enabling women’s empowerment in post disaster

8/8/2019 Enabling Womens Empowerment in Post Disaster

1/19

RICS CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING RESEARCH CONFERENCE SEPT 2008 RESEARCH

COBRA2008


2/19

COBRA 2008The construction and building research conference of theRoyal Institution of Chartered Surveyors

Held at Dublin Institute of Technology, 4-5 September 2008

ISBN 978-1-84219-434-8

RICS

12 Great George StreetLondon SW1P 3ADUnited Kingdom

www.rics.org/cobra

September 2008


3/19

All papers submitted to COBRA were assessed by expert panel, drawn from the construction andbuilding research community, The conference organisers wish to extend their appreciation to themembers of the panel for their work, which is invaluable to the success of COBRA.

Kate Carter Heriot-Watt University, UKKeith Cattell University of Cape Town, South AfricaGrace Ding University of Technology Sydney, Australia

Tom Dunne Dublin Institute of Technology, IrelandCharles Egbu University of Salford, UKChris Fortune University of Salford, UKRod Gameson University of Wolverhampton, UKLouis Gunnigan Dublin Institute of Technology, IrelandMartin Hanratty Dublin Institute of Technology, IrelandAlan Hore Dublin Institute of Technology, IrelandMyles Keaveny Dublin Institute of Technology, IrelandAndrew Knight Nottingham Trent University, UKSteven McCabe Birmingham City University, UKKathy Mitchell University of Cape Town, South AfricaKeith Potts University of Wolverhampton, UKDavid Root University of Cape Town, South AfricaKathy Roper Georgia Institute of Technology, USA

Lloyd Scott Dublin Institute of Technology, IrelandWinston Shakantu Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South AfricaLorcan Sirr Dublin Institute of Technology, IrelandSuresh Subashini University of Wolverhampton, UKStephen Walsh Dublin Institute of Technology, IrelandSara Wilkinson Deakin University, Australia

In addition to this, a specialist panel assessed paper for the session arranged by CIB W113.

John Adriaanse London South Bank University, UKJulie Adshead University of Salford, UKRachelle Alterman Technion, IsraelJane Ball University of Sheffield, UKMichael Brand University of New South Wales, AustraliaPenny Brooker University of Wolverhampton, UKRuth Cannon Dublin Institute of Technology, IrelandAlice Christudason National University of SingaporePaul Chynoweth University of Salford, UKPhilip Chan National University of SingaporeSai On Cheung City University of Hong KongRon Craig Loughborough University, UKJose Caramelo Gomes University of Lusiada, PortugalAsanga Gunawansa National University of SingaporeRob Home Anglia Ruskin University, UKPeter Kennedy Glasgow Caledonian University, UKAnthony Lavers Keating Chambers, UKTim McLernon University of Ulster, UKFrits Meijer TU Delft, The NetherlandsJim Mason University of the West of England, UK

Brodie McAdam University of Salford, UKIssaka Ndekugri University of Wolverhampton, UKLinda Thomas-Mobley Georgia Tech, USAYvonne Scannell Trinity College Dublin, IrelandCathy Sherry University of New South Wales, AustraliaHenk Visscher TU Delft, The Netherlands


4/19

Enabling Womens Empowerment in Post Disaster

Reconstruction

Nirooja Thurairajah

Research Institute for the Built and Human Environment, University of Salford

Email: [email protected]

Dilanthi Amaratunga



Richard Haigh



Abstract

The occurrence of disasters has increased tremendously during the recent past. Although disaster

management efforts are designed to benefit both men and women in real practice, a larger share of

benefits and resources goes to men and women continue to remain marginalised. Recent studies have

recognised the need to include womens contribution to disaster management and emphasised itsimportance in building disaster resilient communities. Empowerment is a process by which women

could acquire the ability to make strategic life choices, which could not only overcome above barriers

but also to achieve disaster resilient societies. Hence this study explores womens status in post

disaster situations and examines the concept of empowerment. Further it discusses the factors that

influence women's empowerment in post disaster reconstruction. This study was based upon a

theoretical as well as practical ideas obtained through comprehensive literature review.

