityDieter H. Kelletat
Geohydraulic Research CentersJames R. Houston
Geomorphology and Sea LevelNiki Evelpidou
Geotextile ApplicationsRam K. Mohan and C. G. R. Nair
Glaciated CoastsDaniel F. Belknap
Global Positioning Systems (GPS)Shawn M. Boeser
Global Vulnerability AnalysisRobert J. Nicholls and Frank M. J. Hoozemans
Gravel BarriersJulian D. Orford
Gravel BeachesDavid P. Simpson, Jon Williams and Younes Nouri
Gross TransportRichard J. Seymour
Ground-Penetrating RadarIlya V. Buynevich and Duncan M. FitzGerald
Gulf Shorelines, Last Eustatic CycleErvin G. Otvos
Headland-Bay BeachLuis J. Moreno
Health BenefitsRoger H. Charlier, Marie Claire P. Chaineux andCharles W. Finkl
History of Coastal GeomorphologyH. Jesse Walker and Molly McGraw
History, Coastal EcologyJ. Pat Doody
History, Coastal ProtectionRoger H. Charlier and Charles W. Finkl
Holocene Coastal GeomorphologyDieter H. Kelletat
Holocene EpochNeil Roberts
Honeycomb WeatheringGeorge Mustoe
Human Impact on CoastsRichard A. Davis Jr.
Hydrology of the Coastal ZoneNick Cartwright and Diane P. Horn
Ice-Bordered CoastsH. Jesse Walker
Indian Ocean Coasts, Coastal EcologyBaban Ingole
Indian Ocean Coasts, CoastalGeomorphology
G. N. Nayak
Indian Ocean Islands, Coastal Ecology andGeomorphology
M. Wafar, Sayeeda Wafar and Prasanna Yennavar
Ingression, Regression, and TransgressionHenry Bokuniewicz
IsostasyKurt Lambeck
Jet ProbesLindino A. Benedet and Charles W. Finkl
Karst CoastsRoland P. Paskoff
KlintAnto Raukas
Last InterglacialErvin G. Otvos
Late Quaternary Marine TransgressionNils-Axel Mörner
Lifesaving and Beach SafetyB. Chris Brewster
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xii CONTENTS
LittoralHenry Bokuniewicz
Littoral CellsDouglas L. Inman
Littoral Drift GradientTerry R. Healy
Longshore Sediment TransportRichard J. Seymour
MachairWilliam Ritchie
Managed RetreatWilliam J. Neal, David M. Bush and Orrin H. Pilkey
Mangroves, EcologyFrancois Blasco, M. Aizpuru and J. Besnehard
Mangroves, GeomorphologyEric Bird
Mangroves, Remote SensingFrancois Blasco, M. Aizpuru and D. Din Ndongo
Marine Debris-Onshore, Offshore, and SeafloorLitter
D. T. Tudor and A. T Williams
Marine LitterA. T. Williams
Marine ParksVincent May
Marine TerracesPaolo A. Pirazzoli
Mass WastingAlan S. Trenhaile
Meteorological Effects on CoastsGregory W. Stone and Robert A. Muller
Microtidal CoastsJ. Andrew G. Cooper
Middle America, Coastal Ecology andGeomorphology
Alejandro Yánez-Arancibia
Mining of Coastal MaterialsW. R. Osterkamp and R. A. Morton
Modeling Platforms, Terraces, and CoastalEvolution
Douglas L. Inman, Scott A. Jenkins and Patricia M.Masters
Modes and Patterns of Shoreline ChangeFrancis A. Galgano and Stephen P. Leatherman
Monitoring Coastal EcologyJ. Pat Doody
Monitoring Coastal GeomorphologyAndrew Morang and Laurel T. Gorman
Morphodynamic Stability of Tidal Inlet-BaySystems
Ashish J. Mehta and Earl J. Hayter
Muddy CoastsTerry R. Healy
Natural HazardsVivien Gornitz
Navigation StructuresNicholas C. Kraus
Nearshore Geomorphological MappingCharles W. Finkl and Christopher Makowski
Nearshore Sediment TransportMeasurement
Ping Wang
Nearshore Wave MeasurementPing Wang, Gregory W. Stone and Jun Cheng
Net TransportRichard J. Seymour
New Zealand, Coastal EcologyRussell Cole and Conrad Pilditch
New Zealand, Coastal Geomorphology andOceanography
Terry R. Healy
North America, Coastal EcologyMichael S. Kearney and J. Court Stevenson
North America, Coastal GeomorphologyDouglas J. Sherman
NotchesDieter H. Kelletat
Offshore Sand Banks and LinearSand Ridges
Randolph A. McBride
Offshore Sand SheetsMichael S. Fenster
Oil SpillsErich R. Gundlach
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CONTENTS xiii
Oil Spills, High-Energy CoastsWilliam Ritchie
Open-Coast Tidal Flat DepositsPing Wang, Congxian Li and Jun Cheng
Pacific Ocean Islands, Coastal EcologyMark D. Merlin
Pacific Ocean Islands, Coastal GeomorphologyPatrick D. Nunn
Paired Baymouth SpitsJavier Alcántara-Carrió, Michel Michaelovitch deMahiques and Luana Portz
PaleocoastlinesJohn C. Kraft
Paraglacial CoastsDonald L. Forbes
PeatIan Shennan
PhotogrammetryE. Robert Thieler and Cheryl J. Hapke
Physical ModelsMichael S. Bruno
Placer DepositsPaul D. Komar
Pleistocene EpochDieter H. Kelletat
Pluvial Lake Shore DepositsDetlef A. Warnke and Hillert Ibbeken
PoldersJoost H. J. Terwindt
Pressure Gradient ForceGeorge A. Maul
RADARSAT-2Gordon C. Staples
Rating BeachesStephen P. Leatherman
ReclamationP. P. Wong
Reefs, Non-coralWilliam T. Fox
Reflective BeachesDouglas J. Sherman
Remote Sensing of Coastal EnvironmentsElijah W. Ramsey III
Remote Sensing: Wetlands ClassificationVictor V. Klemas
RhodolithsMarkes E. Johnson
Rhythmic PatternsPaul D. Komar
RiaEric Bird
Rip CurrentsRobert W. Brander
Ripple MarksCarl L. Amos, Hachem Kassem and Patrick L.Friend
Rock Coast ProcessesAlan S. Trenhaile
Salt MarshTerry R. Healy
Sand MiningCarl H. Hobbs III
Sand RightsKatherine Stone, Orville Magoon, Billy Edge andLesley Ewing
Sandy CoastsAndrew D. Short
Scour and Burial of Objects in Shallow WaterDouglas L. Inman and Scott A. Jenkins
Seabed Roughness of Coastal WatersDilip K. Barua
Sea-Level and Climate ChangeJohn A. Church
Sea-Level Fluctuations over the LastMillennium
Phil J. Watson
Sea-Level Indicators, BiologicJacques Laborel and Françoise Laborel-Deguen
Sea-Level Indicators, GeomorphicPaolo A. Pirazzoli
Sea-Level Indicators: Biological in DepositionalSequences
David B. Scott and Franco S. Medioli
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xiv CONTENTS
Sediment BudgetJeffrey H. List
