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Enabling technology futures: a survey of the Australian technology landscape Executive report September 2012

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Enabling technology futures:a survey of the Australian

technology landscape

Executive report

September 2012

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This executive report summarises Enabling technology futures: a survey of the Australian technology landscape, a report commissioned by the Australian Government Department of Industry, Innovation, Science, Research and Tertiary Education on behalf of the National Enabling Technologies Strategy Expert Forum.

Enabling technology futures: a survey of the Australian technology landscape.

Executive report. September 2012

Disclaimer

This report provides insight into the future of enabling technologies and areas of convergence. The Commonwealth, its officers and employees do not guarantee, and accept no legal liability whatsoever arising from or connected to, the accuracy, currency, completeness and relevance of the material contained in this report. This report is not meant to constitute professional advice and any persons should seek competent professional advice. The Australian Government accepts no liability whatsoever for any loss to any person resulting from the use of this material.

© Commonwealth of Australia 2012

This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without prior written permission from the Commonwealth. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to the Department of Industry, Innovation, Science, Research and Tertiary Education, GPO Box 9839, Canberra ACT 2601.

ISBN 978-1-922125-60-6

Department of Industry, Innovation, Science, Research and Tertiary Education (2012). Enabling technology futures: a survey of the Australian technology landscape—Executive report. DIISTRE, Canberra.

Written and designed by Biotext, Canberra

Department of Industry, Innovation, Science, Research and Tertiary EducationLevel 10, Industry House, 10 Binara Street, Canberra CityGPO Box 9839, Canberra, ACT 2601Phone: 02 6213 6548Website: www.innovation.gov.au

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Contents

Summary............................................................................................................................ 1

Enabling technologies have broad applications......................................................1

Enabling technologies are rapidly developing........................................................1

Enabling technologies may help to address some of Australia’s national challenges................................................................................................... 1

Enabling technologies bring a range of potential risks that must be managed........2

Background........................................................................................................................ 3

What are enabling technologies?............................................................................3

What are the key trends and drivers that influence enabling technologies?............3

The technologies................................................................................................................ 5

What is nanotechnology and what can it do?..........................................................5

What is biotechnology and what can it do?............................................................8

What is synthetic biology and what can it do?......................................................10

Summary of enabling technology developments..................................................12

The impact and uptake of enabling technologies..........................................................13

How might enabling technologies help meet our national challenges?................13

How might enabling technologies disrupt existing industry?...............................14

What are the key factors affecting the development and uptake of enabling technologies?............................................................................................15

Conclusion............................................................................................................ 16

Glossary............................................................................................................................ 18

References........................................................................................................................ 19

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Summary

Enabling technologies have broad applications

Enabling technologies have the potential to underpin an increasing number of breakthrough innovations in products, services and processes, and to help address major global and national challenges. Enabling technologies are being applied across many areas such as manufacturing, energy production, agriculture, health, consumer products, computing and communication. They have the potential to dramatically change these areas through rapid and often radical development.

There are key global trends that influence the development of enabling technologies and their applications. These include population and economic growth and change, and subsequent environmental pressures.

Enabling technologies are rapidly developing

Key enabling technologies include nanotechnology, biotechnology and synthetic biology. Nanotechnology is the manipulation of matter on an atomic and molecular scale (from 1 to 100 nanometres), which provides opportunities for the development of entirely new materials and technologies. Biotechnology is the use and manipulation of living systems and organisms to develop new products. Synthetic biology combines engineering principles and biotechnology to design and construct new biological components and systems that are not found in nature.

Billions of dollars worldwide have already been invested in these high-potential technologies. We are seeing rapid advances and new applications in all areas, supported by the development of new research tools and platforms.

In addressing population growth and change, enabling technologies are delivering crops, livestock care and farming practices to increase food supplies; ways to improve the nutrition and safety of our food; and ways to diagnose, prevent and treat human and animal disease.

In addressing economic growth and change, enabling technologies are delivering new materials with new properties for a wide range of products; raw materials from nonpetroleum sources; methods to improve mining productivity; and new manufacturing systems.

In addressing growth in environmental pressures, enabling technologies are delivering systems to produce, store and transmit energy; biofuels to supplement or replace fossil fuels; methods to treat and recycle water; methods to reduce water use in farming, industry and the home; and methods for environmental remediation.

Enabling technologies may help to address some of Australia’s national challenges

Enabling technologies have the potential to make a significant contribution to addressing the national and global challenges we face. However, a number of key factors will affect the development and uptake of the technologies.

In research and development, Australia has world-class strengths in enabling technology. Australia will need to continue its research and target it to best effect to remain globally competitive. In addition, enabling technologies will only reach their potential if they are successfully translated into the market, requiring sound commercialisation structures and good collaboration between research and industry. A robust regulatory framework is also important to ensure Australia gets maximum benefit from the new technologies (ie to prevent market failure,

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support the industry, encourage responsible uptake and use, and encourage investment and commercialisation).