Keywords: Disaster, Empowerment, Reconstruction, Women

1. BackgroundUnited Nations (2003) describes a disaster as a severe disruption of the functioning of a community or

a society causing extensive human, material, economic or environmental losses which goes beyond the

ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources. In order to address the

various issues of the disaster and to reduce the occurrence of future disasters, it is important to take


5/19

corrective measures by managing disasters in an effective way. Delaney and Shrader (2000) have

acknowledged that disaster management is a circular model in which disasters and development are

intertwined. According to Ariyabandu and Wickramasinghe (2003), disaster management is a

collective term encompassing all aspects of planning for and responding to disasters which includes

both pre and post disaster activities. Even though in disasters it is difficult to differentiate between

different stages, policy makers and researchers have identified a disaster cycle for management

purposes. Although different scholars use various ways of naming the phases, generally the disaster

cycle includes disaster mitigation and prevention, emergency, rehabilitation and reconstruction as

shown in Figure 1 (Delaney and Shrader, 2000). While each phase of a disaster cycle should not be

seen in isolation (Delaney and Shrader, 2000) the construction industry should increase its focus on

the right phases to build long term disaster resilient communities through reconstruction.

In the recent past, number of disaster occurrences has increased (Altay and Green, 2006). They argue

that policy makers and researchers need to focus on enhancement of societys capacity to withstand

disasters in order to reduce damage to both human and material resources. However, post disaster

reconstruction can provide windows of opportunity for physical, social, political and environmental

development not only to reconstruct the impacted areas, but also to improve the socio-economic and

physical conditions of the impacted population in the long term (International Labour Organisation,

2003). The reconstruction period includes the long-term, and often substantial, investments in

rebuilding the physical and social infrastructure of affected regions (Delaney and Shrader, 2000).

However, in practice, too often disaster responses have not contributed to long-term development but

they actually subvert or undermine it (Bradshaw, 2001; Anderson and Woodrow, 1998). This, result in

lengthy post disaster reconstruction activities and the development opportunities are lost. Therefore,

there is a need for built environment to adapt strategies to increase effectiveness and efficiency in post

disaster reconstruction. Previous research found that despite the improvements in the emergency

response to natural disasters, permanent reconstruction is often inefficiently managed, uncoordinated

and slow to get off the ground (Jones, 2006). This indicates a need to focus on post disasterreconstruction to improve disaster resistance in the long term.

The local community is an important segment of the stakeholders for disaster management as they are

the first responders when a disaster occurs. Most often, during small scale disasters the local

community is left to deal with disaster management without any assistance from external parties. In

addition, top-down disaster risk reduction programmes often fail to address specific vulnerabilities,

needs and demands of at-risk communities (Haghebaert, 2007). These vulnerabilities and needs can

only be identified through a process of direct consultation and dialogue with the communities


6/19

concerned, because those communities understand local realities and contexts better than outsiders

(Haghebaert, 2007). Generally, vulnerable communities possess skills, knowledge, resources and

capacities and these are often overlooked and underutilised (Aldunce and Leon, 2007) and, in some

cases, even undermined by external actors.

Figure 1: Disaster management cycle

Disaster

reconstructionEmergencyDisaster management cycle

Disaster mitigation &

prevention

Rehabilitation

Disaster

Adopted: Delaney and Shrader (2000)

The lack of involvement of both men and women within the community in managing disasters has

exposed them to more potential dangers (Childs, 2006). Further, recent studies have reflected the need

for gender consideration in disaster management, and emphasised its importance in building disaster

resilient communities (Ariyabandu and Wickramasinghe, 2003; Delaney and Shrader, 2000). In a

study by Ariyabandu and Wickramasinghe (2003) it is emphasised that disasters affect women and

men differently due to the different roles and responsibilities undertaken by them, the differences in

their capacities, needs and vulnerabilities. In most of the instances, although disaster management

efforts are designed to benefit both men and women, in practice a larger share of benefits and

resources goes to men while women continue to remain marginalised. In many instances after the

occurrence of disasters, womens economic dependence on men increases (Kottegoda, 2001). This

ultimately reduces their security (International Labour Organisation, 2003). However, during or after a

disaster as job opportunities dry up, men have the option of migrating to find work (Ariyabandu and

Wickramasinghe, 2003). However, women are less able to migrate due to their domestic

responsibilities, which leaves them in a more vulnerable position (Centre for Policy studies, 2001;

Enarson, 2001; Ariyabandu and Wickramasinghe, 2003; United Nations, 2006). During the Yokohama

World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction (1994 cited Ariyabandu and Wickramasinghe,


7/19

2003), a mid-term review of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction recognised the

need to stimulate community involvement and the empowerment of women at all stages of disaster

management programmes as an integral part of reducing community vulnerability to natural disasters.