Sediment Suspension by WavesRowland J. Atkins
Sedimentary BasinsSaskia Jelgersma
Seismic DisplacementPaolo A. Pirazzoli
Sequence StratigraphyArthur D. Donovan
SetbacksMichael S. Fenster
Sharm CoastsDieter H. Kelletat
Shelf ProcessesA. W. Niedoroda
Shell MiddensSarah K. Campbell
Shore PlatformsWayne Stephenson and Robert Kirk
Shore Protection StructuresNicholas C. Kraus
ShorefaceH. Edward Clifton
Shoreline and Coastal Terrain MappingA. Pérez-Alberti, A. Pires and H. I. Chaminé
Shoreline Response to Littoral Drift BarriersMax Barton and Sally Brown
Simple Beach and Surf Zone ModelsJohn P. Ahrens
Small IslandsGeorge A. Maul
South America, Coastal EcologyAndré S. Barreto, Simone Rabelo da Cunha, OmarDefeo, Anita de Alava, Rosana Moreira da Rocha,Beatrice Padovani Ferreira, Mauro Maida, MônicaM. P. Tognella-De-Rosa, Carlos Emilio Bemvenutiand Joel C. Creed
South America, Coastal GeomorphologyNorbert P. Psuty and Chizuko Mizobe
SpitsTakaaki Uda
Storm SurgeVivien Gornitz
StrandflatTormod Klemsdal
Submarine Groundwater DischargeSteven L. Krupa and Cynthia J. Gefvert
Submerged CoastsWyss Wai-shu Yim
Submerging CoastsPaolo A. Pirazzoli
Surf ModelingMarshall D. Earle
Surf Zone ProcessesWilliam R. Dally
SurfingWilliam R. Dally
Swash Zone DynamicsTom Baldock
Synthetic Aperture RadarSystems
Keith Raney
TafoneGeorge Mustoe
Tectonics and NeotectonicsPaolo A. Pirazzoli
Thalassostatic TerracesRhodes W. Fairbridge
Thermal ExpansionNils-Axel Mörner
Tidal CreeksTerry R. Healy
Tidal DatumsEdward B. Hands
Tidal EnvironmentsB. W. Flemming
Tidal FlatsV. Semeniuk
Tidal InletsDuncan M. FitzGerald and Ilya V. Buynevich
Tidal PowerRoger H. Charlier and Charles W. Finkl
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CONTENTS xv
Tidal PrismTerry M. Hume
Tide GaugesGuy Woppelmann and Paolo A. Pirazzoli
Tide MillRoger H. Charlier and Charles W. Finkl
Tide-Dominated CoastsMiles O. Hayes
TidesBruce Parker
Time Series ModelingV. Chris Lakhan
TorsMaurice Schwartz
Tourism and CoastalDevelopment
Marc L. Miller and Nina P. Hadley
Tourism, Criteria for Coastal SitesP. P. Wong
Tourist BeachesCamilo M. Botero, Juan A. Cabrera and SewerynZielinski
Tracers and Coarse SedimentPaolo Ciavola and Edoardo Grottoli
TrottoirsScott Smithers and David Hopley
Tsunami DepositsNils-Axel Mörner
Uplift CoastsTerry R. Healy
Vegetated CoastsDenise J. Reed
VibracoreCharles W. Finkl and Syed M. Khalil
Volcanic CoastsTerry R. Healy
VorticityGeorge A. Maul
Washover EffectsWilliam Ritchie
Water QualityKatherine Pond
Wave ClimateGeorge A. Maul
Wave EnvironmentsAndrew D. Short
Wave FocusingTerry R. Healy
Wave HindcastingDilip K. Barua
Wave PowerRoger H. Charlier and Charles W. Finkl
Wave Refraction DiagramsGerhard Masselink
Wave–Current InteractionPatricia L. Wiberg
Wave-Dominated CoastsMiles O. Hayes
WavesGerhard Masselink
Wave-Tide-Dominated CoastsEdward J. Anthony
Weathering in the Coastal ZoneRhodes W. Fairbridge
Wetland RestorationWilliam Streever
WetlandsDenise J. Reed
Appendix 1: Conversion Tables
Appendix 2: Glossary of CoastalGeomorphology
Author Index
Subject Index
About the Editors
Charles W. Finkl is Distinguished University ProfessorEmeritus at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton,Florida, USA. He received B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees fromOregon State University (Corvallis) and a Ph.D. from theUniversity of Western Australia (Perth). He is the SeriesEditor of the Encyclopedia of Earth Science Series (EESS)and the Series Editor of the Coastal Research Library(CRL), both published by Springer. He is a member ofthe Editorial Board of the International Journal of Envi-ronmental Studies published by Taylor & Francis. He isalso the President and Executive Director of the CoastalEducation and Research Foundation (CERF), an interna-tional marine science organization, that publishes the Jour-nal of Coastal Research (JCR) of which he was aco-founding editor and has been Editor-in-Chief for35 years. He has published numerous scientific papersand reports and is an editor or contributing author toseveral books. He is a certified professional in geologicalsciences (CPGS), soil science (CPSSc), and wetland sci-ence (PWS), and a Chartered Marine Scientist (Institute ofMarine Engineering, Science and Technology). He is therecipient of the International Beach Advocacy Award pre-sented by the Florida Shore and Beach Preservation Asso-ciation (Tallahassee, Florida); George V. Chilingar Medalof Honor, in recognition of important contributions tosciences and engineering (Russian Academy of NaturalSciences, USA Section, Los Angeles, California); LifetimeCommitment to Coastal Science Award, in recognition ofcontributions to the advancement of coastal sciences andglobal coastal issues through the Journal of CoastalResearch (JCR) and the International Coastal Symposium(ICS); Morrough P. O’Brien Award, in recognition of ded-ication to coastal research, beach protection, and dissemi-nation of coastal information by the American Shore andBeach Preservation Association (ASBPA). Charles was aneditor, coeditor, or author of many entries in several vol-umes in the EESS (i.e., Encyclopedias of: Soil Science;Applied Geology; Field and General Geology; Mineral-ogy; Beaches and Coastal Environments; Coastal Science;
Environmental Science; Natural Hazards; MarineGeosciences); editor of Soil Classification (BenchmarkPapers in Soil Science); and numerous entries in Funkand Wagnall’s New Encyclopedia (1983, 1989) andCompton’s Encyclopedia (Encyclopedia Britannica)(1986).
