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Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations
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Encyclopedia of Ancient AsianCivilizations
Charles F. W. Higham
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Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations
Copyright © 2004 by Charles F. W. Higham
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form orby any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any
information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from thepublisher. For information contact:
Facts On File, Inc.132 West 31st StreetNew York NY 10001
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataHigham, Charles.
Encyclopedia of ancient Asian civilizations / Charles F. W. Higham.p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0-8160-4640-9
1. Asia—Civilization—Encyclopedias. I. Title.DS12.H5 2003
959’.1’03—dc212003048513
Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulkquantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please callour Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755.
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Text design by Joan M. ToroCover design by Cathy Rincon
Maps by Jeremy Eagle
Printed in the United States of America
VB Hermitage 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
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List of Illustrations and Mapsvi
Introductionxvii
Entries A to Z1
Chronology417
Bibliography420
Index426
CONTENTS
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vi
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSAND MAPS
Photographs & Illustrations
Statue of Agni, India 3
Fresco painting on the walls of the Ajanta caves, India 5
Amaravati, India 8
Ananda Temple at Pagan, Myanmar (Burma) 11
Sculptured heads of the Bayon temple at Angkor, Cambodia 17
Angkor Wat, Cambodia 19
Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka 21
Sandstone figures of apsaras, Angkor Wat, Cambodia 24
Banteay Chmar, Cambodia 39
“Citadel of the women,” miniature temple of Banteay Srei,
Cambodia 40
Reliefs carved on the walls of the Bayon temple at Angkor,
Cambodia 46
Medieval temple at Bodh Gaya, India 54
Bodhisattva from Japan’s Heian period 54
Chariots, bronze model from Gansu in China, Eastern Han
dynasty 71
Royal centers at Banteay Prei Nokor, Chenla period, Cambodia 75
Stairway of the Tripylon with bas-reliefs 90
Stone dharmacakra from Phra Phatom, Thailand 92
Statue of Siva, Elephanta, India 105
Kailasanatha temple at Ellora, India 106
Haniwa tomb figure, Japan 134
Wall painting of Indra, India 148
Bust of Jayavarman VII, Cambodia 169
Kharoshthi script from Hotan 182
Mud brick walls of Kot Diji, Pakistan 186
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Lacquered basket found in the Han tomb in the Chinese
commandery of Lelang in northern Korea 193
Flying horse, bronze figure from the Eastern Han dynasty,
China 196
Jade suit of Princess Dou Wan, Han dynasty, China 202
Mencius, in an 18th-century portrait, China 221
Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan 226
Mount Meru, represented at Ta Keo, Cambodia 231
Nisa, southern Turkmenistan 242
An oracle bone from Shang China 248
Pagan, Myanmar (Burma) 256
Sanctuary of Phimai, ancient Vimayapura, Thailand 261
Phnom Rung, Thailand 262
Pre Rup temple, Angkor, Cambodia 267
Terra-cotta army of Emperor Qin Shihuangdi, China 274
Scene from the Ramayana, Thailand 280
Four gateways of the stupa at Sanchi, India 293
Steatite seals, Indus civilization, Pakistan 300
Prince Shotoku, Japan 317
Shrine at Sokkuram, Korea 329
Sulamani temple at Pagan, Myanmar (Burma) 333
Ritual vessel, China 338
Frieze at Taxila, India, showing the Buddha and devotees 344
Terrace of the leper king, Angkor Thom, Cambodia 347
Great Wall of China 367
Wine vessel, from the Western Zhou dynasty, China 374
Bronze wine jug (jue), China 386
Yakushi-ji, a Buddhist temple at Heijo-kyo in Japan 394
Yayoi period bronze bell, Japan 404
Maps
Sites in Central Asia ix
Sites in the Indian Subcontinent x
Sites in East and Southeast Asia xii
Sites in Japan and Korea xiv
Sites in the Southeast Asian Islands xv
List of Illustrations and Maps vii
-
ix
LahoreQandaharQandaharQandahar
ZarZar-tepe-tepe
CyrCyropolisopolis
AirtamAirtam TTerermezmez
Zar-tepe
Cyropolis
Maracanda(Samarqand)
Airtam TermezMerv
Kashi
Ahmadabad Indore
Jaipur
Srinagar
Alma-Ata
Khar'kov
KurskLipetsk
OrenburgSaratov
Sevastopol'
Voronezh
Central Asia
TigrisR
.
Arakses R
.Arakse
s R.
EuphratesR.
Syr Dar’ya R.
Am
u
Dar’ya R.M
urghabR.
He
lman
dR.
Indu
s R
.
CHORASMIACHORASMIA
HYRCANIAHYRCANIA
PPARARTHIATHIA
HINDU
KUSH
HINDU
KUSH
GaugamelaGaugamela
CHORASMIA
SOGDIANA
FERGANA
KAPISAKAPISA
ARIAARIA
PersepolisPersepolis
KAPISA
GANDHARA
ARACHOSIA
MARGIANA
DRANGIANACARMANIA
GANDHARA
ARACHOSIA
ARIA
MARGIANA
HYRCANIA
CAUCASUS
PARTHIA
DRANGIANACARMANIA
HINDU
KUSH
Persepolis
Gaugamela
Toprak-kalaAyaz-kala
300 Km0
300 Miles0
N
CaspianSea
Arabian Sea
AralSea
BlackSea
Persian Gulf
LakeUrmiaLakeUrmia
LakeVan LakeVan
Elevation in feet
over 10,000
5,000–10,000
2,000–5,000
1,000–2,000
500–1,000
-
x
48
49
129
7778
79
12
56
11
17
18
1920
21
2223
24
25
2228
31
32
33 34
35
36 37
38
40
44
45
46
519
53
59
64
6566
67
70
71
72
74
75
82
90
9294
95
96
9899
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
109
112
110
115130
125
117
126
124
123
114
128113
135
13691137
141
142143144
58
149
151
152
3119
13330108
126
12
14
15
27
41
42509313
43
81
8586
87
107
121
116
48
49
129
7778
79
12
56
7 8
1011
16
17
18
1920
21
2223
24
25
2228
29
31
32
33 34
35
36 37
38
39
40
44
45
46
519
52
53
54
5556
57
59
61
62 63
64
6566
67
68
69
70
71
72 73
74
75
76
82
84
8660 88
89
90
9294
95
96
9899
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
109
112
110
115130
125
127
131
120
117
126
124
123
114
128113
132
118
134
122
135
13691137
138139140
141
142143144
145
148147
58
149
150148
151
152
4
3119
13330108
126
12
14
15
27
41
42509313
43
81
8586
87
107
121
116
9797
Brahmaputra R.
TIEN S
HAN
Brahmaputra R.
TIEN S
HAN
ArabianSea
Bay ofBengal
INDIAN
OCEAN
HI M
A L A Y A S
HI M
A L A Y A S
AralSea
Lop NorLake
TarimBasin
Tarim Basin
TAKLAMAKAN
DESERT
TAKLAMAKAN
DESERT
Indian Subcontinent
Indu
sR.
Syr Dar’ya R.
Am
u
Dar’ya R.
Helm
and
R.
Ganges R.
G
anges R.
RAJASTHAN
PUNJAB
GANDHARA
HINDU KUSH
GANDHARA
XINJIANG
HINDU KUSH
SIND
MALWA
MADHYAPRADESHMADHYAPRADESH
DECCAN
ANDHRAPRADESH
ORISSA
SRILANKA
BENGALBENGAL
BIHAR
KACHCHH
PAMIRRANG
E
PAMIRRANG
E
400 Km0
400 Miles0
N
Elevation in feet
over 10,000
5,000–10,000
2,000–5,000
1,000–2,000
500–1,000
G O B I D E S E RT
-
xi
123456789
1011121314151617181920212223242526272829303132333435363738
AjantaElloraUjjainKausambiPataliputraNalandaBhitaSarnathSravastiAhicchatraMathura, MatTaxilaKabulBamiyanBalkhSamarqandTermez, Fayaz Tepe, SapillitepaKaxgarHotanNiyaDunhuangTurpanYangiKuqaDandan-OilikMogauQandaharPanjikentKala-i KahkahaBesnagarLou-lanMiranRawakEndere, QiemoShan-shanKochoAstanaBezeklyk
3940414243444546474849505152535455565758596061626364656667686970717273747576
Kara-tepeKara-dongBegram, Shotorak, Kham ZargarHadda, Sahri-BahlolDilberjinDalverzin-tepeMehrgarhAy KhanumAyrtam, Ushtur-MullaAnuradhapuraMantaiCharsadaKusinagaraVaisaliRajagriharHastinapuraNohSonkhAtranjikheraPiprahwaBanawaliGanweriwalaHarappaMohenjo DaroJhukarAmriLothalSurkotadaAmaravatiSisupalgarhKaveripumpattinamBanavasiKondapurPratisthanaJaugadaArikameduBroachKalibangan
77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114
Chanhu-daroBalakotAllahdinoGhazi ShahNalDholaviraBaluKot DijiRehman DeriJalilpurDamb SadaatSothiSiswalNanaghatBarabar, Lomasa RishiBedsaSikriNevasaKuntasiDaimabadMandaBhagwanpuraNausharoRoparAlamgirpurDesalpurRojdiDabar KotFarhad-beg-yailakiKafyr-kalaSurkh Kotal, RabatakSanchiKhalchayanAk Terek, SiyelikGumlaAltyn-tepeNagarjunakondaTer
115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152
BairatBari-kotBharhutChandraketugarhEranAyodhyaLewanMahasthanaPratisthanaPrakashRakhigarhiRangpurSankisaSannathiSigiriSothiSringaverapuraTamlukTripuriWari-BateshwarCharklikBodh GayaBhumaraBhajaElephantaKarliNasikAiholeBadamiPattadakalKhandgiri UdayagiriHulaskheraLumbiniLauriya NandangarhSatanikotaRang MahalMamallapuramKanci
-
xii
82
98
46117
4075
65
3241
79
108381
9
78
3976
87
139
55
6
1514
18
3738
84
64
123
131
136140
108382
81
9
78
3976
87
16
1721
22
24 3574
80
107
114
126139
13299
4250
44
4598
97
51484372
47
128
92 103
133
113
58
7153
46
709670
66
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67105
96
93117
11094
130
91 109
5262
56
60
55
10888
89
1
5
6
1211
1514
18
19
20 23
2636
3738
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61
7877
84
63
64
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106124
120 125
101
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30
31
131
135136
137
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25
2722829
85
75
7365 104
34
33
313
3241
79
4
49
59
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100 12111595
112
102119
118
129
134
INDIAN
OCEAN
HI M A L A Y A S
HI M A L A Y A S
RedBasin
G O B I D E S E R T
300 Km0
300 Miles0
N
CChhaanngg
((YYaa nnggttzzee))RR..