This bespeaks the inclusion of womens contribution to post disaster reconstruction.

In addition to poverty, environmental degradation and the different needs of men and women, the

marginalised role of women within many organisations and their absence from the decision-making

structures contributes to women's vulnerability in post disaster situations (Department of Economic

and Social Affairs, 1999). The concept of empowerment is a management philosophy which can help

to overcome these problems. The study by UN-HABITAT (2007) found that when women are

empowered, they have the capacity and the inner will to improve their situation and gain control over

their own lives. This can lead to an equal share in economic and political decision-making, and control

of economic resources which will reduce their vulnerability in disaster situations. This reflects the

strong need to empower women who are from the affected community within post disaster

reconstruction to develop long term disaster resilient communities. In this context, based on which this

paper is written and was undertaken as part of a research study which focuses on the empowering

women during post disaster reconstruction. This study identifies womens status in post disaster

situations and examines the concept of empowerment. Further it explores the factors that influence

women's empowerment in post disaster reconstruction.

2. Women in post disaster situationsThe magnitude of disasters is documented with reference to the degree of vulnerability of the affected

population (Ariyabandu and Wickramasinghe, 2003; Delaney and Shrader, 2000). After the

occurrence of a natural disaster, in economic downturns women lose their jobs more quickly and in

greater numbers than men (International Labour Organisation, 2003). In addition, their small

businesses tend to be hard-hit and their household entitlements decline. In the report by InternationalLabour Organisation (2003) it was found that, after natural disasters, women hold fewer land titles and

their small farming plots may be forced off the land. Moreover, since land and employment

arrangements are often negotiated through men, women may lose access to both without mens

representation (International Labour Organisation, 2003).

In a disaster, generally, womens workloads increase enormously due to damaged infrastructure,

housing and workplaces; the need to compensate for declining family income and social services; and

the responsibility of caring for orphaned children, the elderly and the disabled. This in turn restricts


8/19

womens mobility and time for income-generating work. In certain instances, especially social and

political transitions, declining political participation and resurgent patriarchal attitudes jeopardise

opportunities for women (International Labour Organisation, 2003). These disaster-related adversities

compound several existing challenges for women.

Although natural disasters severely affect women they often provide them with a unique opportunity

to challenge and change their gendered status in society (International Labour Organisation, 2003).

Women have proven that they are indispensable when it comes to responding to disasters (Delaney

and Shrader, 2000). Following hurricane Mitch in 1998, women in Guatemala and Honduras were

seen building houses, digging wells and ditches, hauling water and building shelters (Delaney and

Shrader, 2000). Though often against mens wishes, women have been willing and able to take an

active role in what are traditionally considered male tasks. This can have the effect of changing

societys conceptions of womens capabilities. Women are effective at mobilising the community to

respond to disasters since they form groups and networks of social actors who work to meet the most

pressing needs of the community (Delaney and Shrader, 2000).

A pre-existing pervasive culture of acceptance (or denial) concerning violence against women,

including no existing criminal legislation on domestic violence in a country (Bartolomei et al. 2005),

presents compounded problems for organisations attempting to support women in the wake of the

tsunami. The denial or trivialising of violence against women by authorities only adds to the problem.

In responding to disaster, interventions need to be developed around the existing skills and knowledge

of women, who are the time-honoured custodians of community knowledge, social networks and

community development (Bartolomei et al. 2005). The capacity of women to mobilise people and

manage change should not be underestimated. Rather than feeling that their voices can not be safely

heard, opportunities for women to engage in management and decision making related to all levels of

disaster response and reconstruction should be offered . While in certain instances cultural barriersmay prevent women from taking an active role in reconstruction, on the whole, women contribute to

such activities as relief distribution, clearing up after disasters, preparation of land, wage labour in

reconstruction, etc. (Ariyabandu and Wickramasinghe, 2003).