Christopher Makowski is a graduate of Florida AtlanticUniversity (Boca Raton, Florida, USA) and has earneddegrees with an emphasis on remote sensing ofbiogeomorphological resources (Ph.D.) and marine eco-system diversity and conservation (M.Sc.). For the pastdecade, he has served as the Senior Vice President andAssistant Director of the Coastal Education and ResearchFoundation, Inc. (CERF) and as the Deputy Editor-in-Chief of the internationally published Journal of CoastalResearch (JCR). He has published numerous peer-reviewed papers, authored several chapters, and coeditedand/or contributed to various volumes in Springer’sCoastal Research Library (CRL) Series. In addition tothese accomplishments, he is professionally recognizedby the American Academy of Underwater Sciences(AAUS); served as the Assistant Director of the MarineScience and Biological Research Division at the coastalengineering firm, Coastal Planning & Engineering (CPE);and held the position of Principal Marine Scientist for themunicipality of Collier County, Florida, USA. In additionto his academic and professional career, Dr. Makowski isalso a Certified Master Scuba Diver Trainer through theProfessional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI).Other professional registrations and certifications include:Journal of Coastal Research (JCR) Editorial Board Mem-ber, the International Society for Reef Studies (ISRS)Member, the Florida Association of Environmental Pro-fessionals (FAEP) Chapter Member, American Academyof Underwater Sciences (AAUS) Registered Diving SafetyOfficer, American Association for the Advancement ofScience (AAAS) Member, Coastal Education andResearch Foundation (CERF) Board of Directors
xviii ABOUT THE EDITORS
(Trustees), National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)CertifiedMarineMammal and Protected Species Observer,Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)Open Water Scuba Diver Instructor, PADI Enriched Air
Nitrox Specialty Instructor, Emergency First Responder(CPR/FirstAid/AED) Instructor, PADI Specialty Underwa-ter Photographer Instructor, and Divers Alert Network(DAN) Sustaining Member.
Contributors
John P. AhrensMason Neck, VA, USA
M. AizpuruLaboratoire d’Ecologie Terrestre (UMR 5552)Centre de TeledetectionToulouse Cedex 4, France
Javier Alcántara-CarrióInstituto OceanográficoUniversidade de São PauloSão Paulo, SP, Brazil
Carl L. AmosOcean and Earth SciencesUniversity of SouthamptonSouthampton, UK
Giorgio AnfusoDepartamento de Ciencias de la TerraUniversidad de CadizCadiz, Spain
Edward J. AnthonyAix Marseille University, Institut Universitaire de FranceCEREGEAix en Provence, France
Rowland J. AtkinsGolder Associates LtdVictoria, BC, Canada
Pieter G. E. F. AugustinusDepartment of Physical GeographyUniversity of UtrechtUtrecht, The Netherlands
Jean-Christophe AznarDesmid-CNRSArles, France
Tom BaldockSchool of Civil EngineeringUniversity of QueenslandSt Lucia/Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Martin J. BaptistWageningen University and Research (WUR)Wageningen, The Netherlands
André S. BarretoCentro de Ciências Tecnológicas da Terra e do MarUniversidade do Vale ItajaiItajai, SC, Brazil
Max BartonFaculty of Engineering and The EnvironmentUniversity of SouthamptonSouthampton, UK
Dilip K. BaruaCoastal, Port and Marine EngineeringVancouver, BC, Canada
Celene Milanés BatistaResearch Group in Environmental Management andSustainability, Department of Civil and EnvironmentalUniversidad de la Costa, BarranquillaAtlántico, ColombiaandMultidisciplinary Study Center of Coastal Zones(CEMZOC)Universidad de OrienteSantiago de Cuba, Cuba
xx CONTRIBUTORS
Daniel F. BelknapSchool of Earth and Climate SciencesUniversity of MaineOrono, ME, USA
Carlos Emilio BemvenutiCentro de Ciências Tecnológicas da Terra e do MarUniversidade do Vale ItajaiItajai, SC, Brazil
Lindino A. BenedetAPTIM (Coastal and Maritime Services)Boca Raton, FL, USA
J. BesnehardTOTAL FINA ELF-DGEP/AEOParis La Defence cedex, France
Eric BirdUniversity of MelbourneMelbourne, VIC, Australia
William A. BirkemeierCERC, US Army Waterways Experiment StationVicksburg, MS, USA
Francois BlascoCentre National de la Recherche ScientifiqueLaboratoire d’Écologie TerrestreUniversité Paul SabatierToulouse, France
Alan F. BlumbergJupiterHoboken, NJ, USA
Shawn M. BoeserVashon, WA, USA
Henry BokuniewiczSchool of Marine and Atmospheric SciencesStony Brook UniversityStony Brook, NY, USA
Camilo M. BoteroGrupo de Investigación Joaquin Aaron ManjarresUniversidad Sergio ArboledaSanta Marta, ColombiaandGrupo de Investigacion en Sistemas CosterosPlayas Corporacion LtdSanta Marta, Colombia
Robert W. BranderSchool of Biological, Earth and Environmental SciencesUNSW SydneySydney, NSW, Australia
B. Chris BrewsterUnited States Lifesaving AssociationSan Diego, CA, USA
Dominik BrillInstitute of GeographyUniversity of CologneKöln, Germany
Sally BrownFaculty of Engineering and The EnvironmentUniversity of SouthamptonSouthampton, UK
Helmut BrücknerInstitute of GeographyUniversity of CologneKöln, Germany
Michael S. BrunoDavidson LaboratoryStevens Institute of TechnologyHoboken, NJ, USA
Per BruunHilton Head Island, SC, USA
David M. BushDepartment of GeosciencesState University of West GeorgiaCarrollton, GA, USA
Ilya V. BuynevichDepartment of Earth and Environmental ScienceTemple UniversityPhiladelphia, PA, USA
Juan A. CabreraGrupo COSTATENASUniversidad de Matanzas Camilo CienfuegosMatanzas, Cuba
Gillian CambersCommonwealth Scientific and Industrial ResearchOrganisation (CSIRO)Rincon, PR, USA
CONTRIBUTORS xxi
Sarah K. CampbellDepartment of AnthropologyWestern Washington UniversityBellingham, WA, USA
Nick CartwrightGriffith Centre for Coastal Management and GriffithSchool of EngineeringGriffith UniversityGold Coast, QLD, Australia
Marie Claire P. ChaineuxInstitut Ste MarieBrussels, Belgium
H. I. ChaminéLABCARGA, Laboratory of Cartography and AppliedGeology, Department of Geotechnical EngineeringISEP, School of Engineering (ISEP), Polytechnic of PortoPorto, PortugalandCentre GeoBioTec (Georesources, Geotechnics andGeomaterials Research Group)University of AveiroAveiro, Portugal
Roger H. Charlier(Deceased)
Jiyu ChenDepartment of GeographyEast China Normal UniversityShanghai, China
Zhongyuan ChenDepartment of GeographyEast China Normal UniversityShanghai, China
Jun ChengSchool of Geosciences, Coastal Research LabThe University of South FloridaTampa, FL, USA
Bénédicte CherbuyCEFE-CNRSMontpellier, France
Michael J. ChrzastowskiIllinois State Geological SurveyChampaign, IL, USA