BBrraahhmmaappuuttrraa RR..
Chang
(Yangtze)R.
Mekong
R.
Yuan (Red) R.
Jiang R.
MekongR.
MekongR.Brahmaputra R.
Ganges R.
Huan
g (Ye
llow) R.
Huan
g (Ye
llow) R.
Chan
g
(Yan
gtze)
R.
Huang (Yellow ) R.
Huang (Yellow ) R.
DongtingHu
DongtingHu PoyangHu
PoyangHu
South ChinaSea
East China Sea
YellowSea
Bay ofBengal
Gulf of
Thailand
Elevation in feet
over 10,000
5,000–10,000
2,000–5,000
1,000–2,000
500–1,000
0-500
East Asia
-
xiii
123456789
1011121314151617181920212223242526272829303132333435363738
WangchengXueLinziFengchu, ZhuangbaiZhukaigouKexingzhuangSanxingduiYangzishan, XinduYaanYangputouFuxingdiNiuheliangZhufengTaosiXiajinXin’ganPanlongchengZhangjiapoTianma-QucunXiasiLeigudunMashan, Baoshan, YingQiujiahuayuanTianxingguanChengziyaiManchengChengziYinjiachengZhufengGuojiacunWenjiatunDafanzhuangShangwanjiazhuangSimataiAnxi, MojiaoshanLeitai, MocuiziXiaheqingDunhuang, Mogao
LeshanAnyangLuoyang, JincunAdhyapuraAngkor, Ak Yum, Amarendrapura, Prasat Kravan Rong ChenAmpil RolumAngkor Borei, Phnom DaBan Don Ta PhetBanteay ChmarBanteay Srei,Koh Ker, Preah Khan of Kompong SvayBan Non Wat, Noen U-Loke, PhimaiBanteay Prei NokorBeng MealeaBeikthanoChansenCo LoaPaganThaungthamanDong DuongDong Si MahasodDong SonHalinHaojiataiHnaw KanHougangJinyangJinyanggangKhao Sam KaeoKhuan LukpadKok Kho KhaoKhuong My, Chanh Lo, Dai AnKu BuaLopburi
LoveaBianxianwangChengtoushanDinggong, Shijia, SufutunDujiangyanErlitouZhengzhou, ErligangFuquanshanSidunLijiashanShizhaishan, YangputouTianzimaoLinjiaLiuchengqiao, Mawangdui, ZudankuLiujiaheMa HaoMrauk-U, Selagiri Hill, VesaliDhanyawadiMuang Fa DaetMuang Phra RotMuang Tam, Phnom RungMuang DongkornMuang SemaMy SonNakhon Pathom, Pong TukNen ChuaOc EoPhnom ChisorPhnom WanPingliangtaiPo NagarPreah VihearQufuSatingpraShangcunlingShijiaheSri Ksetra
3940414243
4445464748
49
50515253545556575859606162636465666768697071
72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85
86
87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99100101102103104105106107108
109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140
Sdok Kak ThomSri ThepTaixicunThap MamThatonTonglushanTra KieuU-TaphaoU-ThongViet KheVo CanhWangchenggangWat PhuWuchengWuyangXintianXinzhengYaoshanYinjiachengWat BasetWat Ban Song PuayBan Khu MuangChang’anGo ThapIshanapuraXianggangMengzhuangMajiazhuangQiuwanZidankuJinanchengFufeng
-
300 Km0
300 Miles0
N
Japan and Korea
Yulu R.
Sea of
Japan
Yellow
Sea
PACIFIC
OCEAN
29
30
3836
2218
34
32262335
25
37
3139
40
111217
9
8
7
16
3
243
42
56
15
1
2019
27 33
28
29
30
3836
2218
34
32262335
25
37
3139
40
41
10111217
9
8
77
16
3
13
243
42
56
14
44 15
1
2124
2019
27 33
28
Elevation in feet
over 10,000
5,000–10,000
2,000–5,000
1,000–2,000
500–1,000
0–500
Tu m
enR .
Somjim
R.
Kum
R.
1
234567
89
1011121314
151617181920212223242526
2728
2930313233
3435363738394041424344
Kyongju, Choyangdong, Kujongdong, Panwol-Song, Sokkuram, KumsongJian, Kwanggaet’oPyongyang, T’osong-niFushunChinpari, WangxianAnakMongchon, Pungnamni, Sokchondong, Karakdong, Isong SansongKongjuPaekchonniPokchondongTaesongdongKoryongMaunnyongPukhan Sansong
Mount PalgongKaesongOkchonToroItazukeSuguDoigahamaSantonodaiTano, UdozukaMikumoAnkokujiAma, Tenjinyama, Nintoku, Habikino Koganezuka, Naniwa, Takamasuzuka, UdozukaUriyudoOtsuka
SunazawaTomizawaYoshinogariOtsukayamaMuro Miyayama, Shimanosho, Ishibutai, Asuka, Heijo, FujiwaraHiraideTatetsukiInariyamaEdafunayamaKanokoYoshitake-TagakiHigashiyamada-Ipponsugi, FutatsukayamaTounokubiSanggyongDadianziPuso Sansong
-
xv
500 Km0
500 Miles0
N
Southeast Asian Islands
Rawas R
.
SoloR.
SouthChinaSea
INDIANOCEAN
PACIFICOCEAN
PrambananKinewu
TanjungRawa
KubukubuKaladi
Yarang
Palembang
Borobudur
Gulf ofThailand
Elevation in feet
Elevation in feet
over 10,000
5,000–10,000
2,000–5,000
1,000–2,000
500–1,000
0-500
-
INTRODUCTION
xvii
This volume concentrates on the civilizations that aroseeast of the Caspian Sea. These early civilizations of Asiadeveloped over a vast territory stretching from the regionof modern Afghanistan and the Aral Sea to Japan andKorea, and from Sri Lanka (former Ceylon) to the islandsof Southeast Asia. These civilizations developed in theoases that bordered the arid Taklamakan Desert in westernChina and the tropical jungles of Java in Indonesia.Virtually every major river basin sustained one or moreearly states, along rivers like the Yalu, which flowedthrough the icy cold of a Korean winter, or the Irrawaddyand the Chao Phraya, which ran through the pervadingheat of their valleys. Early Western visitors to East andSoutheast Asia were invariably taken aback by the scaleand power of the rulers they encountered. Even the mightyarmy of Alexander the Great (356–323 B.C.E.) rebelled atthe prospect of advancing beyond the Beas River intoIndia. Romans, Greeks, and Persians were keen to tradewith the East but barely gained a foothold on Asian soil.
When intrepid Portuguese friars penetrated the jun-gles of Cambodia in the 16th century and came across agreat stone city abandoned to the forest, they were so sur-prised that they could advance only the Roman emperorTrajan (98–117) or Alexander the Great, rather than theCambodians, as being responsible for such magnificence.Those Portuguese, as many later archaeologists did, atonce recognized the external trappings of what is nowcalled a state society. They encountered large temples andwalled cities, huge reservoirs, and inscriptions of texts inan unknown form of writing. Had the people of Angkorconstructed their palaces as well as their temples instone, the friars would also have found large, opulent,and richly ornamented domestic buildings. The discoveryof palace foundations, however, had to await more recentarchaeological excavation.
SIGNS OF CIVILIZATION
Great temples, roads, canals, and reservoirs, togetherwith tombs and writing, are the hardware of civilization.
The software lies in a social system that can be discernedthrough the translation of writing and the inferencesdrawn from the archaeological record.
The central operating system of a state lies in the rul-ing elite. This usually takes the form of a hereditarydynasty in which the ruler, who, in Japan and Korea, wasfrequently a woman, often assumed godlike qualitieslinked with an ability to communicate with the ancestorsand spirit world. Administration involved an upper classof relatives of the ruling dynasty, a bureaucracy of cen-trally appointed officials, or both. Power was concentrat-ed in the capital, often located in an urban center thatincorporated a palace, state temples, and quarters for spe-cialists. Tight control over the military helped ensure therulers’ continuance in power, but in many early states,there was a perennial problem of scale, manifested in cen-trifugal tendencies. The farther from the center, thegreater the temptation to seek independence.
One of the recurrent issues confronting the rulers ofearly states in Asia was the success of the harvest.Whether rice, millet, wheat, or barley, the surplus gener-ated by the field workers was vital to the well-being of all.There is much evidence of central concern for predictableharvests, manifested in state irrigation works, deploy-ment of increasingly efficient agricultural tools, andinfrastructure for transportation. Essentially, agriculturaland other surpluses were taxed and used to sustain theadministrative system. In many instances this taxationencouraged a system of currency that took various forms:cowry shells and cast imitations thereof, measures of goldand silver, and coins that in India owed much to Greekprototypes.
INDIGENOUS ASIAN CIVILIZATIONS
In at least two instances it is possible to recognize anindigenous development of an Asian civilization withminimal outside influence. The origins of the IndusValley civilization can be traced to increasing social com-plexity in the basin of this river and the surrounding
-
xviii Introduction
uplands to the north and west, linked with growing mar-itime and overland trade with the contemporary civiliza-tions of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Here are all theclassic hallmarks of an early state system: huge walledcities with elite precincts dividing the priests and aristo-crats from the rest of the urban population; regularstreets, granaries, craft workshops, and domestic houses;and, most intriguing perhaps to the visitor, an efficientsystem of latrines and drains. A written script was usedby at least 3300 B.C.E., but the failure of modern scholarsto read the brief texts means that the administrative andruling system remains conjectural. Several large citiesdominated, particularly Mohenjo Daro and Harappa, butthere were many smaller centers, villages, and hamlets.