According to the Recovery and Reconstruction Department from the International Labour

Organisation (Department for International Development, 2000), unequal gender roles often change

after crisis as women and men can step out of their socially ascribed roles in their coping strategies. It

was found that, engaging in construction, mechanical and other male dominated employment; creating


9/19

small enterprises; contributing to reconstruction discussions; acquiring more education while

externally displaced; and having no traditional male and female roles in the absence of men,

empowers women in terms of economic independence, ability as family providers, decision-making

and social position (International Labour Organisation, 2003). The International Labour Organisation

emphasised the need for sufficient and truly empowering recovery assistance for women.

3. The concept of empowermentThe origin of empowerment as a form of theory could be traced back to the Brazilian humanitarian

and educator, Paulo Freire (1973 cited Hur, 2006) when he proposed a plan for liberating the

oppressed people through education. Although Paulo did not use the term empowerment, his emphasis

on education as a means of inspiring individual and group challenges to social inequality provided an

important background for social activists who were concerned about empowering marginalised people

(Parpart, et al. 2003). The concept is conceived as the idea of power since it is closely related to

changing power by gaining, expending, diminishing, and losing (Page and Czuba, 1999). While

explaining about the origin of the concept, Shackleton (1995) says that there is no single cause or

origin of the empowerment movement, rather, it emerges from the increasing specialisation of some

work, the changing shape of organisations and a shift towards placing greater value on the human

being at work. While describing empowerment, Nesan and Holt (1999) state that, empowerment ismore a philosophy than a set of tools or management principles to be readily applied to business

organisations.

The term empowerment has been used frequently in management literature and has been defined in

several ways by organisations and scholars. Accordingly, empowerment is a diverse concept which is

open to a number of different interpretations. Even though the meaning of the terms delegation and

empowerment may look similar they are different to each other. Shackleton (1995) states that indelegation a leader or manager decides to pass on a task or a specific part of his or her job to another

individual for a specific reason. However, empowerment is a philosophy of management which

widens the responsibility associated with the current task or role without necessarily changing the task

or role itself. Handy (1993) explains empowerment as encouraging people to make decisions and

initiate actions with less control and direction from their manager. In a study by Loretta and Polsky

(1991), for management, empowerment is giving up of some control and the sharing of additional

knowledge of company goals and achievements. In addition, for an employee, it is the acceptance of

risk by taking more responsibility. Avrick and colleagues (1992) state empowerment as giving

authority commensurate with their responsibilities to initiate positive change in their organisation.


10/19

This demands total commitment, involvement, support and trust from management. While explaining

about empowerment, Rubinstein (1993) states that every individual is responsible for acceptance or

rejection of the quality of prior work; self inspection and control of current work; and acceptance or

rejection of finished work. In the above studies the authors have explained the term from a similar

perspective within the management of organisations.

Ripley and Ripley (1992) explain empowerment from four dimensions: as a concept; as a philosophy;

as a set of organisational behavioural practices and as an organisational programme. They further state

that;

Empowerment as a concept is the vesting of decision making or approval authority to employeeswhere, traditionally, such authority was a prerogative.

Empowerment as a philosophy and as a set of behavioural practices means allowing self-managingteams and individuals to be in charge of their own career destinies, while meeting and exceeding

company and personal goals through shared company vision.

Empowerment as an organisational programme involves providing the framework and permissionto the total workforce in order to unleash, develop and utilise their skills and knowledge to their

fullest potential, for the good of the organisation, as well as for themselves.

In the above definition of empowerment, Ripley and Ripley (1992) identify the possible means of

including empowerment into the organisation. In other words it provides a guide to practitioners and

scholars to investigate the roles and implications of the concept within the management.

Further, empowerment is multidimensional and occurs within sociological, psychological, economic,

political and other dimensions. Earlier studies on empowerment state that empowerment can occur at

individual level or collective level (Hur, 2006; Boehm and Staples, 2004). The goal of individual

empowerment is to achieve a state of liberation strong enough to impact ones power in life,

community and society. The goal of collective empowerment is to establish community building, so

that members of a given community can feel a sense of freedom, belonging, and power that can lead to

constructive social change. Each level of empowerment has its own components. A set of four

components including meaning, competence, self-determination and impact were found in personal

empowerment. A set of four components, including collective belonging, involvement in the

community, control over organisation in the community and community building, are explored in

collective empowerment.