John A. ChurchClimate Change Research CentreUniversity of New South WalesSydney, NSW, Australia
Paolo CiavolaDepartment of Physics and Earth SciencesUniversity of FerraraFerrara, Italy
H. Edward CliftonUS Geological SurveyMenlo Park, CA, USA
Russell ColeNIWARNelson, New Zealand
J. Andrew G. CooperEnvironmental StudiesUniversity of UlsterColeraine, Northern Ireland
P. J. CowellCoastal Studies Unit Department of GeographyUniversity of SydneySydney, NSW, Australia
Stephen J. Craig-SmithSchool of Tourism and Leisure ManagementUQ Business SchoolThe University of QueenslandIpswich, Australia
Joel C. CreedCentro de Ciências Tecnológicas da Terra e do MarUniversidade do Vale ItajaiItajai, SC, Brazil
Mark CrowellFederal Insurance and Mitigation AdministrationFederal Emergency Management AgencyWashington, DC, USA
Simone Rabelo da CunhaCentro de Ciências Tecnológicas da Terra e do MarUniversidade do Vale ItajaiItajai, SC, Brazil
Rosana Moreira da RochaCentro de Ciências Tecnológicas da Terra e do MarUniversidade do Vale ItajaiItajai, SC, Brazil
xxii CONTRIBUTORS
Carlos Pereira da SilvaFacultade da Ciencias Sociales e HumanasUniversidade Nova de LisboaLisbon, Portugal
William R. DallySurfbreak Engineering Services, Inc.Melbourne Beach, FL, USA
Robin Davidson-ArnottDepartment of GeographyUniversity of GuelphGuelph, ON, Canada
Richard A. Davis, Jr.University of South FloridaTampa, FL, USAandHarte Research InstituteTexas A&M UniversityCorpus Christi, TX, USA
Anita de AlavaCentro de Ciências Tecnológicas da Terra e do MarUniversidade do Vale ItajaiItajai, SC, Brazil
Michel Michaelovitch de MahiquesInstituto OceanográficoUniversidade de São PauloSão Paulo, SP, BrazilandInstituto de Energia e AmbienteUniversidade de São PauloSão Paulo, SP, Brazil
Robert G. Dean(Deceased)
Omar DefeoMarine Science UnitUniversidad de la RepúblicaMontevideo, Uruguay
Henry F. DiazNOAA/OAR/CDCBoulder, CO, USA
John R. DinglerUS Geological Survey MS-999Menlo Park, CA, USA
Yuri DolotovInstitute ofWater Problems, Laboratory of HydrodynamicsRussian Academy of SciencesMoscow, Russia
Arthur D. DonovanBritish PetroleumHouston, TX, USA
J. Pat DoodyNational Coastal ConsultantsBrampton, Huntingdon, UK
Bruce DouglasLaboratory for Coastal ResearchFlorida International UniversityMiami, FL, USA
Iver W. DuedallEastern Florida State CollegeMelbourne, FL, USA
Marshall D. EarleNeptune Sciences, Inc.Reston, VA, USA
Billy EdgeDepartment of Civil EngineeringTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, TX, USA
Karen S. EdyvaneSchool of Geography and Environmental StudiesUniversity of TasmaniaHobart, TAS, Australia
D. Eisma(Deceased)
Luciana S. EstevesDepartment of Life and Environmental SciencesFaculty of Science and TechnologyBournemouth UniversityPoole, UK
Niki EvelpidouFaculty of Geology and GeoenvironmentNational and Kapodistrian University of AthensAthens, Greece
Lesley EwingCSPBA, c/o California Coastal CommissionSan Francisco, CA, USA
Rhodes W. Fairbridge(Deceased)
Michael S. FensterEnvironmental Studies ProgramRandolph-Macon CollegeAshland, VA, USA
CONTRIBUTORS xxiii
Óscar FerreiraFCT/CIMAUniversidade do AlgarveFaro, Portugal
Charles W. FinklCoastal Education and Research FoundationAsheville, NC, USA
Duncan M. FitzGeraldDepartment of Earth and Environment SciencesBoston UniversityBoston, MA, USA
B. W. FlemmingSenckenberg InstituteWilhelmshaven, Germany
Donald L. ForbesAtlantic Geoscience CentreBedford Institute of OceanographyGeological Survey of CanadaDartmouth, NS, Canada
William T. FoxDepartment of GeologyCenter for Environmental StudiesWilliams CollegeWilliamstown, MA, USA
Patrick L. FriendPartrac Ltd.Glasgow, UK
Kazimierz FurmańczykInstitute of Marine and Coastal SciencesUniversity of SzczecinSzczecin, Poland
Francis A. GalganoDepartment of Geography and the EnvironmentVillanova UniversityVillanova, PA, USA
Cynthia J. GefvertSouth Florida Water Discharge Management DistrictWest Palm Beach, FL, USA
Guy GelfenbaumCoastal and Marine Geology ProgramUS Geological SurveyMenlo Park, CA, USA
Laurel T. GormanInformation Technology LaboratoryUS Army Waterways Experiment StationVicksburg, MS, USA
Vivien GornitzColumbia University/Center for Climate SystemsResearch (CCSR)Earth Institute Affiliate: Columbia University/GoddardInstitute for Space Studies (GISS)New York, NY, USA
David GreenlandDepartment of GeographyLouisiana State UniversityBaton Rouge, LA, USA
Brian GreenwoodDivision of Physical SciencesUniversity of TorontoScarborough, ON, Canada
Edoardo GrottoliDepartment of Physics and Earth SciencesUniversity of FerraraFerrara, Italy
Erich R. GundlachE-Tech International Inc.Boulder, CO, USA
Peter L. GuthDepartment of OceanographyUS Naval AcademyAnnapolis, MD, USA
Nina P. HadleyTidal Delta ConsultingSeattle, WA, USA
Kevin R. HallDepartment of Civil EngineeringCentre for Water and the EnvironmentQueens UniversityKingston, ON, Canada
Jean-François HamelSociety for the Exploration and Valuing of theEnvironment (SEVE)Katevale, QC, Canada
Sarah M. HamyltonWollongong UniversityWollongong, NSW, Australia
Guoqi HanFisheries and Oceans CanadaNorthwest Atlantic Fisheries CentreSt. John’s, Canada
xxiv CONTRIBUTORS
Edward B. HandsVicksburg, MS, USA
J. D. HansomDepartment of Geography and Topographic ScienceUniversity of GlasgowGlasgow, Scotland, UK
Cheryl J. HapkeUSGS, Pacific Science CenterSanta Cruz, CA, USA
Miles O. HayesResearch Planning, Inc.Columbia, SC, USA
Earl J. HayterEnvironmental LabUS Army Engineering Research and Development CenterVicksburg, MS, USA
Terry R. Healy(Deceased)
Patrick A. HespDepartment of Geography and AnthropologyLouisiana State UniversityBaton Rouge, LA, USA
Carl H. Hobbs IIIVirginia Institute of Marine ScienceCollege of William & MaryGloucester Point, VA, USA
Frank M. J. HoozemansWL/Delft HydraulicsDelft, The Netherlands
David HopleyEnvironmental Science and ManagementCollege of Science and EngineeringJames Cook UniversityTownsville, QLD, Australia
Diane P. HornCongressional Research ServiceWashington, DC, USA
James R. HoustonCorps of EngineersU.S. Army Engineer Research and Development CenterVicksburg, MS, USA
John R. C. HsuDepartment of Marine Environment and EngineeringNational Sun Yat-Sen UniversityKaohsiung, Taiwan
Terry M. HumeDepartment of Scientific and Industrial ResearchDSIR-Marine and FreshwaterWater Quality CentreHamilton, New Zealand
Hillert IbbekenInstitut für Geologie, Geophysik und GeoinformatikFree University of BerlinBerlin, Germany