The end of this civilization is dated to the first half ofthe second millennium B.C.E., but the reasons for thedecline are not yet clearly defined. Some scholars haveturned for explanation to the Rig-Veda, sacred ritualhymns, which survived through oral tradition in Indiauntil first transcribed in the 14th century C.E. For millen-nia Hindu priests have intoned these hymns during reli-gious ceremonies incorporating the soma ritual. Thisritual involved taking the juice from the soma plant, theidentity of which remains unknown. Some was thenoffered to the gods; the rest was imbibed by the priests.The gods worshiped include the principal Hindu deitiesin their early manifestations: Foremost are Agni, the godof fire; Surya, the Sun god; Rudra, god of storms; andIndra and Vishnu, the gods of war. The Rig-Veda survivesin Sanskrit, an Indo-European language, and its earlymanifestation was once seen as evidence of warriorsarriving in the Indus Valley from the northwest, warriorswho destroyed the cities of the Indus. Few now hold tothis view for lack of archaeological evidence. Indeedsome scholars have even suggested that the Rig-Veda inessence originated in the Indus cities and actuallydescribes events that occurred in them.
In any case the Indus civilization did not survive in arecognizable form beyond the first centuries of the sec-ond millennium B.C.E. The center of gravity in India thenmoved to the Ganges (Ganga)-Jamuna Basin, where aseries of small competing states, known as janapadas,arose. The elimination and absorption of the weak led tothe formation of larger states, and ultimately by the sameprocess, the Mauryan state arose to form the first Indianempire in the fourth century B.C.E.
The second independent development of a civiliza-tion took place in China from about 2000 B.C.E. Formany years, the central focus for the early Chinese statelay in the middle reaches of the Huang (Yellow) RiverValley. Early Chinese histories described the states of Xiaand Shang, including the names of capitals, dynasties,and kings. Archaeological research has validated thesesemimythical states, identified cities, recovered earlywritten records, and opened the burials of elite leaders.
Even after nearly a century of such research, new discov-eries are still crowding in. Thus a new Shang capital wasfound as recently as 1999 at Huanbai. Excavations havealso revealed the antecedents of the first states, whichreach back to the period of early farming, and extendingthrough the increasingly complex societies of the loessland bordering the Huang River. Long-range contact withthe West was manifested by the beginnings of bronzecasting and the adoption of the chariot.
Of even greater significance, there is compelling newevidence for a parallel development to the south, in thelands bordering the mighty Chang (Yangtze) River. Hererice replaced millet as the subsistence base of statesknown as the Changjiang civilization. Already by 4000B.C.E., walled settlements like Chengtoushan were estab-lished. The Liangzhu culture (3200 to 2000 B.C.E.) of thelower Chang River Valley presents the picture of a com-plex society, whose leaders were interred in opulenttombs with fine jade grave goods. The most spectacularfinds are from Sanxingdui in the Sichuan Basin, a hugewalled city and likely capital of the regional state of theShu people during the second millennium B.C.E. Thebronze, ivory, gold, and jade offerings recovered from twosacrificial pits reveal a society no less complex than itscontemporary at Anyang, the capital of the Shang state inthe Huang Valley to the north.
In north China, the Shang dynasty was replaced in1045 B.C.E. by the Zhou rulers. The Western Zhou kingscontrolled a considerable area. However, their policy ofsending royal relatives to rule over newly conqueredregions in due course weakened the center, as regionallords assumed their own power bases and formed theirown states. In addition, the states known to the Chineseas Shu and Chu continued to flourish in the Chang Valleyindependent of the Zhou. This policy, with the transitionto the Eastern Zhou period in 770 B.C.E., led to the weak-ening of the royal house; as rival states entered intoincreasingly bellicose relationships, the state of Qinemerged as the dominant force. By 221 B.C.E., the firstemperor, Qin Shihuangdi, had vanquished his last rivals.His dynasty, however, was short lived, being succeeded bythe Western and then the Eastern Han. This period ofempire, which ended in 220 C.E., saw the establishmentof an enduring Chinese state that exercised considerableinfluence on its borders.
OTHER STATES IN EARLY ASIA
The development of powerful states in China and Indiaduring the first millennium B.C.E. had a potent effect onthe cultures with which they came into contact. Manynew states mushroomed in the wake of internationaltrade relations, wars of undisguised imperial conquest, orexposure to new ideas and ideologies. To the northeast,the Han policy of imperial expansion during the secondcentury B.C.E. saw the establishment of the commandery,
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Introduction xix
or province, of Lelang in northern Korea. This impositionof an alien regime in the midst of already sophisticatedsocieties was, at least in part, a stimulus for the rise offour Korean states—Koguryo, Shilla, Paekche, and Kaya.By the fourth century C.E., the Chinese had withdrawnfrom their foothold in the Korean Peninsula, and therulers of these states fought among themselves. In theseventh century, the rulers of Shilla allied themselveswith the Chinese Tang emperor to vanquish all rivals andto establish the first pan-Korean state, Unified Shilla.
Across the Tsushima Strait in Japan, the adoption ofsophisticated techniques for rice cultivation on the Hanmodel, together with the construction of irrigationworks, underpinned emerging statelets concentrated inKyushu and the margins of the Inland Sea. The rulersbuilt for themselves gigantic mounded tombs, the largestof which reached a length of nearly half a kilometer. TheNihongi, an indigenous historical record completed in theearly eighth century C.E., names a sequence of emperorsand empresses, together with their capitals, temples, andpalaces. Tracing these sites and opening them by excava-tion have yielded a rich harvest of new information. TheNara plain, east of modern Osaka, was a focus for theearly Japanese state, with royal tombs and the remains ofgreat cities at Fujiwara and Heijo, which were built alongthe lines of the Chinese capital of Chang’an. In 1961, avital discovery revealed that mokkan, written records onwooden slips, survived at Heijo in considerable quanti-ties. These illuminated the detailed workings of aristo-cratic households and court functionaries. Linked withthe excavations in royal palaces and Buddhist temples,the features of the early Nara state of the eighth centuryhave emerged clearly defined from oblivion.
With the end of the Han dynasty in the early thirdcentury, China was divided into three states. The south-ern kingdom of Wu had no access to the lucrative SilkRoad that linked China with the West, and the emperorsent emissaries south to seek a possible maritime linkwith the worlds of India and Rome. To their considerablesurprise, the emissaries encountered a state that theynamed Funan, located on the delta of the Mekong Riverin modern Vietnam and Cambodia. Their report, whichhas survived, described a palace and walled settlements, asystem of taxation and laws, written records, and thepresence of craft specialists. Rice was cultivated, andthere was vigorous trade.
Once again, archaeology has verified these writtenaccounts. Air photography before the Second World Warrevealed the outline of moated and walled cities on theflat delta landscape, linked by canals that radiated,straight as arrows, between the centers. At ground level,the French archaeologist Louis Malleret in 1944 excavat-ed the city of Oc Eo and traced the outlines of brick tem-ple foundations, jewelry workshops, and housefoundations. Dating this city was facilitated by the dis-
covery of coins minted by Roman emperors of the secondcentury C.E. Since the end of the war in Vietnam in 1975,research has raced ahead. Many more sites have beenidentified, and the inscriptions, written in Sanskrit andemploying the Indian Brahmi script, record the presenceof kings and queens who took Indian names and foundedtemples dedicated to Indian gods. Wooden statues of theBuddha have survived in the delta mud.
Funan was one of many small mercantile states thatprospered by participating in a great trade network nowknown as the maritime Silk Road. A two-way trade withthe Indian subcontinent saw gold and spices headingwest, while bronzes, glass and carnelian ornaments, andnovel ideas entered Southeast Asia. Along the coast ofVietnam, temples dedicated to Siva and other Hindugods, as well as Sanskrit texts, document the rise of theCham states. Chams spoke an Austronesian language,unlike their neighbors in Southeast Asia, and they domi-nated this coastal tract with its restricted river floodplainsuntil the march to the south by the Vietnamese thatended in the 18th century. The rich soil of Java sustainedkingdoms that were responsible for Borobudur, thelargest Buddhist monument known, dating to the ninthcentury, while the demand in the west for cloves and nut-megs saw the Spice Islands of Southeast Asia prosper.
The broad floodplain of the Chao Phraya River inThailand witnessed the rise of a state known from itsinscriptions, in the Mon language, as Dvaravati. Here arelarge, moated centers dominated by temples dedicated tothe Buddha, which rose at the same time as the Funan stateto the south. Small states developed along the coast ofpeninsular Thailand and Malaysia, as goods were trans-shipped from the Gulf of Siam to the ports on the AndamanSea. One major trading state, known as Srivijaya, arose atPalembang on the island of Sumatra. To the west, the Pyucivilization of the dry zone in modern Myanmar (Burma)bequeathed great cities at Halin, Beikthano, and Sri Ksetra.On the Arakan coast, the part of Southeast Asia mostexposed to trade with India, there are reports of visits bythe Buddha himself, and cities were founded atDhanyawadi and Vesali, complete with palaces and temples.
Local origins are common to all these states that bur-geoned along the maritime Silk Road. Explorations intotheir prehistoric ancestry reveal growing cultural com-plexity, as chiefs rose up and took advantage of the newopportunities afforded by international trade. Indianinfluence is seen in the Sanskrit and Pali languages, theBrahmi script, and Hindu gods. Beneath the surface of thePyu, Dvaravati, Funan, and Cham civilizations lies astrong local culture. These cultures continued well intothe second millennium C.E. In Cambodia the civilizationof Angkor grew into a major regional power. Pagan wasthe center of the Burmese civilization. The Chams con-tinued to flourish until the predatory Vietnamese begantheir march south.
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THE SILK ROAD AND THE RISE AND FALL OF CULTURES
The Silk Road itself was a labyrinth of trackways thatbegan with the Gansu corridor in western China. It thenskirted north and south of the arid Tarim Basin, beforereaching the crossroads that lay in the valleys of the SyrDar’ya and Amu Dar’ya Rivers as they flowed north to theAral Sea. Here it was possible to strike south intoAfghanistan and India or to continue in a westerly direc-tion, south of the Caspian Sea, to the Black Sea and theMediterranean.