11/19

Further, empowerment can be illustrated as a social process since it occurs in relation to others and as

an outcome that can be enhanced and evaluated against expected accomplishments (Parpart et al.,

2003). In a study within the construction industry, Nesan and Holt (1999) collectively define

empowerment as the process of giving employees the authority to take decisions, relating to their work

processes and functions, and within the limits provided by management, but requiring them to assume

full responsibility and risk for their actions. They state that, empowerment is not an act or incident that

can visibly or physically happen, but it is employees perception or realisation that they believe in, and

control what happens to their work processes; and that they are capable of controlling those processes

efficiently. Even though Eylon and Bamberger (2000) view empowerment from two different

perspectives: a cognition (psychological approach) or social act (sociological approach), in their

gender related study, they accept that empowerment cannot be neatly conceptualised as either a

cognition or social act.

4. Conceptualising womens empowermentThe conception of womens empowerment is from the understanding that women's empowerment is

about the process by which those who have been denied the ability to make strategic life choices can

acquire such an ability (Kabeer, 1999). Amartya Sens (1999) development as freedom approach hasbeen a starting point for many recent definitions of empowerment. Sen (1999) argues that the goal of

development is not to achieve a certain set of indicators, but to increase choices. According to Magar

(2003) womens empowerment is an outcome of a process whereby individual attitudes and

capabilities, combined with collaborative actions, and reciprocally influenced by resources results in a

transformation to the desired achievements. Kabeer (1999) describes womens empowerment as a

process by which women acquire the ability to make strategic life choices in terms of three interrelated

dimensions that include resources (preconditions), agency (process) and achievements (outcomes).

Magar, in her study on empowerment approaches to gender based violence, constructed a frameworkusing the findings from earlier studies (Kabeer, 1999; Stein, 1997).

This framework, as shown in Figure 2, highlights individuals attitudes and capabilities, which allow

participation in various types of collaborative behaviour which leads to empowerment. The

empowerment process comprises of two levels: the level of individual capacities observed in

individual attitudes and capabilities and the level of group capacities (Magar, 2003). Individual

attitudes (self-esteem and self-efficacy) along with specific types of skills, knowledge, and political

awareness, are key ingredients to achieving empowerment at these two levels. Self-efficacy or agency


12/19

is defined as the experience of oneself as a cause agent, not in terms of skills but rather in terms of

ones judgment of what one can do with whatever skills one has (Bandura, 1995).

Figure 2: Womens empowerment conceptual framework

INDIVIDUAL

CAPACITIESGROUP CAPACITIES ACHIEVEMENTS

Attitudes/beliefs

Self esteem

Self-efficacy or

Agency

Capabilities

Knowledge or skills

Gender/Political

awareness

Individual achievements

Autonomy

Control over resources

Increased decision

making power

Increased self-

sufficiency

Group & societal

achievements

Culture changes

Operationalised

policies

Collective

participation

Social

Political

Resources

Information

Material

Social

Source: Magar (2003)

According to the report from the Division for the Advancement of Women from the Department of

Economic and Social Affairs, the Beijing Declaration 75 and Platform for Action 76 encouraged men

to participate fully in all actions towards gender equality and urged the establishment of the principle

of shared power and responsibility between women and men at home, in the community, in the

workplace and in the wider national and international communities (United Nations, 2006). It

emphasises the need to bring about change in attitudes, relationships and access to resources and

decision making, which are critical for the promotion of gender equality and the full enjoyment of all

human rights by women.

5. Factors influencing womens empowermentThe conditions of choice needs to be recognised in order to transform people by which those who have

been denied the ability to make strategic life choices can acquire such ability (Kabeer, 1999). He

identifies the conditions as, taking into consideration the internalisation of norms; the consequences of


13/19

choice must be overall positive; and the choices pursued must have a transformative significance,

changing the social structure in sustainable ways. In supporting this view, Hayward (1998) argues that

power is faceless with social boundaries rather than identifiable agents, constraining and enabling

action. According to the studies of Foucault (1979 cited Jakimow and Kilby, 2006) and Giddens (1979

cited Jakimow and Kilby, 2006), there are three categories of constraints that prevent the pursuit of

interests: internal, institutional and social. These categories should not be considered as separate and

autonomous aspects of power relations. Instead these can be considered as mutually dependent

processes constraining action.