Baban IngoleBiology DivisionNational Institute of OceanographyDona Paula, Goa, India
Douglas L. Inman(Deceased)
Nancy L. JacksonDepartment of Chemistry andEnvironmental ScienceNew Jersey Institute of TechnologyUniversity Heights, Newark, NJ, USA
Saskia Jelgersma(Deceased)
Scott A. JenkinsDepartment of Center for Coastal StudiesScripps Institution of OceanographyUniversity of California, San DiegoLa Jolla, CA, USA
Lucille Lewis JohnsonVassar CollegePoughkeepsie, NY, USA
Markes E. JohnsonDepartment of GeosciencesWilliams CollegeWilliamstown, MA, USA
Pavel Kaplin(Deceased)
Anna KarkaniFaculty of Geology and GeoenvironmentNational and Kapodistrian University of AthensAthens, Greece
Hachem KassemOcean and Earth SciencesUniversity of SouthamptonSouthampton, UK
CONTRIBUTORS xxv
Michael S. KearneyDepartment of Geography and AnthropologyUniversity of MarylandCollege Park, MD, USA
Dieter H. KelletatInstitut für Geographiedidaktik, Fachgruppeder Didaktiken der Mathematik und derNaturwissenschaftenUniversität zu KölnCologne, Germany
Michael J. KennishDepartment of Marine and Coastal Sciences,School of Environmental and Biological SciencesRutgers UniversityNew Brunswick, NJ, USA
Syed M. KhalilCoastal Protection and RestorationAuthority of LouisianaBaton Rouge, LA, USA
Robert KirkDepartment of Geography and Environmental StudiesUniversity of MelbourneMelbourne, VIC, Australia
Victor V. KlemasCollege of Earth, Ocean and EnvironmentUniversity of DelawareNewark, DE, USA
Tormod KlemsdalDepartment of GeographyUniversity of OsloOslo, Norway
Paul D. KomarCollege of Oceanic and Atmospheric SciencesOregon State UniversityCorvallis, OR, USA
John C. KraftDepartment of GeologyUniversity of DelawareNewark, DE, USA
Nicholas C. Kraus(Deceased)
Steven L. KrupaSouth Florida Water Discharge Management DistrictWest Palm Beach, FL, USA
Mark A. KulpDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsUniversity of New OrleansNew Orleans, LA, USA
Jacques Laborel(Deceased)
Françoise Laborel-DeguenUMR DIMARUniversité de la MéditerranéeMarseille, Cedex 9, France
Michael J. LaceCoastal Cave SurveyWest Branch, IA, USA
V. Chris LakhanDepartment of Earth Sciences, School of Physical SciencesUniversity of WindsorWindsor, ON, Canada
Kurt LambeckResearch School of Earth SciencesAustralian National UniversityCanberra, ACT, Australia
Stephen P. LeathermanDepartment of Earth and EnvironmentFlorida International UniversityMiami, FL, USA
Congxian LiMarine Geology LaboratoryTongji UniversityShanghai, People’s Republic of China
Honghai LiCoastal and Hydraulics LaboratoryU.S. Army Engineer Research and Development CenterVicksburg, MS, USA
Jeffrey H. ListUS Geological SurveyWoods Hole, MA, USA
Donald MacintoshDepartment of Ecology and GeneticsUniversity of AarhusAarhus, Denmark
M. MacLeodDepartment of Natural Resource EconomicsScottish Agricultural CollegeEdinburgh, Scotland, UK
xxvi CONTRIBUTORS
Orville Magoon(Deceased)
Mauro MaidaCentro de Ciências Tecnológicas da Terra e do MarUniversidade do Vale ItajaiItajai, SC, Brazil
Christopher MakowskiCoastal Education and Research FoundationCoconut Creek, FL, USA
Elin MárquezGrupo PichihuelUniversidad de La GuajiraRiohacha, Colombia
Ganivetth ManjarrésGrupo de Investigación AmbientalFundación Universitaria Tecnológico ComfenalcoCartagena, Colombia
Gerhard MasselinkDepartment of GeographyLoughborough UniversityLoughborough, UK
Patricia M. MastersScripps Institution of OceanographyUniversity of CaliforniaSan Diego, CA, USA
George A. MaulDepartment of Ocean Engineering and SciencesFlorida Institute of TechnologyMelbourne, FL, USA
Vincent MayDepartment of Conservation SciencesBournemouth UniversityPoole, Dorset, UK
Randolph A. McBrideDepartment of Geography and Earth ScienceGeorge Mason UniversityFairfax, VA, USA
Molly McGrawDepartment of Sociology and Criminal JusticeSoutheastern Louisiana UniversityHammond, LA, USA
John McKennaCoastal Studies Research GroupSchool of Environmental StudiesUniversity of UlsterColeraine, Northern Ireland, UK
Anton McLachlanCollege of ScienceSultan Qaboos UniversityMuscat, Oman
Andrew McMinnInstitute of Antarctic and Southern Ocean StudiesUniversity of TasmaniaHobart, TAS, Australia
Franco S. MedioliCentre for Marine GeologyDalhousie UniversityHalifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
Ashish J. MehtaNutech Consultants, Inc.Gainesville, FL, USAandDepartment of Civil and Coastal EngineeringUniversity of FloridaGainesville, FL, USA
Annie MercierSociety for the Exploration and Valuing of theEnvironment (SEVE)Quebec, CanadaandDepartment of Ocean SciencesMemorial University of NewfoundlandNewfoundland and Labrador, Canada
Mark D. MerlinBiology ProgramUniversity of Hawaii at MānoaHonolulu, HI, USA
Marc L. MillerSchool of Marine and Environmental Affairs, College ofthe EnvironmentUniversity of WashingtonSeattle, WA, USA
Chizuko MizobeInstitute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Sandy HookCooperative Research ProgramsRutgers UniversityHighlands, NJ, USA
Ram K. MohanBlasland, Bouck & Lee, Inc.W. Conshohocken, PA, USA
Andrew MorangCERC, US Army Waterways Experiment StationVicksburg, MS, USA
CONTRIBUTORS xxvii
Luis J. MorenoSubdirección General de Actuaciones en la Costa,Dirección General de Costas, Secretaría de Estado deAguas y CostasMinisterio de Medio AmbienteMadrid, Spain
Nils-Axel MörnerPaleogeophysics and GeodynamicsStockholm, Sweden
R. A. MortonCenter for Coastal GeologyUS Geological SurveySt. Petersburg, FL, USA
Robert A. MullerCoastal Studies InstituteLouisiana State University (LSU)Baton Rouge, LA, USA
Gisèle Muller-ParkerDepartment of BiologyWestern Washington UniversityBellingham, WA, USA
George MustoeDepartment of Geology, MS 9080Western Washington UniversityBellingham, WA, USA
C. G. R. NairScience, Technology and Environment DepartmentUniversity of KeralaThiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
G. N. NayakDepartment of Marine SciencesGoa UniversityGoa, India
D. Din NdongoUniversity of DoualaDouala, Cameroon
William J. NealDepartment of GeologyGrand Valley State UniversityAllendale, MI, USA
Robert J. NichollsCoastal GeomorphologyMiddlesex UniversityLondon, UK
A. W. NiedorodaURS CorporationTallahassee, FL, USA
Yaacov NirRehovot, Israel
Karl F. NordstromDepartment of Marine and Coastal SciencesRutgers UniversityNew Brunswick, NJ, USA
Younes NouriCoast & Harbor Engineering Inc.Mott MacDonald L.L.CEdmonds, WA, USA
Patrick D. NunnDepartment of GeographyUniversity of the South PacificSuva, Fiji
George F. OertelDepartment of OceanographyOld Dominion UniversityNorfolk, VA, USA