Enabling technologies bring a range of potential risks that must be managed

The new technologies may present risks to human and environmental health and safety, and many people are concerned about their potential broader ethical and societal impacts. The new technologies may disrupt or displace existing technologies and processes. Research into possible risks; regulation of the technologies and their applications; and open engagement with the community on these issues will be needed.

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Background

What are enabling technologies?

An enabling technology is a technology that can drive radical change in the capabilities of a user or culture, enabling radically new products or services, or more efficient processes. Enabling technologies are characterised by rapid development of derivative technologies and applications, often across a wide range of areas such as manufacturing, communication, energy production, health and agriculture.

This executive report aims to increase understanding of enabling technologies and the role they might play in addressing Australia’s current and future national challenges. It focuses on the enabling technologies of nanotechnology, biotechnology and synthetic biology. These can be interconnected and many developments and applications draw on a combination of these new technologies.

What are the key trends and drivers that influence enabling technologies?

Changes to industry and society will influence the development of enabling technologies and, most importantly, what they are used for. The key trends influencing enabling technologies are population and economic growth and change, and growth in environmental pressures. This report provides details of how enabling technologies might address these areas.

Population growth and change

Australia’s population is growing. Over the next 40 years the rate of growth is projected to be 1.2 per cent annually, with the population reaching more than 35 million in 2050.1 A growing Australian and global population will drive a need for more resources of all kinds, including food, fuel, building and consumer products. Satisfying the need for food will require new farming and production processes. Satisfying the need for raw materials will require new use and recycling processes.

Australia’s population is also ageing. The proportion of the population aged 65 or over is expected to rise from 13.5 per cent in 2010 to 22.7 per cent in 2050.2 Change in the age structure of the population is likely to affect the use of resources, since different age groups have different needs (eg an ageing population is likely to increase demand for health and related support services).

Economic growth and change

The last 20 years have seen the development of a global economy, supported by digital information networks and communication. Businesses increasingly work across national borders and rapid knowledge transfer has changed many areas of society and industry. We are also seeing increasing demand for commodities and products in developing countries, which are being satisfied by the exports of developed countries such as Australia.

Globalisation also means that research and development occurs in an international context, and it is important to understand where Australia can leverage its expertise in enabling technologies to best effect in the world market.

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Growth in environmental pressures

Population and economic growth and the associated increase in the need for resources place pressure on the environment. Increased waste from population and economic growth will require new methods for reducing, managing, treating and recycling waste. Fossil fuels will continue to diminish in supply and increase in cost, with a subsequent increased demand for alternative and sustainable energy sources, and for energy-efficient systems and devices. There is also a demand for lower carbon emissions to reduce the impact of climate change.

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The technologies

What is nanotechnology and what can it do?

Nanotechnology is the manipulation of matter on an atomic and molecular scale—approximately 1 to 100 nanometres. At this scale the laws of physics do not operate in conventional ways. This provides opportunities for the development of entirely new materials and technologies. Opportunities enabled by nanotechnologies are vast and span multiple industries. Nanotechnology is a key technology for the future and governments around the world have invested billions of dollars in its development.3 The global nanotechnology market was valued at approximately US$15.7 billion in 2010 and is forecast to reach US$26.7 billion by 2015.4

Nanotechnology encompasses the development of:

• nanotools and platforms, which enable researchers to visualise, engineer and manipulate matter at the atomic level

• nanomaterials and components, which include materials that have an external dimension, internal structure or surface structure in the nanoscale; nanomaterials include metals, ceramics and semiconductors

• nanodevices and systems, which include a range of devices made using nanostructures.

This executive report examines how enabling technologies may assist in addressing population growth and change, economic growth and change, and growth in environmental pressures. However, it is difficult to categorise nanotechnology developments because many have applications across a wide spectrum of industries and endeavours. The developments detailed below are likely to also have applications in other fields.

Addressing population growth and change

Nanomedicine: Nanomedicine covers a very wide range of applications, including diagnostics and imaging, therapeutics and drug delivery systems, manufactured nanomaterials and nanodevices, and nanodentistry. Nanodevices are already being used in cancer therapy.5 There is currently research into ‘smart’ nanodevices that are capable of detecting and terminating tumour cells inside the body. Other nanotechnologies being developed for health applications include regenerative nanoparticles, nanoengineered blood, biocompatible nanomaterials, and supramagnetic nanoparticles for use in magnetic resonance imaging.6

Nanotechnology is significantly influencing the area of drug delivery. Nanodevices are being developed for oral, implantable, topical, pulmonary and other routes of drug delivery,7 including new technologies such as needle-free injectors. Manufactured nanomaterials are emerging that may enable novel therapeutic delivery systems, including:8

• nanobombs: modified spheres of carbon used for targeted cell destruction—for example, by delivering drugs within cancer cells

• nanoshells: hollow spheres of carbon, coated with a metallic layer (usually gold), used as platforms for delivery, diagnostics and medical devices

• nanotubes: graphite cylinders, only a few nanometres in diameter, used for drug delivery.