Internal constraints prevent the pursuit of interests by limiting the identification of what those interests

are, and the actors sense of self-entitlement to them. In an earlier study by Foucault (1979, cited

Jakimow and Kilby, 2006) he argues that processes of socialisation in which punishments and rewards

are brought out for certain behaviour which encourage the adherence to social norms. Jakimow and

Kilby (2006) call this as normalisation of the individual within the social structure which leads to the

internalisation of norms, shaping the aspirations and perceived possibilities of the actor. Further the

observation by peers prevents action that deviates from these norms, regardless of their utility in the

pursuit of individual interests. Institutional mechanisms can support the relative autonomy and

dependence. Actors can disobey social norms when institutions provide the support that may otherwise

be removed through social sanctions. Although institutional mechanisms are a product of the social

system they often reinforce social norms instead of acting as an instrument to overcome them.

As already mentioned, internal and institutional constraints are a product of a social structure and so it

can be argued that either reducing or removing social constraints and legitimating ideology are most

important in facilitating long term changes in the ability to pursue interests (Jakimow and Kilby,

2006). The initiatives that focus on internal and institutional constraints only ameliorate relative

disempowerment unless accompanied by social transformation which is about the ability to challengeor maintain social norms. In an earlier study by Parveen and Leonhuser (2004), a cumulative

empowerment index was developed using six key indicators of empowerment covering three

dimensions in order to measure the empowerment of rural women. These dimensions include socio-

economic dimension, familial dimension and psychological dimension. Socio-economic dimension

consists of economic contribution to household welfare, access to socio-economic resources and

ownership of assets. Familial dimension includes womens participation in household decisions

covering six major dimensions: self-determination, bargaining power, control over resources, self-

esteem, autonomy, status and power relations within households. Psychological dimension includes


14/19

perception on gender awareness with regard to basic rights of women and coping capacity to different

household shocks.

Parveen and Leonhuser (2004) considered six indicators: contribution to household, access to

resources, ownership of assets, participation in household decision making, perception on gender

awareness and coping capacity to household shocks. The contribution to household income is referred

to the wifes contribution in terms of percent involvement in subsistence productive activities that are

not rewarded in cash or kind to household income. Access to resources is referred to the right, scope,

power or permission to use and/or get benefits from household and social resources. Ownership of

assets is referred to the ability of a woman to control her own current productive and non-productive

assets and enjoy benefits accruing from them. The participation in household decision making is

referred to the extent of womens ability to participate in formulating and executing decisions

regarding domestic, financial, child-welfare, reproductive health, farming and socio-political matters

in coordination with other family members.

Further, the perception on gender awareness is referred to a womans ability to express her opinion

with regard to existing gender inequality and discrimination against women in the society. In their

study, Parveen and Leonhuser (2004) selected fifteen crucial gender issues which include under-

value, education, economic opportunity, inheritance property rights, reproductive choice, early

marriage, dowry, divorce rights, son preference, attitude towards female child, birth registration,

feeding priority, wage differentiation, political awareness and violence against women. Finally the

coping capacity to household shocks is referred to womans ability to face sudden risks, crises and

periodic stresses in the household. Although several studies identify different factors influencing

womens empowerment, the consideration of factors which influence womens empowerment will

differ from one context to another.

6. DiscussionReconstruction is a rebuilding measure which involves not only constructing physical structures but

also building the confidence, self-respect, self-esteem, self-dependency, mutual support and mutual

trust and, the rebuilding of communities (Delaney and Shrader 2000). This long-term process focuses

on human and material resource development, coordinated effort towards independence, sustainability

and empowerment. In post disaster reconstruction, the most vulnerable and marginalised sections of

society like, women, children, and the poorest section of society, etc., are the primary stakeholders and


15/19

partners in the empowering process (Jayaraj, 2006). As seen earlier, during post disaster situations

since womens economic security reduces and their economic dependences on men increases. In order

to overcome this situation there is a need to increase their contribution to their family welfare, improve

their access to resources and increase the ownership of productive and non-productive assets. In

addition womens participation in household decision making can provide them the opportunity to

consider their needs and vulnerabilities within disaster reconstruction. Most importantly women need

to be made aware of their rights and their coping capacity to disasters. This will improve self-

confidence, bargaining power, freedom of choices and coping abilities within the households (Parveen

and Leonhuser, 2004).