Julian D. OrfordSchool of GeographyQueen’s UniversityBelfast, UK
Antony R. OrmeDepartment of GeographyUniversity of CaliforniaLos Angeles, CA, USA
Philip D. OsborneGolder Associates Ltd.Vancouver, BC, Canada
W. R. OsterkampUS Geological SurveyTucson, AZ, USA
Ervin G. OtvosDivision of Coastal SciencesUniversity of Southern MississippiOcean Springs, MS, USA
Beatrice Padovani FerreiraCentro de Ciências Tecnológicas da Terra e do MarUniversidade do Vale ItajaiItajai, SC, Brazil
xxviii CONTRIBUTORS
Bruce ParkerCoast Survey Development LaboratoryNational Ocean Service, NOAASilver Spring, MD, USA
Roland P. Paskoff(Deceased)
Shea Penland(Deceased)
Cristina I. PereiraDepartamento de Ciencias de la TierraUniversidad EAFITMedellín, Colombia
A. Pérez-AlbertiLET-ITR, Laboratory of Environmental Technology(Geomorphology Area), Institute of TechnologicalResearchUniversity of Santiago de CompostelaSantiago de Compostela, Spain
Conrad PilditchDepartment of Biological SciencesUniversity of WaikatoHamilton, New Zealand
Orrin H. PilkeyNicholas School of the EnvironmentEarth and Ocean Sciences DivisionDuke UniversityDurham, NC, USA
Paolo A. Pirazzoli(Deceased)
A. PiresINESC-TEC, Institute for Systems and ComputerEngineering, Technology and ScienceCRAS, Centre for Robotics and Autonomous Systems,School of Engineering (ISEP), Polytechnic of PortoPorto, PortugalandLABCARGA, Laboratory of Cartography andApplied Geology, Department ofGeotechnical EngineeringISEP, School of Engineering (ISEP),Polytechnic of PortoPorto, Portugal
Katherine PondDepartment of Civil and Environmental EngineeringUniversity of SurreyGuildford, Surrey, UK
Luana PortzResearch group in Environmental Management andSustainability, Faculty of Environmental SciencesUniversidad de la CostaBarranquilla, Atlántico, Colombia
E. PranziniDipartimento di Scienze della TerraUniversity of FlorenceFlorence, Italy
Abel PrieurCentre de Paleontologie stratagraphique et PleoecologieVilleurbanne Cedex, France
Norbert P. PsutyInstitute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Sandy HookCooperative Research ProgramsRutgers UniversityHighlands, NJ, USA
Michael R. RampinoEarth and Environmental Science ProgramNew York UniversityNew York, NY, USA
Elijah W. Ramsey IIINational Wetlands Research CenterUS Geological SurveyLafayette, LA, USA
Keith Raney(Deceased)
Nelson Rangel-BuitragoProgramas de Física y Biología, Facultad de CienciasBásicasUniversidad del AtlánticoBarranquilla, Atlántico, Colombia
Anto RaukasInstitute of GeologyEstonian Academy of SciencesTallinn, Estonia
Denise J. ReedDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsUniversity of New OrleansNew Orleans, LA, USA
William RitchieAberdeen Institute of Coastal Science and ManagementKing’s CollegeAberdeen, Scotland, UK
CONTRIBUTORS xxix
Neil RobertsSchool of GeographyUniversity of PlymouthPlymouth, UK
Peter S. RosenDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesNortheastern UniversityBoston, MA, USA
John RybczykHuxley College of the EnvironmentWestern Washington UniversityBellingham, WA, USA
Yoshiki SaitoGeological Survey of JapanNational Institute of Advanced Industrial Science andTechnologyTsukuba, JapanandEstuary Research CenterShimane UniversityMatsue, Japan
Paul SanlavilleMaison de l’Orient MéditerranéenLyon, France
Alessandra SaponieriDepartment of Civil, Environmental, Land, BuildingEngineering and Chemistry (DICATECh)Polytechnic University of BariBari, Italy
Anja M. ScheffersSouthern Cross UniversityLismore, Australia
Gerhard SchellmannDepartment of Physical Geographyand Landscape StudiesUniversity of BambergBamberg, Germany
Maurice Schwartz(Deceased)
David B. ScottDepartment of Earth SciencesDalhousie UniversityHalifax, NS, Canada
V. SemeniukWetlands Research AssociationV & C Semeniuk Research GroupWarwick, WA, Australia
Richard J. Seymour(Deceased)
Ian ShennanDepartment of GeographyUniversity of DurhamDurham, UK
Charles R. C. SheppardDepartment of Biological SciencesUniversity of WarwickCoventry, UK
Douglas J. ShermanDepartment of GeographyUniversity of AlabamaTuscaloosa, AL, USA
Andrew D. ShortSchool of GeosciencesUniversity of SydneySydney, NSW, Australia
Parmeshwar L. ShresthaExponent, Inc.Irvine, CA, USA
David P. SimpsonCoast & Harbor Engineering Inc.Mott MacDonald L.L.CEdmonds, WA, USA
Scott SmithersEnvironmental Science and ManagementCollege of Science and EngineeringJames Cook UniversityTownsville, QLD, Australia
Rodman E. Snead(Deceased)
Gordon C. StaplesRADARSAT InternationalRichmond, Canada
Wayne StephensonDepartment of Geography and Environmental StudiesUniversity of MelbourneMelbourne, VIC, Australia
xxx CONTRIBUTORS
J. Court StevensonHorn Point LaboratoryUniversity of Maryland Center for Environmental ScienceCambridge, MA, USA
Mike P. StewartSchool of Spatial SciencesCurtin University of TechnologyPerth, Australia
Robert R. StickneyTexas Sea Grant College ProgramCollege Station, TX, USA
Marcel J. F. StiveDepartment of Hydraulic EngineeringFaculty Civil Engineering and GeosciencesDelft University of TechnologyDelft, The Netherlands
Gregory W. Stone(Deceased)
Katherine StoneMeyers, Widders, Gibson, and Long, LLPVentura, CA, USA
William StreeverBP Exploration (Alaska) Inc.Anchorage, AL, USA
William B. StrongeFlorida Atlantic UniversityBoca Raton, FL, USAandHuizenga College of BusinessNova Southeastern UniversityFort Lauderdale, FL, USA
Tsuguo SunamuraDepartment of Earth and Space SciencesOsaka UniversityOsaka, Japan
Toru TamuraGeological Survey of JapanNational Institute of Advanced Industrial Science andTechnologyTsukuba, JapanandDepartment of Natural Environmental StudiesGraduate School of Frontier SciencesUniversity of TokyoKashiwa, Japan
Thomas A. TerichCenter for Geography, MS9085 Huxley CollegeWestern Washington UniversityBellingham, WA, USA
Joost H. J. TerwindtDepartment of Physical GeographyState University of UtrechtUtrecht, The Netherlands
E. Robert ThielerCoastal and Marine Geology ProgramUS Geological SurveyWoods Hole, MA, USA
B. G. ThomFaculty of Built EnvironmentUniversity of New South WalesSydney, NSW, Australia
Mônica M. P. Tognella-De-RosaCentro de Ciências Tecnológicas da Terra e do MarUniversidade do Vale ItajaiItajai, SC, Brazil
Alan S. TrenhaileGeography DepartmentUniversity of WindsorWindsor, ON, Canada
D. T. TudorPelagos/TCELondon, UK
Robert J. TurnerInterdisciplinary Arts and SciencesUniversity of WashingtonBothell, WA, USA
Takaaki UdaPublic Works Research CenterTaito, Taito-ku, Japan