This route was an ancient one, followed, it seems, byearly farmers trekking east, who founded settlements inthe Tarim oases during the third millennium B.C.E. There,in the dry wastes, are 4,000-year-old cemeteries contain-ing the remains of fair-skinned people with European fea-tures, interred with woven plaid textiles, sprigs ofephedra (a hallucinatory plant), and trousers and boots.Their descendants in all probability spoke Tocharian, anIndo-European language. It was along this route thatknowledge of bronze working and the chariot reachedChina. The Silk Road was a conduit for the arrival ofBuddhist teachings in China and ultimately Korea andJapan. At Mogao, east of the Taklamakan Desert, aresome of the finest Buddhist shrines anywhere.
The Chinese Han dynasty’s establishment of peacefulconditions in the second century B.C.E., always problem-atical where steppe horsemen might intervene, promotedthe development of states along the eastern steppingstones of the Silk Road. When the archaeologist-explorersSven Hedin and Sir Aurel Stein reached the deserts of farwestern China a century ago, they encountered theremains of walled cities, roads, even ancient vineyards.Letters and royal orders on wood and leather have sur-vived, in an Indian script dating to the third century C.E.These illuminate the kingdoms of Shan-shan, Sogdiana,and Hotan and their oasis cities at Niya, Endere,Panjikent, and Lou-lan.
The crossroads of Asia, where the routes south intoIndia bisect the Silk Road south of the Aral Sea, have seenthe rise and fall of many civilizations. Under the rule ofCyrus the Great (ruled c. 585–c. 529 B.C.E.), theAchaemenid empire of Persia expanded east, incorporat-ing the Indus Valley as its 20th province during the reignof Darius the Great in the early fifth century B.C.E.Achaemenid rule came to an end with the defeat of DariusIII at the hands of Alexander the Great at the Battle ofGaugamela (modern Iraq) in 331 B.C.E., setting in motionthe beginning of the Greek control of this region. UnderSeleucus Nicator (356–281 B.C.E.), one of Alexander’sgenerals and ruler of the former Persian Empire, Greekinfluence was profoundly felt through the foundation ofcities, the construction of temples, and the minting ofcoins bearing the images of many Bactrian Greek kings. AtAy Khanum in Afghanistan and Sirkap in Pakistan are
cities that match their contemporaries in Greece itself.This powerful wave of Hellenistic influence can be seen inthe Gandharan art style as well as in theaters and mau-soleums, for example, at Ay Khanum. However, theSeleucid empire was on the wane by the mid-second cen-tury B.C.E., and from its remnants arose the Parthians inthe region southeast of the Caspian Sea. They briefly heldsway over the great center of Merv (modern Mary inTurkmenistan), reaching down into the Indus Valley.
The Kushans, however, were to exert a major influ-ence in this area. Moving west from China, these initiallynomadic groups settled south of the Aral Sea by the end of the second century B.C.E., and under a line ofpotent rulers beginning with Kujula Kadphises, theycame to rule a large empire south into India, with a capi-tal at Purusapura (modern Peshawar). King Kanishka,who took the title devaputra, or son of god, showed adeep interest in Hinduism. By 200 C.E., Persian powerresurfaced with the Sasanid dynasty under Ardashir I(224–241). Sassanian control of the strategic Merv Oasisand this central part of the Silk Road provided a welcomeelement of stability. By the third century C.E., a Christianmonastery was founded at Merv.
From the fifth century C.E., however, the Sassanianscame under mounting pressure from the HephthaliteHuns to the east, a people of shadowy origins, whoseprowess as mounted cavalrymen and archers was feared.After the defeat and death of their king, Firuz, in 484, theSassanians paid tribute in coinage to the Hephthalites,largely to keep the peace on their eastern frontier, untilthe reign of Khosrow I in the mid-sixth century C.E.Hephthalite territory at this juncture included Tok-haristan and much of Afghanistan. They conquered Sog-diana in 509 and extended their authority as far east asUrumqi in northwest China. By 520, they controlled thisarea and in India came up against the western frontiers ofthe Gupta empire under King Bhuhagupta. Under theirown king, Toramana, the Hephthalites seized the Punjab,Kashmir, and Rajputana; Toramana’s successor, Mihi-rakula, established his capital at Sakala (modern Sialkotin Pakistan). He was a devotee of Siva, and this was aperiod of devastation for the venerable Buddhist monas-teries in Pakistan and India, many of which were sackedand destroyed. The last Hephthalite king, Yudhishthira,ruled until about 670, when he was replaced by theTurkish dynasty known as the Shahi.
STRANDS OF EARLY ASIAN CIVILIZATIONS
The pattern underlying early Asian civilizations entailsthree strands. The first involves the origin and flowering ofthe indigenous states. Two can be identified: The earlierwas centered in the Indus Basin and flourished during thefourth millennium B.C.E., before the cities were abandonedand the focus of Indian civilization moved to the Ganges(Ganga) and Yamuna Valleys. The later, and most durable,
xx Introduction
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began in catchments of the two great rivers of China, theChang and the Huang. Here there was a twin developmentof agriculture, with rice dominating the balmier south andmillet the colder north. Again cultural complexity devel-oped in tandem in both areas, as did the early states, Xiaand Shang in the central plains of the Huang River andChangjiang in the land bordering the Chang.
The second strand involved the development of whatmight be termed “secondary civilizations” in areas thatcame under the influence of China, India, or both. WhileChinese influence was strongly felt in Korea and Japan,the impact of Buddhism cannot be discounted. To thesouth, the states of the maritime Silk Road developedfrom indigenous chiefdoms, retaining their autonomybut prospering through the enriching influence of Indiaand China. The same cross-fertilization of ideas betweenlocal inhabitants and foreign traders may be identified onthe Silk Road itself.
The third and most complex contributor to the pat-tern of Asian civilization lies in the regions where east
met west through the expansion of the Greek and PersianEmpires and the intrusion of Sakas or Scythians,Kushans, and Hephthalite Huns. This region, centeringon modern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and thebasins of the Syr Dar’ya and Amu Dar’ya Rivers, is one ofthe most interesting areas, because of the variety of peo-ples, religions, languages, and cultures that came andwent, each contributing and at the same time adapting tothe ways of other societies.
Today Asia teems with humanity. Its billions of peo-ple speak thousands of languages. Its contribution to thedevelopment of the human species outweighs that of anyother part of the globe: the domestication of rice, thelargest mortuary complexes, two of the world’s great reli-gions, massive temples, cast iron, paper, silk, writing,universities, totalitarian states, the crossbow, outstandingworks of art—the list is endless. The development ofAsian civilizations from their first foundations is a key tounderstanding Asia today.
Introduction xxi
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ENTRIES A TO Z
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A
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Abeyadana temple The Abeyadana temple, at PAGANin modern Myanmar (Burma), is thought to have beeninspired by the queen of King Kyanzittha (1084–1112C.E.). It includes a large, rectangular, central templeadjoining a rectangular hall. A large brick image of theBuddha dominates the temple; some of the inner wallsare embellished with frescoes of Hindu gods, such asBrahma, Vishnu, Siva, and Indra.
Abhayagiri Abhayagiri, a monastery at ANURADHAPURAin modern Sri Lanka (Ceylon), was founded by KingVattagamani Abhaya in the early first century B.C.E. Itenjoyed royal patronage until the last days of Anuradha-pura itself. Under King Gajabahu (114–136 C.E.), theAbhayagiri stupa (Buddhist shrine) reached the enor-mous height of 84 meters (277 ft.). In the fifth centuryC.E., it was visited by the Chinese monk FAXIAN, whodescribed a jade image of the Buddha standing six meters(20 ft.) high. There were ceaseless ceremonials there, sug-gesting that MAHAYANA BUDDHISM, the high ritual form ofthe religion, was in favor.
abhiseka An abhiseka is a plaque used in consecrationceremonies for Buddhist kings in Southeast Asia. Suchplaques have strong Hindu traditions, and the symbols onthem are highly significant. An example in steatite wasrecovered in 1965 during the construction of a road fromthe ancient city of VESALI to the later capital of MRAUK-U inthe Rakhine (formerly ARAKAN) region of western Myan-mar (Burma). The steatite plaque was used as the supportfor a bronze vessel found at the same time. The decorationrepresents the universe, bounded by a wall depicted as the
raised, square edge of the plaque; the four continentswithin are seen as lotuses at each corner. A circular friezeof lotus petals in the center represents MOUNT MERU, thehome of the gods; a second circular frieze incorporatessymbols of royal mystical power. These include the sri-vatsa (mother goddess) motif, a conch shell, a cornucopiaand fish, all of which are deemed to bring prosperity tothe kingdom. A fly whisk, elephant goad, parasol, andbull are also depicted, and all are symbols of powerfulkingship. Such symbols are evident in many other con-texts in Southeast Asia, not least in the reliefs depictingKing SURYAVARMAN II at ANGKOR WAT in Cambodia. A pea-cock and a deer on the plaque represent the Sun and theMoon; a pillar and goose indicate the conjunction ofheaven and Earth. These esoteric powers are deemed toenter the king’s person through the lustral water con-tained in the bronze bowl that the plaque supports. Itsclosest parallels are found in the ceramic abhisekas foundin the Dvaravati sites of central Thailand.
See also DVARAVATI CIVILIZATION.
Achaemenid empire At its height, during the fifthcentury B.C.E., the Achaemenid empire stretched fromAlbania in the west to TAXILA and the course of the IndusValley in the east, and from the Aral Sea to Cyrene inmodern Libya, including western Asia and Egypt.Founded by Cyrus the Great (r. c. 585–c. 529 B.C.E.), theempire was organized into provinces. In the east, theseincluded, from north to south, Khwarizm south of theAral Sea, SOGDIANA in the headwaters of the Syr Dar’yaRiver, Arachosia and Gedrosia in Baluchistan, and BACTRIA,Margiana, and GANDHARA in Afghanistan. The eastern
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conquests were stimulated by the desire of Cyrus for astable frontier against the Scythians, as well as by animperialist impulse to seize and exploit territory. His pol-icy included the foundation of frontier settlements, ofwhich Cyropolis in the valley of the Syr Dar’ya River isbest known. In the late sixth century B.C.E., a succeedingking, Darius the Great (r. 522–489 B.C.E.), led a campaignin the east that is said to have reached the shores of theAral Sea. During the ensuing several years, the Persiansconquered the area of modern northern Pakistan, and sol-diers from the eastern provinces were prominent in theAchaemenid army. The empire ended with the defeat ofDarius III by ALEXANDER THE GREAT at the Battle ofGaugamela (modern Iraq) in 331 B.C.E.