According to the United Nations Development Programme (United Nations, 2005), Eliminating

gender inequalities in employment is one of the strategies within the millennium development goal

Promote gender equality and empower women which seeks to improve womens economic

opportunities. It was found that ensuring female property and inheritance rights would help to

empower women both economically and socially and would rectify a fundamental injustice (United

Nations, 2005). Other strategies for economic opportunities could include improving womens access

to employment and conditions of work by offering job training, improving pay and working

conditions, and providing child care. However in reality women are often left out of formal planning

and decision making and marginalised from community authority (United Nations, 2005). As such,

their needs and concerns are often overlooked, and their profound contributions frequently go

unrecognised.

Due to the social structure and the reactions from the community to individuals behaviours, the

aspirations and actions of women are subject to delusion. This may lead them to lose their interest to

enhance their positions within the community. According to Kumar-Range (1999 cited Department of

Economic and Social Affairs 1999), women tend to be active in communities and households, but aremarginalised by agencies and organisations responding to the disasters. However institutions can play

a major role in overcoming the sanctions for women than reinforcing social systems which increases

their exposure to potential dangers.

7. Conclusion

Disasters affect women and men differently due to their different roles and responsibilities undertaken

by them, the differences in their capacities, needs and vulnerabilities. Further, although disaster


16/19

management efforts are designed to benefit men and women, most often men tend to receive larger

share of benefits while women continue to remain marginalised. Social studies on disaster

management suggest that the concept of empowerment can be integrated as a management philosophy

to overcome this problem. Empowering marginalised groups will be a significant step, not only to

overcome above barriers but also to achieve disaster resilient societies. This can be considered as a

stepping stone to not only eliminating gender inequalities in employment but also to reducing poverty.

However adequate measures should be taken to avoid mere target on women as better deliverers of

services and resources otherwise this may indirectly reinforce traditional gender roles rather than

empowering them.

References

Anderson, M. and Woodrow, P. (1998) Rising from the Ashes: Development Strategies in Times of

Disaster. 2nd

ed. IT Press, London.

Aldunce, P. and Leon, A. (2007) Opportunities for improving disaster management in Chile: a case

study.Disaster prevention and Management. 16 (1). Pp. 33-41.

Ariyabandu, M. M. and Wickramasinghe, M. (2003) Gender dimensions in disaster management.

ITDG South Asia Publication, Colombo.

Altay, N. and Green, W.G. (2006) OR/MS research in disaster operations management. European

Journal of Operational Research. 175. Pp. 475 493.

Avrick, A.J., Manchanda, Y.P. and Winter, E.F. (1992) Employee empowerment: world class test

team. Proceedings of American production and Inventory Control society. USA.

Bandura, A. (1995) Self-efficacy in changing societies. Cambridge University Press, New York.

Bartolomei, L., Ree, S. and Pittaway, E. (2005) Waves of Violence - Women in Post-Tsunami Sri

Lanka. The Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies. 2005 (5).

Boehm, A. and Staples, L.H. (2004) Empowerment: The point of view of consumer. Families in

Society. 85(2). Pp. 270280.

Childs, M. (2006) Not through womens eyes: photo-essays and the construction of a gendered

tsunami disaster.Disaster Prevention and Management. 15 (1). Pp. 202 -212.

Centre for Policy studies. (2001) Gender issues in livelihood in disasters A case study of Flood in

Nepal. ITDG, Nepal.


17/19

Delaney, P.L. and Shrader, E. (2000) Gender and Post-Disaster Reconstruction: The case of

Hurricane Mitch in Honduras and Nicaragua. Report prepared for the World Bank. Available on line:

www.anglia.ac.uk/geography/gdn [accessed on 25/10/2007].

Department for International Development. (2000) Poverty elimination and the empowerment of

women. DFID, London.

Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (1999) Womens empowerment in the context of human

security. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Bangkok.

Earson, E. (2001) We want to work: Rural women in the Gujarat Drought and Earthquake . Colorado:

Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center.

Eylon, D. and Bamberger, P. (2000) Empowerment cognitions and Empowerment acts. Group and

Organisation Management. 25(4). Pp. 354-372.

Haghebaert, B. (2007) Working with vulnerable communities to assess and reduce disaster risk.

Humanitarian Exchange. London: Overseas Development Institute. Pp. 15-18. Available from:

http://www.odihpn.org/report.asp?id=2888 [accessed on 25/10/2007].

Handy, M. (1993) Freeing the vacuums. Total Quality Management. June 1993. 11.

Hayward, C. (1998) De-Facing Power. Polity. 31(1). Pp. 122.

Hur, M.H. (2006) Empowerment in terms of theoretical perspectives: Exploring a typology of the

process and components across disciplines.Journal of community psychology. 34 (5). Pp 523540.

International Labour Organisation. (2003) Gender in Crisis Response. Report prepared for ILO

InFocus Programme on Crisis Response and Reconstruction. (Available online:

http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/crisis/download/factsheet9.pdf [accessed on

23/05/2008].

Jakimow, T. and Kilby, P. (2006) Empowering Women: A Critique of the Blueprint for Self-help

Groups in India.Indian Journal of Gender Studies. 13 (3). Pp. 375-400.

Jayaraj, A. (2006) Post disaster reconstruction experiences in Andhra Pradesh, in India. In: IF

Research Group (ed.). International conference on post-disaster reconstruction meeting stakeholder

interests. 17-19 May 2006. University de Montreal, Florence.

Jones, T. L. (2006).Mind the Gap! Post-disaster reconstruction and the transition from humanitarian

relief. RICS, London.


18/19

Kabeer, N. (1999) Resources, agency, achievements: Reflections on the measurement of womens

empowerment.Development and Change. 30. Pp. 435 464.

Kottegoda, S. (2001)A study of gender aspects of communities living with drought and landscapes in

Sri Lanka. ITDG, Colombo.

Loretta, D. and Polsky, W. (1991) Share the power. Personnel Journal. September 1991. 116.

Magar, V. (2003) Empowerment approaches to gender-based violence: womens courts in Delhi

slums. Womens Studies International Forum. 26 (6). Pp 509 523.

Nesan, L.J. and Holt, G.D. (1999) Empowerment in construction. Research Studies press limited,

Hertfordshire.

Page, N. and Czuba, C.E. (1999) Empowerment: What is it?.Journal of Extension. 37(5). Pp 2432.

Parpart, J.L., Rai, S.M. and Staudt, K. (2003)Rethinking empowerment: Gender and development in a

global/local world. Routledge, New York.

Parveen, S. and Leonhuser, I. (2004) Empowerment of Rural Women in Bangladesh: A Household

Level Analysis. Conference on Rural Poverty Reduction through Research for Development and

Transformation. 5-7 October 2004. Deutscher Tropentag, Berlin.

Ripley, R.E. and Ripley, M.J. (1992) Empowerment, the cornerstone of quality: empowering

management in innovative organisations in the 1990s.Management decision. 30(4). Pp 20-43.

Rubinstein, S.P. (1993) Democracy and quality as an integrated system. Quality Progress. September

edition. USA. Pp. 51-55.

Sen, A. (1999)Development as Freedom. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Shackleton, V. (1995)Business Leadership. Routledge, London.

Stein, J. (1997) Empowerment and womens health: Theory, methods and practice. Zed Books,

London.

UN-HABITAT. (2007) Towards Women Friendly Cities. UN-HABITAT, Japan.

United Nations. (2006)Agreed Conclusions of the Commission on the Status of Women on the Critical

Areas of Concern of the Beijing Platform for Action 1996-2005. United Nations Publication.

(ST/ESA/304)


19/19

United Nations. (2005) Investing in Development A Practical Plan to Achieve the Millennium

Development Goals. Earthscan, London.

United Nations. (2003) Turning the tide on disasters towards sustainable development 2003 World

Disaster Reduction Campaign. United Nations, Geneva.

enabling women’s empowerment in post disaster

Documents