Frank van der MeulenFrank van der Meulen ConsultancyVoorschoten, South Holland, The Netherlands
Bert van der ValkDeltares, Unit Marine and Coastal SystemsDelft, The Netherlands
M. WafarBiological Oceanography DivisionNational Institute of OceanographyDona Paula, Goa, India
CONTRIBUTORS xxxi
Sayeeda WafarBiological Oceanography DivisionNational Institute of OceanographyDona Paula, Goa, India
H. Jesse Walker(Deceased)
Martyn WallerSchool of GeographyKingston UniversityKingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, UK
Ping WangSchool of Geosciences, Coastal Research LabThe University of South FloridaTampa, FL, USA
Shin WangDepartment of GeographyNational Taiwan UniversityTaipei, Taiwan, ROC
Detlef A. WarnkeDepartment of Geological SciencesCalifornia State UniversityHayward, CA, USA
Phil J. WatsonSchool of Civil and Environmental EngineeringUniversity of New South WalesSydney, NSW, Australia
Niels WestDepartment of Marine AffairsUniversity of Rhode IslandKingston, RI, USA
Patricia L. WibergDepartment of Environmental SciencesUniversity of VirginiaCharlottesville, VA, USA
A. T. WilliamsFaculty of Architecture Computing and EngineeringUniversity of Wales, Trinity St. DavidSwansea, Wales, UKandCICA NOVANova Universidad de LisboaLisbon, Portugal
Jon WilliamsPorts, Coastal and OffshoreMott MacDonaldCroydon, UK
P. P. WongDepartment of GeographyNational University of SingaporeSingapore, Singapore
Guy WoppelmannCentre Littoral de GeophysiqueUniversite de La RochelleLa Rochelle, France
Alejandro Yáñez-ArancibiaPrograma de Recursos CosterosDivision de Recurso NaturalesInstituto de Ecologia A.C.Xalapa, Mexico
Prasanna YennavarBiological Oceanography DivisionNational Institute of OceanographyDona Paula, Goa, India
Wyss Wai-shu YimDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of Hong KongHong Kong, China
Seweryn ZielinskiSeoul National UniversitySeoul, Republic of Korea
Preface to the Second Edition
This two-volume set is an update or upgrade to the original critical importance to the environment and human well-
Encyclopedia of Coastal Science that was edited by Mau-rice Schwartz (Western Washington University, Belling-ham, Washington, USA). The first edition, a mammothvolume of 1211 pages, was published in 2005 by Springer.At that time, Rhodes W. Fairbridge (Columbia University,New York City, New York, USA) was the Series Editor ofthe Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Rhodes was thefounding editor of the Series with the first volume (TheEncyclopedia of Oceanography) appearing in 1966 underthe imprimatur of the Van Nostrand Reinhold Company(New York). Interestingly, Maurice Schwartz received hisdoctoral degree under the tutelage of Dr. Fairbridge whileinvestigating geomorphological, sedimentological, andgeospatial relationships of sandy beaches resulting fromsea-level rise within the purview of field observations,wave tank experiments, and conceptual frameworks ini-tially worked out and formalized by Per Bruun. Uponconcluding his studies, Maurice codified some basic prin-ciples in his dissertation into what he called the “BruunRule,” which today still evokes appreciation, speculation,and sometimes even contention.Notwithstanding the term itself, it is perhaps emblem-atic of broader issues, conceptual interpretations, anddivergent points of view in the coastal sciences as thediscipline matures into a stand-alone multidisciplinaryendeavor that touches aspects of many pure and appliedsciences, not the least of which includes the human attri-butes of coasts that touch in some way the lives of much ofthe world’s population. Today, about 45% of the world’spopulation lives within 150 km of the coast and as popu-lation density and economic activity in the coastal zoneincreases, so do pressures on coastal ecosystems. Coastalareas comprise about 20% of the Earth’s surface and by theyear 2025, it is estimated that coastal populations willaccount for 75% of the total world population (WorldOcean Network). As such, coastal-marine science dealswith an important part of the Earth’s surface and a signif-icant portion of the global human population in a region of
being.The total length of global coastlines is somewhat of an
enigma due tomany complicating factors such as tortuosityof the shore itself. That is to say, the rougher coastlines are(in plan view), the more their fractal nature increases, andthe more difficult it becomes to determine shoreline lengthbecause it varies by scale and resolution. That being said, itis a general consensus that the global shoreline length is inthe range or on the order of 1.16 million km (WorldFactbook) to 1.63 million km (World Resources Institute).Complicating the issue still further, this work does not dealwith shorelines or “coastlines” per se but with “coasts” inthe broadest sense of the term that includes some indeter-minate distances alongshore, offshore, and onshore.
The Encyclopedia of Coastal Science thus deals with allaspects of “processes, features, and areas” along the coastin what is commonly referred to as the “coastal zone.” Thismultifaceted region, which functions as the interfacebetween land and water, is studied within the purview ofland-, marine-, and estuarine-based sciences and engineer-ing, where concepts, principles, and practices are oftenseen to interdigitate, overlap, and interlock in various man-ners to produce a cohesive perspective that commonly fallsunder the aegis of coastal science. Not to be forgotten is thehuman side of all these approaches because the coastalzone attracts all manner of endeavor to the extent thatmodern demographics show dangerously high concentra-tions of industrial, commercial, military, transportive, andtouristic uses. The human component of the coastal zone,which is naturally dynamic, is to various degrees interwo-ven into aspects of most studies in this region and mayfocus, for example, on aspects of shoreline retreat (coastalerosion) and remediation efforts, both natural and engi-neering, or fear or concern over global climate changeand attenuated processes such as sea-level rise and theconsequences for low-lying coastal areas, whether real orimagined within specified time frames. These high humanpopulation densities and associated activities already
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threaten about one-third of all coastal regions with envi-ronmental degradation from infrastructure developmentand pollution. The scope of this coastal encyclopedia isthus wide ranging, broadly based, and yet detailed inapproach.