However, the two centuries of Achaemenid rule sawmuch cultural interaction between the center and theeast. Scythians, Bactrians, Arachosians, Gandharans, andIndians are all depicted on the reliefs of Persepolis, thePersian ceremonial center in modern south Iran. TheScythians wear their characteristic pointed caps and carryshort swords; the Bactrians are seen holding cups andguiding a Bactrian camel with a bell around its neck. TheIndian wears a headband and a short kilt and carries ves-sels in baskets slung from a wooden holder supportedover the shoulders, just like those still seen in Indiatoday. This intercourse and travel exposed participants toone of the world’s great empires, involving knowledge ofthe Aramaic script and methods of administration. Botheased the consolidation of the conquest by Alexander theGreat and his forces.
Further reading: Briant, P. From Cyrus to Alexander:A History of the Persian Empire. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisen-brauns, 2002; Dandamaev, M. A. Political History of theAchaemenid Empire (Ancient Near East). Leiden: Brill,1997; Dusinberre, E. R. M. Aspects of Empire inAchaemenid Sardis. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 2003.
acupuncture Acupuncture has been a central part oftraditional Chinese medicine for more than 2,000 years.A set of four gold needles has been recovered from thetomb of Prince Jing of Zhongshan, dated to the WesternHAN DYNASTY (206 B.C.E.–9 C.E.). Three different types ofneedles are represented, each having its own special func-tion. An engraving from an Eastern Han tomb in Shan-dong province shows a creature with a human head andarms and a bird’s body performing acupuncture on akneeling patient.
Adhyapura Adhyapura, a site located in the MekongValley near the border between modern Cambodia andVietnam, is notable as the home base of a highly rankedfamily that provided ministers to five kings, spanning thetransition from the state of FUNAN to CHENLA (c. 550 C.E.)
and beyond. One family member, named Simhadatta, wasthe doctor of JAYAVARMAN I of Chenla and the governor ofAdhyapura in 667 C.E.
Afrasiab Afrasiab is the ancient name for Samarqand,once a province of Russian Turkestan and now the nameof a city and province in Uzbekistan. The city was amajor center of both the Bactrian Greeks (250 B.C.E.–10C.E.) and of SOGDIANA in the period from 200 B.C.E. up tothe Arab conquests of the eighth century C.E. In the sev-enth century, Afrasiab covered an area of 214 hectares(535 acres) and minted its own coinage. The Sogdiansgrew wealthy through irrigation agriculture and controlof the SILK ROAD. Their town houses and palaces wereconstructed of compressed loess and mud brick, and theinterior walls were coated with clay. Mural paintings are aparticular feature of these stately residences. One paint-ing reveals a delegation of HEPHTHALITE HUNS; anothershows an elegant boat with waterfowl. The Sogdians,through extensive trade contacts and the remote coloniesof their merchants, incorporated foreign motifs into theiroutstanding silver metalwork as well as their religious art.They were Zoroastrians, followers of an ancient Iranianreligion, but there were also small groups of Christiansand Buddhists among the inhabitants. The religious art ofSogdiana shows the adoption of local and foreign ele-ments into Zoroastrianism, such as an Indian-style four-armed depiction of an ancient Mesopotamian goddess,Nana.
A mural from Afrasiab, from the house of a wealthyaristocrat, shows foreign ambassadors arriving at thecourt, probably of King Varkhuman, in about 660 C.E.An inscription states that one of the delegates was froma small state known as Chaganiyan. Others traveledfrom China and as far afield as Korea. The Chinese areseen presenting silks to the king. The southern wall ofthis same chamber shows King Varkhuman in a proces-sion, visiting a holy shrine probably dedicated to hisancestors.
Agni Agni, the god of fire in early Indian religion, ismentioned in the Rig-Veda around 1500 to 1000 B.C.E. Hehad three principal manifestations: as fire itself, as light-ning, and as the Sun. The crackling of a fire was the godAgni speaking. He had seven arms and rode a chariotpulled by red horses. The presence of fire altars in theINDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION sites might indicate that Agniwas already part of the pantheon in the third millenniumB.C.E. The construction of a fireplace or altar, known asagnicayana, in SANSKRIT, was a vital part of Vedic ritual.The agnihotri (priest) was responsible for maintaining thesacred flame. The Rig-Veda describes Agni as the illumi-nator of darkness, guardian of cosmic order, and recipientof daily homage.
2 acupuncture
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Agnimitra (ruled c. 148–140 B.C.E.) Agnimitra was thesecond king of the Sunga dynasty in the lower Ganges(Ganga) Valley of India.He succeeded his father Pushyamitra after a period whenAgnimitra governed the Sunga province of Vidisa. Therehe exercised a considerable measure of independence. Hewas succeeded after ruling for eight years by his sonSujyeshtha.
Ahicchatra Ahicchatra, a city in the upper Ganges(Ganga) Valley of northern India, was occupied from thefourth century B.C.E. to around 1100 C.E. According toRaymond Allchin, it was a city falling into the third sizegrade of Mauryan centers, with an area of between 121and 180 hectares (300 and 450 acres). This area, how-ever, is defined by a mud wall built during the early partof the fourth phase of the city’s life at the beginning of thefirst century C.E. In the seventh century C.E., the site wasvisited by the Chinese monk XUANZANG, who described10 Buddhist monasteries and nine Hindu temples there,in a city built on a strongly fortified location. The sur-rounding country, he said, produced wheat and rice andhad many springs and woods.
It is clear that the site was continuously occupied fora lengthy period. Excavations undertaken in 1940–44and again in 1963–65 followed initial work by SIR ARTHURCUNNINGHAM, who opened a stupa and found a steatitefoundation deposit containing pearls, glass, and an amberbead. The excavations examined the defenses and interiormounds and identified nine periods of occupation, begin-ning in the late prehistoric period and lasting until about1100 C.E. The dating of the successive layers and defenseshas been undertaken on the basis of ceramic typologyand the coins recovered. The second and third phasesfrom the base reflect a Mauryan period of occupation, fol-lowed by layers containing Kushan coins and coins con-temporary with the GUPTA EMPIRE. A Gupta temple wasalso uncovered, designed in the form of terraces and ded-icated to SIVA. It was finely decorated with terra-cottaimages of the gods Gaga and Yamuna. The defenses wereimproved on at least two occasions with the addition ofbrickwork, and an interior wall was constructed to dividethe city into two sectors after the construction of theGupta temple. The city itself seems to have been desertedby about 1100 C.E.
See also MAURYA EMPIRE.
Aihole The complex of temples at Aihole (formerlyAryapur) in southern India was the creation of theCHALUKYA DYNASTY (sixth to eighth centuries C.E.). Thetemples crowd in a walled precinct 500 by 500 meters(1,650 ft.) in extent on the bank of the Malprabha Riverin Karnataka. The Meguti temple, built in 636 C.E. byKing Ravikirti, commands an eminence overlooking thesite as a whole. Dedicated to JAINISM, the complexincludes a notable inscription that describes the militaryprowess of King Pulakesin II. The earliest temple, knownas Lad Khan after a villager who had used it as a cattlebyre, was adorned with images of the major Hindu deities,including Vishnu, Garuda, and Surya. The Durga templeis regarded as one of the most impressive in this remark-able site. Raised on a decorated plinth, it presents a mas-sive appearance that is due to its broad exterior columns.
Airlangga (ruled 1016–1049) Airlangga was the king ofa major East Javan trading state in modern Indonesia,known for its wealth and power.He rose to power after the defeat of his predecessors bythe Srivijayan state, but during a period of Srivijayanweakness he had founded a capital in the vicinity ofSurabaya and controlled not only the rich volcanic BRAN-TAS RIVER basin but increasingly also the spice trade. Oneof his major achievements was to dam the Brantas Riverto control flooding and increase the area of land underirrigation for rice cultivation. He also grew wealthy fromtrade, particularly with China. His court is recalled for itsliterary output. Airlangga considered himself to be an
Airlangga 3
Agni is the Hindu god of fire. He has a long ancestry, goingback to the Rig-Veda. The name of this god was chosen forIndia’s missile armed with a nuclear warhead. This image ofAgni comes from a South Indian temple panel dating to the17th century. (Victoria & Albert Museum, London/ArtResource, NY)
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incarnation of the Indic god Vishnu, and his mausoleumat Balahan incorporated a statue of him riding on Garuda,the eagle mount of the god. Before his death, he retired tobecome an ascetic and left his kingdom divided betweentwo sons. Janggala was the name of the polity east of theBrantas River, but it was soon absorbed by Kederi, thekingdom on the western bank.
See also SRIVIJAYA.
Airtam Airtam, a village on the Amu Dar’ya River 13kilometers (8 mi.) south of TERMEZ in modern Uzbek-istan, is a large, undefended settlement, whose historydates back to the fourth century B.C.E. Covering an areaat least three kilometers in length, the site has been par-tially destroyed by river erosion. In 1932 a Russian sol-dier discovered a large stone slab that had formed themain part of a remarkable frieze dating to the Kushanperiod (70–200 C.E.). The slab has carved figures ofmusicians and a border of acanthus leaves. After a suc-cessful search for more pieces, the reconstructed lime-stone frieze was found to be seven meters (23 ft.) inlength. On one side of the frieze are figures holding gar-lands of flowers; on the other are musicians. Both groupsare thought to have been taking part in the ritual ofpreparing the body of the dead Buddha for cremation.
RESULTS OF LATER EXCAVATIONS
Excavations followed in the 1930s and again in 1979,when a bridge was constructed over the Amu Dar’yaRiver. It was found that the site had a long history, begin-ning with the construction of a brick temple during theBACTRIAN GREEK period. This construction extended overa distance of 50 meters (165 ft.) from east to west. Onexcavation, the walls survived to a height of 1.7 meters(5.6 ft.); within the buildup of sand deposited after thesite’s abandonment, three coins were found. Two of thesebelong to the second half of the reign of the Kushan kingKUJULA KADPHISES and thus date the building earlier thanthe first century C.E. Galina Pugachenkova has suggestedthat this temple might have been dedicated to the localriver god Okhsho, whose name survives in the name ofthe Vaksh River. The structure, however, was not com-pleted, perhaps because of the troubled times associatedwith the invasions of nomadic SAKAS.
This destruction of Airtam was followed by a periodof abandonment, before Buddhist influence entered thearea under the tolerant policy of the Kushans and manytemples were constructed in sites along the Amu Dar’yaRiver. Important constructions of this period are seen atTERMEZ, KARA TEPE, AND DALVERZIN TEPE (Uzbekistan). AtAirtam this development was manifested by the Buddhisttemple whose limestone frieze the soldier had discovered.On reconstruction and further analysis, it was found thatthere were two matching friezes, one containing imagesof female celestial musicians and the second with figuresmaking offerings of flowers.
The temple was associated with at least two stupasand was surrounded by a wall that included what werethought to be a kitchen and a storage room. The plan isdistinctive to this region and is matched at other sites,including DILBERJIN and Kara Tepe. Its extent was given anadditional dimension when a bulldozer cut through theopening to a subterranean complex lined in brick; at leastone of the chambers was probably used for meditation.
The date of the temple was not surely known untilthe 1979 excavation season, when the base of a stonestela was found. It was decorated with figures of a manand a woman, preserved up to the level of the knees. Aninscription in the Bactrian script was incised on the base.Dated to the fourth year of the reign of King Huvishka (c.140 C.E.), it named a certain Shodija as the benefactorwho had built the large structure. The two figures on thefragmentary stela are probably Shodija and his wife. Theyare shod in Indian-style footwear. Even the sculptor’sname is known: He was one Mirzad, who probably hailedfrom Persia, if his name is any guide.
Airtam declined in the third and fourth centuries,probably as a result of conflict associated with the Sassa-nian expansion into this region. There is much evidenceof destruction, seen in the broken statue fragments, theoverturned and shattered foundation inscription, and thelooting of Buddhist relic chambers that contained pre-cious offerings.
See also BUDDHISM; SASSANIAN EMPIRE; TERMEZ.
Ajanta Ajanta, one of the most famous rock templesites of India, is located on the outer bend of the Wag-ora River in Maharashtra state. The 30 caves cut intothe granite were built by Buddhists between the secondcentury B.C.E. and the seventh century C.E., and theirwalls are decorated with frescoes and sculpture.
The caves, concealed by forest, were discovered morethan a millennium after they had been deserted in theearly 19th century. Already by 1844, the directors of theEast India Company had urged the British government topreserve and record these caves, and a Captain Gill wascharged with the responsibility of recording the paintingsthere. At the same time SIR ALEXANDER CUNNINGHAMwrote that the temples would contain treasures, whichshould be excavated and analyzed.
The caves of Ajanta, even after extensive pillagingand destruction, are among the jewels in the crown ofBuddhist art. The caves form caityas (sanctuaries) andviharas (monasteries), heavily carved and decorated withfresco paintings that depict scenes in the life of the Bud-dha. Because the Buddha experienced life in all its richvariety, the scenes evoke many aspects of life in earlyIndia beyond the strictly religious—the rhythms of thecourt and life in towns and villages, as well as in themonasteries themselves. The ultimate purpose of thepaintings was educational, to instruct and inform pil-
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grims and novices about the principal events in the life ofthe Buddha that led to his enlightenment, in the sameway that the reliefs of the great sanctuary of BOROBUDURin Java were a medium of instruction.
See also BAGH; BUDDHISM.Further reading: Allchin, F. R., ed. The Archaeology of
Early Historic South Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-sity Press, 1995; Behl, B. K., Nigam, S., and Beach, M. C.The Ajanta Caves: Artistic Wonder of Ancient BuddhistIndia. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1998; Harle J. C.Gupta Sculpture: Indian Sculpture of the Fourth to the SixthCenturies AD. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974; Harle, J. C.The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Lon-don: Penguin Books, 1986; Pant, P. Ajanta and Ellora:Cave Temples of Ancient India. Columbia, Mo.: South AsiaBooks, 1998; Schlingloff, D. Guide to the Ajanta Paintings:Narrative Wall Paintings. Columbia, Mo.: South AsiaBooks, 1999.
Ajatasatru (c. 563–483 B.C.E.) Ajatasatru was a king ofMagadha, an ancient kingdom in the Ganges (Ganga) Valleyof India and a contemporary of the Buddha.He expanded his kingdom and fought with other MAHA-JANAPADAS, or early states, and is said in a Buddhist text tohave visited the Buddha.
See also BUDDHISM.
Akhauri Akhauri is a Buddhist monastery at TAXILA innorthern Pakistan, belonging to the early Kushan period(first century C.E.). It provides a clear example of the
structure of a Buddhist foundation at that period. Thereis a main court entered by a portal from the north. Roomsare set around the outer courtyard wall, looking inward.There are an assembly room, two chapels, each contain-ing a stupa, and rows of monks’ cells. A smaller courtwith 11 cells was later added on the western side.
See also KUSHANS.
Ak-terek In 1906, during his explorations in the west-ern TARIM BASIN, in the area of the ancient state of HOTAN,Sir Aurel Stein discovered the site of Ak-terek, a Buddhistmonument lying to the south of the Buddhist shrine atRAWAK. Smaller than the Rawak shrine, the temple of Ak-terek had been destroyed by fire and never reoccupied.This had the effect of firing the clay sculptures, whilethose from Rawak remained friable. The sculpturesincluded a fine image of a seated Buddha dated stylisti-cally to the mid-fourth century C.E. The presence of frag-ments of gold leaf suggested that some, at least, of thestructure had been gilded.
Ak Yum Ak Yum is a temple site located near the cen-ter of the square enclosure known as BANTEAY CHOEU,west of Angkor in Cambodia. Excavations by GeorgeTrouvé in 1935 exposed much of the central structure.The lowest platform was built of earth, with its majorpaths sealed in bricks. This platform measured 100meters (330 ft.) square and rose 2.6 meters (8.5 ft.) inheight. Access to the second stage was by stairs, whichascend 2.4 meters onto a brick platform. The walls weredecorated with sculptures of miniature palaces. The sec-ond stage incorporates a series of brick towers embel-lished with sandstone false doors and lintels. Aninscription on a stone sculpture near the southeast-angletower records a donation to the god Gamhiresvara in1001 C.E. The religious text reveals the sanctity of thistemple during a period of at least two centuries.
The main sanctuary on the third tier had oneentrance facing east, but the other three walls were laterprovided with separate portals. The original lintel datesto the end of the eighth century. Two reused inscriptionsfrom the central tower date to 704 and 717, respectively.The latter records a foundation by the mratan (official)Kirtigana to the god Gamhiresvara and notes donationsto the temple, which include rice, draft cattle, cloth, andworkers. There can be no doubt that this area, so close tothe future center of Angkor, was occupied and farmed bythe early eighth century.
The central sanctuary yielded six bronze statues, twoof a Hindu deity and four of the Buddha, varying betweennine and 35 centimeters (14 in.) in height, as well as partof a large stone lingam, a phallic-shaped symbol of Siva.A vault led down to a subterranean chamber, the base ofwhich was 12.5 meters below the floor of the centralsanctuary. It included a brick shrine and contained two
Ak Yum 5
The fresco painting on the walls of the Ajanta caves in Indiaare world famous. This example from cave 1 shows servantspouring holy water over a prince before his coronation.(© Lindsay Hebberd/CORBIS)
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elephants in gold leaf and a statue of a standing man 1.25meters in height. Ak Yum dates later than the early eighthcentury and possibly represents an enlargement of templearchitecture dating to and perhaps inspired by KingJAYAVARMAN II (c. 770–834 C.E.).
Alamgirpur Alamgirpur is a small settlement sitelocated on the Hindon River, a tributary of the JamunaRiver in northern India. Discovered in 1959, it is notableas a site showing the presence of the INDUS VALLEY CIVI-LIZATION east of the Jamuna. The site covers an area ofonly 60 by 50 meters (200 by 165 ft.), but excavationshave uncovered the remains of late Harappan (early sec-ond millennium B.C.E.) material at the base, followed byoccupation dating to the PAINTED GREY WARE phase andhistoric occupation. The initial occupation saw the con-struction of houses in mud brick, wattle and daub, and,rarely, fired brick. These houses were associated with atypical Harappan material culture that included potteryvessels bearing the Indus script, animal figurines andcarts in terra-cotta, steatite beads, and small bowls offaience.
Alexander the Great (356–323 B.C.E.) Alexander theGreat, king of Macedonia, was one of the greatest militaryleaders known.He succeeded his father, Philip, at the age of 20 in 336B.C.E., inheriting plans to conquer the ACHAEMENIDEMPIRE, whose armies had previously unsuccessfullyinvaded Greece. In 334 B.C.E., Alexander crossed theHellespont (Dardanelles, the strait separating Europe andAsiatic Turkey). After a series of stunning victories, hetoppled the Achaemenid Empire and thus took control ofits provinces or satrapies. To the east these extended asfar as the Indus River. Seven years later, he marched east,with an army of 80,000, crossed the Hindu Kush Moun-tains, and descended onto the plains of the Indus and itstributaries. He first crossed the Indus, accepting Indianclient kings on his way. He then moved farther east,crossing the Jhelum River, which the Greeks named theHydaspes, then the Chenab, the Ravi, and finally the BeasRiver (the Hyphasis). The Greeks had little knowledge ofthe geography of India, since their sources were littlemore reliable than the Indikos of Ktesias of Knidos, writ-ten in 396 B.C.E.