This second edition has been thoroughly updated andmodified where required. Because a number of topics dealtwith subject matters that were rather static (190 topics),such as the coastal ecology, geomorphology, geology, andclimatology of particular geographic regions, they werereprinted as per the first edition unless changes(corrections) were required. Many other topics wereupdated (94 topics) because there were important advancesin the subject matter as the knowledge base increased. Andsince 2005, there have been many scientific and technicaldevelopments that warranted inclusion of new topics(43 topics), adding significantly to the corpus of thisencyclopedic work.
Preparation of the second edition required a thoroughreview and evaluation of topics included in the first editionthat involved correspondence with previous authors. Theircomments and recommendations were invaluable to ourefforts as we relied heavily on their expertise in our adju-dication. This task was complicated by the fact that somefirst-edition authors had passed on, others were retired, andsome were not able to participate as desired. In thoseinstances the editors themselves reviewed the existing doc-uments, often with the assistance of outside reviewers toensure adequate coverage. When all of that was said anddone, it became clear that many new topics needed to beincluded in the second edition and again we appreciated theassistance of peer review from associates. We thank theSpringer staff for their diligent attention to the details ofproduction because without their help this task would havebeen monumental on our own. Kudos to them for manag-ing the computerized databases and for keeping us on atimely schedule.
As the current Series Editor of the Encyclopedia ofEarth Sciences Series, I am honored to pick up where
Maurice Schwartz left off and offer this second edition ofthe Encyclopedia of Coastal Science. It will be a timelyreference in a field of study that is rapidly changing inresponse to increases in human utilization of the coastalzone and environmental impacts that are related to globalclimate change and potential sea-level rise. Having com-pleted my doctoral studies at the University of WesternAustralia (Perth), I came to know Rhodes as this was hisalma mater and we collaborated on many local researchitems. When I returned to the United States, I had theopportunity to apprentice under Rhodes Fairbridge byworking on the encyclopedia series with him and in thatunderstudy, or apprenticeship, I was able to learn from hisknowledge and wisdom. It thus seems fitting that this newedition of the Encyclopedia of Coastal Science comesunder the co-editorship of myself and Chris Makowski,who has now assumed the apprentice role under me. I ampassing on the skills that I once learned long ago, and bothChris and I are proud to make the Encyclopedia of EarthSciences Series even stronger with this latest edition to thecoastal research community.
Last but not least, we wish to again thank the Springerstaff for their diligence and assistance with the revision ofthis work. They worked long hours and tirelessly assistingwith correspondence, communication, and data manage-ment to ensure a smooth workflow and provide as collegialan environment as possible for a complicated task thatinvolved numerous authors and support staff. The workfor all of us was not onerous, but it was at times tedious,time consuming, and somewhat exhausting. The end resultjustified all efforts to produce the best revision possible.We thus thank, in particular, the following Springer stafffor their welcomed support: Petra van Steenbergen, SylviaBlago, and Johanna Klute.
Charlie FinklChris Makowski
Preface to the First Edition
Map measurements of the world’s coastline length have it has been defined by the US Coast and Geodetic Survey
yielded a figure of 500,000 km. However, when all of thevery real and intricate coastal crenulations are considered,the actual length is probably closer to 1,000,000km. Added to this is the fact that 40% of the6,000,000,000 people presently inhabiting the earth livewithin 100 km of a coastline. From these observations, itcan be seen that coasts are a very major geomorphic andsocial feature on the face of the planet. And for this reason,scholars in a multitude of disciplines have long beenstudying the many facets of the zone where the landmeets the sea.In this collected volume, authorities in many fieldsexpound on certain aspects of their expertise, not somuch in a dictionary of terms sense as in a series of essaysthat may be broken down into such categories as: atmo-sphere and oceanography, ecology, engineering and tech-nology, geomorphology, and human activities related tothe coasts (see Appendix 6: Topic Categories). The readermay not completely agree with some of their views; in fact,some of the authors do not agree entirely with each other.Perusing through professional journals in these fieldswould show the same variety of opinions on a giventopic. For that is the nature of science, holding forth on asubject as interpreted by long and careful study of theevidence. What is then to be found here, between thecovers of this volume, are 306 entries that contain a wealthof information on different aspects of the world’s coast,which we all hold so dear. If there are any questions ofomissions or judgment, the fault then lies entirely with me,the editor.
In a similar vein, one would expect the terminology of ascience to have universal acceptance; but, sadly, that is notthe case. For example, the ubiquitous term “shoreline” canbe employed in the historical geomorphic sense of the lineformed by the edge of the water against the land as it risesand falls through tidal cycles or atmospheric changes; or as
for mapping purposes as the high-tide line, high-water line,or wet–dry boundary. In order for the term to mean thesame thing wherever it appears in this volume the geomor-phic meaning has been adopted, or clarified where it hasdeviated from that. For further clarification of this dichot-omy, the reader is referred to the entry titled Coasts, Coast-lines, Shores, and Shorelines.
Though there have been many trials and tribulationsduring the four to five years that it has taken to bring thisvolume to publication, there have also been moments ofhumor that lightened the load along the way. While expla-nations for late contributions ran rampant, none was moreacceptable than that from the contributor down-under who,while working on a major topic, brought forth two “bubs”(a girl and a boy) to add to an already large family. Forsheer inventiveness to a contributor who did not want torepeat a previously published survey, that progressedaround a continent in a clockwise fashion, there was youreditor’s suggestion that he simply proceed in a counter-clockwise direction. In the end it came out only halfwaythere. Then too, probably the best single line in any entrycontained here is the quote to the effect that a certaincoastal feature is “. . . rather like pornography—difficultto define, but you know it when you see it!” That couldonly be topped by correspondence from another down-under contributor who used wildly colorful expressionsthat cannot even be repeated here.
Of course, I ammost appreciative to all of the very manypeople who have been involved in this project. However,two individuals stand out most significantly. The first andforemost is the editor-in-chief of this earth-science ency-clopedia series, Rhodes Fairbridge, who has been myteacher, mentor, and friend for the past 40 years. Thesecond is Peter Binfield, my editor at Kluwer AcademicPublishers, who has guided me through this project withexpertise, patience, and humor. To both of these
xxxvi PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
gentlemen, I offer my most profound gratitude. Thanks arealso due to Russ Burmester, Vicki Critchlow, GeneHoerauf, Larry Palmer, Kevin Short, and Chris Sutton, atWestern Washington University, for considerable technicalsupport.
Sadly, media specialist Kevin Short, who worked hiscomputer magic on many graphics in the volume including
the cover photo, passed away suddenly in January of2004 at the age of 44. Colleagues and friends alike willmiss Kevin and remember him for his kindness, humor,and creativity.
Maurice Schwartz