At this point Alexander wished to proceed to con-quer the known world, but his troops mutinied, and hereturned to the Jhelum River, where a fleet of ships wasunder construction. With these, he sailed down theIndus River. His journey to the sea met stout resistancefrom the local tribe known as the Agalassoi, who mus-tered, it is said, more than 40,000 men. But Alexanderdefeated them and, on reaching the coast, divided hisforces, one group traveling with the fleet and the otherby land to the west. The two parties met again at modern
Hormuz, in Iran, after one of the most extraordinary mil-itary campaigns.
EFFECTS OF HIS CONQUESTS
Although of brief duration, Alexander’s Indian adventurehad deep-seated repercussions. He was a highly educatedperson who took scientists and historians in hisentourage to learn about and record the countries andpeoples he conquered. He actively encouraged the adop-tion of local ways and intermarriage between Macedo-nians and local women. Most profoundly, he settled hisveterans in new settlements, and these people establishedoutposts of Greek culture.
Alexander died of a fever in Babylon in 323 B.C.E.,and his far-flung empire was divided among his leadinggenerals. SELEUCUS I NICATOR ruled the easternprovinces, founding the Seleucid Empire that he ruledfrom Babylon. BACTRIA, located between the Amu Dar’yaRiver and the Hindu Kush Mountains, was part of thisempire from about 300 to 250 B.C.E. It then achievedindependence and extended its domain to incorporateparts of modern Pakistan, including the city of Taxila.The Bactrian capital, Baktra (modern BALKH), was anoted center for trade and for BUDDHISM, which hadbeen established there. Another Greek Bactrian founda-tion is located at AY KHANUM on the upper Amu Dar’yaRiver in Afghanistan.
Hellenistic influence originating from the campaigns ofAlexander the Great continued with the foundation of non-Greek states. Thus the Scythians, or Sakas, who conqueredthe Bactrian states in the late second century B.C.E., adoptedmany Greek traditions, including coinage with Greekscript, Greek titles, and Greek methods of city planning.This pattern became even more pronounced when theParthians succeeded the Scythians as rulers of the upperIndus and its tributaries. Hellenistic influence was still to befound under the Kushans, not least in the architectural fea-tures of their city at SURKH-KOTAL in Afghanistan. The mostenduring Greek influence in the region, however, was theGANDHARA school of art founded in modern Pakistan.While drawing on Buddhism for its themes, Gandharan artowed a deep artistic debt to Greek sculptural traditions.
Further reading: Fuller, J. F. C. The Generalship ofAlexander the Great. New York: DeCapo Press, 1989;Green, P. Alexander of Macedon. London: Penguin Books,1992; Worthington, I. Alexander the Great. London: Rout-ledge, 2003.
Alikasudaro (late fourth–third century B.C.E.) Alikasu-daro is a king mentioned in the rock edicts of Asoka, the thirdking of the Maurya Empire (c. 324–c. 200 B.C.E.) in India.The name is thought to refer to Alexander of Epirus, aminor Greek ruler (r. 272–258 B.C.E.). The inscriptionhelps to date ASOKA to the period between 268 and235 B.C.E.
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Allahdino Allahdino is a small settlement of the INDUSVALLEY CIVILIZATION in modern southern Pakistan. It lies15 kilometers (9 mi.) from the Arabian Sea and covers anarea of only one hectare (2.5 acres). The finds from thissite reveal the degree of wealth characteristic of this civi-lization, even in provincial settlements. The mound risesabout three meters above the surrounding countryside.Three phases of occupation have been identified since theexcavations by W. Fairservis in 1976. There was no evi-dence for a defensive wall, but the internal layout of thehouses, all of which belong in time to the mature Induscivilization of the later third millennium B.C.E., showsremarkable evidence for town planning even in a site thatbarely exceeds 100 meters (330 ft.) in any direction.Houses were laid out on an east-northeast to west-south-west orientation and were constructed of mud brick onstone foundations. They were equipped with stone-linedwells and drains. The presence of SEALS indicates partici-pation in trade, and the recovery of gold and silver orna-ments hints that the site was involved in the exchange ofprecious jewelry. This indication is highlighted by a jarcontaining a remarkable belt made of long carnelianbeads interspersed with beads of copper, silver beadnecklaces, agate beads, and items of gold.
Altyn Tepe Altyn Tepe, the site of an ancient settle-ment in the lower Tedzhen River Valley of Turkmenistanwhere the river forms the Geoksiur Oasis, was occupiedas early as the fifth millennium B.C.E. This area of Turk-menistan has a long and important cultural sequence thatculminated in the formation of urban communities as oldas the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION.
EARLIEST SETTLEMENTS
By the fifth and early fourth millennia B.C.E., this oasisregion had agricultural settlements in which barley andwheat were cultivated on the basis of an IRRIGATION sys-tem, and cattle were raised. A copper industry was inplace, and there is also much evidence of weaving. Evi-dence from Altyn Tepe has shown that during the mid-fourth millennium B.C.E., irrigation agriculture was wellestablished, and trade relations were carrying gold and sil-ver, carnelian, TURQUOISE, and LAPIS LAZULI to the site. Thelate aeneolithic period toward the end of the fourth andstart of the third millennia B.C.E. saw further achievements,including the domestication of the camel, the use ofwheeled carts, irrigation employing channels up to threekilometers (1.8 mi.) in length, and the construction ofmultiroomed houses for a protourban population. The sitewas now ringed by a mud-brick wall up to two meters (6.6ft.) in height, enclosing an area of 25 hectares (62.5 acres).Figurines of terra-cotta depicted helmeted warriors.
LATER CULTURES
The culture of the oases in Turkmenistan also expanded tothe east and south. At the site of Sarazm on the Zerafshan
River Delta, rich burials included gold and carnelian graveofferings. The third millennium saw extraordinary cul-tural developments at Altyn Tepe and related sites, astrade with the Indus Valley burgeoned. During the EarlyBronze Age, Altyn Tepe boasted a huge entrance gateway15 meters (49.5 ft.) wide, with room for both pedestriansand wheeled vehicles. There was a temple precinct within;rich graves equipped with stone lamps may well have heldleading priestly figures. Stamp SEALS made of terra-cottaand bronze probably indicated private ownership, and bothindustry and agriculture developed. There were copperfoundries and specialized ceramic workshops and kilns,while grapes were added to the range of cultivated crops.
The heyday of the Indus Valley civilization saw fur-ther evidence of exchange: Two Harappan-style seals, onebearing a swastika motif and the other a brief writtentext, were found at Altyn Tepe, and an eagle amulet hasclear Harappan parallels. Excavations indicate that therewere at least three social groups, on the basis of spatiallydelimited grades of housing and burials. The poorergraves incorporated few ceramic offerings, and the deadwere wrapped in reed mats. The rich, however, lived infine houses and were interred in woolen shrouds, accom-panied by stamps with eagle, leopard, and goat motifs;statuettes; religious symbols, and fine exotic bead neck-laces and belts. Industrially the town saw specialized pro-duction of silver ornaments and mirrors, arsenic and leadbronzes, and a massive output of pottery vessels, as onekiln among many had a potential annual output of up to20,000 vessels. By this juncture the population was in thevicinity of 7,000, and the Turkmenian oasis sites were inregular contact with the civilizations to the south.
Ama Ama, a site of the YAYOI culture on Honshu Islandin Japan, covers the period from about 150 B.C.E. until300 C.E. It is located on an eminence commanding abroad alluvial plain on the eastern shore of the InlandSea. Because the earliest establishment of Yayoi culturedid not occur on this part of the island of Honshu, thesite represents the expansion of agricultural communitieseast from Kyushu to the area that was to become theheartland of Japanese civilization. The Yayoi culture itselfwas the result of a major infusion of influence, andalmost certainly immigrant groups, from the mainland ofKorea. It saw the adoption of wet rice cultivation, aknowledge of bronze and iron production, and intensifiedtrade, following the long period of hunter-gatherer domi-nance on the archipelago, known as the Jomon culture.
The excavations at Ama revealed a long occupationperiod, beginning with the late phase of Early Yayoi. Thissite was afflicted by a major flood that laid down a thickdeposit over the settlement, but it was reoccupied duringMiddle and Late Yayoi. The investigations have revealedthat the village was defined by ditches, which, in theearly period of occupation, covered an area of 70 by 110
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meters. This was not a large settlement by any means, butthe waterlogged conditions have preserved organicremains that reveal intensive rice cultivation as the main-stay of the economy. The wooden agricultural imple-ments include large spades and hoes made on the site, tojudge from the unfinished wooden tools and wood shav-ings that have survived. Friction with other communities,of which many are known in this strategic area, is sug-gested by the presence of bows and arrows made of stoneor, in one instance, bronze. There are also stone spear-heads. The rice was probably ground on milling stones,and wooden pounders have been recovered. Wood wasalso converted into cups and bowls, along with ceramicvessels whose styles relate to those typical of the earlierYayoi on Kyushu sites to the west.
Burials in the settlement were found in specialditched enclosures, each probably representing a socialunit at the site. The dead were interred in wooden-plankcoffins, but there are insufficient findings to account forthe duration of the settlement, and it is likely that poorermembers of the community were buried with less cere-mony beyond the confines of the village. There are manysites of the Middle and Late Yayoi phases in the vicinityof Ama, and it has been suggested that these probablyrepresent new settlements, founded as the original popu-lation expanded. Some of these villages were significantlylarger than Ama, again indicating population expansionon the basis of intensive wet rice cultivation.
Amaravati Amaravati is a major Buddhist religiouscomplex inspired by the rulers of the SATAVAHANADYNASTY (late first century B.C.E.–third century C.E.),located on the Krishna River in modern AndhraPradesh state, southern India. It is part of the ancientsettlement of Dharanikota and derives its name fromthe temple of Amaresvara, mentioned in Amaravatiperiod inscriptions.
It was first recognized as a major site in 1796, whena Colonel McKenzie visited it and found it still intact.However, on his return, in 1816, he found that the com-plex had been plundered by villagers for building mate-rial. Research at Amaravati began under Alexander Rea inthe early years of the 20th century, and the results werepublished in 1905. Rea was able to uncover the circularpavement around the great stupa and identify the founda-tions to the gateways. The complex incorporated monas-teries and Buddhist temples embellished withoutstanding sculptured reliefs dating from the secondcentury B.C.E. to the third century C.E.
The stupa at Amaravati was one of the largest inIndia, originally standing about 30 meters (99 ft.) high,with a base 50 meters (165 ft.) in diameter. Tradition hasit that the stupa covers sacred relics of the Buddha him-self. It probably originated during the reign of ASOKA (d.238 or 232 B.C.E.), a king of the Maurya dynasty, and now
survives as a ruined base, for the superstructure was quar-ried during the 18th and 19th centuries as a source oflime mortar. The original appearance of this now ruinedstupa can be seen on a relief on one of the temple railings.It had a huge dome on a cylindrical base. Some of themarble reliefs were taken to the British Museum in Lon-don, England, and others were taken to Madras in India.
The reliefs depict superb narrative scenes taken fromtales in the life of the Buddha that survive in the so-calledjataka stories. The style embraced the move from repre-senting the Buddha symbolically—for instance, by anempty throne—to depicting him in human form, and thetwo types of scenes are even found on the same carving.The name Amaravati has been given to the style of artthat developed there, a style that had a wide influence,extending into Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.
Amarendrapura Amarendrapura refers to a citynamed in an important inscription from SDOK KAK THOMin Thailand, which dates to the mid-11th century. Itstates that JAYAVARMAN II of Angkor in Cambodia foundeda city at a location named Amarendrapura. Identificationof sites known only from epigraphic evidence oftenresembles a wild-goose chase. Some authorities haveplaced Amarendrapura at BANTEAY CHOEU, a large rectan-gular earthwork that encloses temples of the same period,such as AK YUM and Prei Kmeng, at the western end ofthe WESTERN BARAY at Angkor. However, Banteay Choeuis now regarded as a partially completed reservoir.
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Amaravati was one of the great early centers of Buddhism inIndia. Although only the base of the great stupa survives, itssplendor can still be seen in this relief carving, dating to thesecond century C.E. (Scala/Art Resource, NY)
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amatya The amatya, described as one of the vital com-ponents of a kingdom in the political treatise known asthe ARTHASASTRA of KAUTILYA, were those who adminis-tered the functions of the state in India and were main-tained as a civil service by the royal treasury. Kautilyawrote his treatise on statehood during the fourth centuryB.C.E. as an adviser to King CANDRAGUPTA MAURYA, whosekingdom was centered on the city of PATALIPUTRA (mod-ern Patna).
Ampil Rolum This site in Cambodia is one of the mostextensive of the surviving centers of the CHENLA period(550–800 C.E.). It incorporates three brick sanctuarieswith fine sandstone lintels and an inscription dated to theseventh or eighth century C.E. The corpus of Chenlainscriptions records the names of a series of centers, but itis not possible to identify the precise location of all ofthem. In the case of Ampil Rolum, however, one inscrip-tion noted that a king with a name ending in -aditya (therising sun) ruled in “this city of Bhavapura.”
Amri Amri is a settlement mound located in the lowerIndus Valley of India. Excavations in 1929 by N. G.Majumdar and again by J. M. Casal in 1959–62 haveuncovered evidence for a long period of occupation fromat least 3000 B.C.E. until the end of the INDUS VALLEY CIVI-LIZATION in the second millennium B.C.E. The sequencehas been divided into three major phases. The first phase,with four subdivisions, provides vital evidence for cul-tural developments leading to the mature civilization ofthe Indus Valley.
Changing pottery styles provide the basis for thedivision of Period I, which has yielded evidence for amud-brick wall and structures that were regularly rebuilton earlier foundations. Some of these contain small cell-like rooms that might, as at MEHRGARH, have been grainstores. The subsistence economy was based on the culti-vation of barley and domestic cattle, but the earlierphases also contain numerous gazelle bones. There was aflourishing ceramic industry, and chert was used in themanufacture of blades. Rare carnelian and marine-shellbeads indicate an exchange network. Amri has given itsname to the Amri-Nal phase in the early development ofthe Indus Valley civilization, and many further sitesbelonging to this phase have been found, some little morethan small hamlets, others more substantial, like Amriitself.
During the fourth and last phase of Period I, there isevidence of a transitional phase to the Indus civilization.However, Amri was never a major site, and the hallmarksof exchange and manufacturing, such as SEALS, clay seal-ings, and weights, were rare. The last major period ofoccupation belongs to the so-called JHUKAR culture, tradi-tionally dated to about 2000–1800 B.C.E.
Amri-Nal Amri-Nal is the name given to one of thefour phases of the Early Harappan culture. The sites ofthis phase concentrate in Sind and Baluchistan in Pak-istan, and radiocarbon dates place them within the period3200–2600 B.C.E. The vast majority of the 88 sites knownfall below five hectares (12.5 acres) in extent; some sitesa little more than 1,000 square meters (1,200 sq. ft.) inarea might have been temporary camp sites. Only a fewsettlements extended beyond 10 hectares, the largest,DHOLAVIRA, probably covering three times that area.
The principal exposures of archaeological materialare from the eponymous sites. Excavations at AMRI, par-ticularly the second phase of research under Jean-MarieCasal in 1959–62, revealed a sequence of superposedbuilding phases in stone and mud brick. Some structureswere domestic, but the smaller rectangular buildings arethought to have been granaries. There is also evidence forthe manufacture of jewelry, including shell bangles, and arich ceramic industry. The faunal remains reveal amarked predominance of domestic cattle bones, alongwith the bones of sheep and goats.
The site of Nal covers nearly six hectares. Excava-tions in 1925 by Harold Hargreaves followed a number ofearlier investigations dating back to 1903, attracted per-haps by the outstanding ceramics from this site, deco-rated with animal paintings that include images of cattleand gazelles. Again stone and mud-brick structural foun-dations were traced, as well as evidence for the manufac-ture of beads in agate, carnelian, shell, and LAPIS LAZULI.Copper was also cast at the site into small tanged spear-heads and chisels. Gregory Possehl has suggested that theexpansion of Amri-Nal sites southeast into Gujarat inIndia might have been due to a predominantly pastoraleconomy. The practice of transhumance (seasonal move-ment of herders and flocks) between the river valleys andsurrounding uplands in the core region is highly likely,for the two major types of pottery are present beyondtheir areas of manufacture. It has also been suggested thatit was during this important period that irrigation beganto be applied to agriculture. Some Amri-Nal sites, such asBALAKOT, have a coastal orientation.
See also INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION.
amrita In Indian mythology, amrita was ambrosia, thefood of the gods, conferring immortality on those whodrank it. It had very early origins, mentioned in theHindu epics the MAHABHARATA (500 B.C.E.–400 C.E.) andthe Ramayana (first century B.C.E.). Its legendary origininvolved a battle between the Hindu gods and demons forits possession. The outcome was unsuccessful, so on theadvice of Vishnu, the gods and demons cooperated bytaking opposite ends of a sacred naga snake that wascoiled around Mount Mandara. They thus spun themountain, churning the ocean of milk below as they didso. The mountain began to collapse into the ocean, and
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Vishnu descended in the guise of a turtle to support themountain until the elixir was obtained. The battle thatfollowed saw the gods victorious.
The CHURNING OF THE OCEAN OF MILK was a populartheme in the Hindu religion of Angkor in Cambodia andwas splendidly portrayed on a relief at ANGKOR WAT. Theactual city of Angkor Thom, constructed by King JAYAVAR-MAN VII in the early 13th century C.E., was probably ametaphorical representation of this theme. The gods andthe demons are seen flanking the entrance causeways;under this metaphor, the BAYON temple in the center ofthe city, the resting place for the ashes of the king, repre-sented Mount Mandara.
Ananda (fifth century B.C.E.) Ananda, a cousin of theBuddha, became his faithful personal attendant and is saidto have followed the Buddha as a shadow, ensuring that hisneeds were always met. After his enlightenment, Buddha had no permanentattendant for a period of 20 years. When aged 55, how-ever, he selected Ananda, the only one of his close follow-ers who had not offered his services when the Buddha letit be known that he sought such a person to assist him.Ananda accepted this demanding position subject toeight self-denying conditions, including that he was notto be permitted to share any of the special offerings ofclothing or food made to his cousin or to stay in the Bud-dha’s own quarters.
Ananda outlived the Buddha by many years, finallydying at the age of about 120. It is recorded that his deathtook place on a barge in the middle of the Ganges(Ganga) River, and that at his own request his body wasdivided into two so that the rulers of the northern andsouthern banks could each have a share. His remainswere then covered by stupas, both of which were latervisited by the Chinese monk and pilgrim XUANZANG(602–64 C.E.).
Anandacandra (ruled early eighth century B.C.E.) Anan-dacandra was the king of ARAKAN (now Rakhine) in westernMyanmar (Burma). He was known for his generosity to Bud-dhist establishments but also favored Hindu deities.Anandacandra is best known as the author of a majoraddition to an inscription from SHIT-THAUNG, which setsout the names of his 18 predecessors and describes theorigin of the royal line with the god Siva. His capital waslocated at VESALI, a huge walled city surrounded by amoat and containing a walled palace precinct. Hisinscriptions record his foundation of Buddhist monaster-ies and reliquaries, together with donations of land,slaves, and draft animals. But he also favored Hindudeities and founded temples for their gods that bore hisname. His state was strategically placed to command thepassage of goods and people across the Bay of Bengalfrom India, and he not only received many Buddhist
monks but also sent fine gifts to the monastic communi-ties of Sri Lanka. He was the guardian of the law and, asdid the Gupta kings of India, followed a policy of com-muting capital sentences.
See also GUPTA EMPIRE.
Ananda temple The Ananda temple, built in the reignof King KYANZITTHA (1084–1112 C.E.), is an outstandingexample of Buddhist temple building at PAGAN in modernMyanmar (Burma). It lies about 200 meters (660 ft.) tothe east of the city walls. It is of a cruciform plan, eachaxis being 87 meters (287 ft.) long. The central shrine iscovered by a gilded stupa. Many decorated plaques on thetemple terraces show narrative scenes on the life of theBuddha from birth to enlightenment. The interior w