Agriculture: Emerging applications of nanotechnologies for the agricultural and food production industry include nanoformulated agrochemicals (eg fertilisers, pesticides, biocides, veterinary medicines, slow-release pesticides) for improved efficacy; safer and more nutritious animal

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feeds (eg fortified with nanosupplements, antimicrobial additives, detoxifying nanomaterials); and nanobiosensors for animal disease diagnostics.

Food: The potential applications of nanotechnology in the food industry may lead to improved absorption of nutrients and supplements; preservation of quality and freshness; and a reduction in the dietary intake of fat, salt and other food additives. Nanotechnologies are already being used in food packaging.9

Nanosensors: Nanosensors are fabricated using nanomaterials, nanosized structures or composites, and are potentially more sensitive than conventional sensors because they detect chemicals at concentrations of only a few molecules. Nanosensors are another area with a wide range of applications, including in:

• health care, to monitor the health of patients and consumers

• agriculture, to monitor the health of crops and livestock and to manage water resources by adjusting input to crop and animal needs

• food, to monitor the levels of bacteria and other important indicators.

Addressing economic growth and change

Nanotubes: Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are one of the most rapidly developing areas of nanostructure development. CNTs exhibit properties unequalled by conventional materials or other nanomaterials. These properties include exceptional mechanical strength and flexibility, and high electrical and thermal conductivity. Some of the potential applications include:

• aeronautical and automotive applications, with lightweight CNT structures reducing fuel needs

• electronic applications for devices with greater strength and performance

• flame-retardant applications, including in aircraft, building materials, electronic packaging, and fibre-optic cable cladding.

Nanopolymers: Nanopolymers are engineered to create different structural and functional applications, ranging from polymers with improved biodegradability to new adhesives and novel electrical conductors.

Nanocoatings: Nanocoatings can improve the performance and durability of a range of materials and devices. Many industries already use nanocoatings, including the transportation, textiles, energy, military and security, health care, construction, food and beverages, and electronics industries.10

Nanoelectronics: Nanomaterials can be used in the manufacture of electronic and computer components and devices such as transistors, sensors, memories and display devices. The rapid increase in market demand for portable computing devices is driving significant research and development in this area.

The field of computer and data storage is also looking to nanotechnology to improve performance. Nonvolatile random access memory, a technology that uses carbon nanotubes, is expected to be commercialised before 2015.11 Micro-electromechanical systems are expected to impact a wide range of data storage technologies,12 and other new memory technologies include magnetic random access memory or ferroelectric memory.13

Spintronics, an aspect of nanotechnology that uses the spin of electrons to transfer information (rather than the electron charge, as in conventional devices), could also significantly reduce device size and power needs.

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Nanosensors: Nanosensors for industry include those for:

• safety and security, to sense toxic or flammable gas, chemicals or biological threats in a range of locations including mines, heavy industry or homes

• the automotive industry, to enhance performance, minimise cost, improve reliability and reduce environmental impact when designing new vehicles.

Smart materials: Smart materials sense and respond to changes in external environments such as magnetic or electric fields, temperature, pressure or chemical conditions. Their response can be used as a sensor or as a trigger. Potential applications for smart materials include coatings, composite materials, energy-related materials, nanoelectronics, sensors, catalysts and fuel cells.

Addressing growth in environmental pressures

Energy: Nanotechnology can be applied to new and existing energy systems. These include energy conversion (hydrogen fuel cells, thin film and organic solar cells), energy storage (batteries, hydrogen storage and supercapacitors) and energy transmission (superconducting systems). For example, Australian researchers are significantly improving the performance of thin photovoltaic cells by using ‘nanoantennas’ to transmit the light directly inside the cell.14

Water: Nanotechnologies can be used in water supply, including treatment and remediation, sensing and detection, and pollution prevention. In Australia, the water industry already uses nanotechnologies to detect and treat contaminated water.15 Nanotechnologies are expected to also play a role in water resource management. In agriculture, water management systems using wireless nanosensor technologies will provide rapid and accurate responses to environmental changes, with the advantages of being robust and very small.

Environmental protection and remediation: Nanotechnologies can be applied to prevent, reduce or contain pollutants. Applications include containment or breakdown of toxic compound spills, and effective recycling and green technologies.

Nanosensors: Environmental nanosensors include those to detect environmental pollution in the air, soil or water.

Geoengineering: Geoengineering is an intentional, large-scale intervention in the Earth’s oceans, soils or atmosphere, with the aim of combating climate change. Nanotechnology may replace or supplement existing technologies aimed at carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management. Geoengineering is mostly at the conceptual and research stages.

What is biotechnology and what can it do?

Biotechnology is the use and manipulation of living systems and organisms to develop useful products. It has a long history, beginning in plant cultivation and hybridisation, and is usually seen in agriculture, food production and medicine. Recent advances in molecular biology and genomics research are driving rapid growth in the biotechnology industry. These include new DNA sequencing techniques that can sequence genomes faster and at a lower cost; advances in computational biology to support the analysis of large and complex data sets including gene sequences; and new techniques in stem cell, recombinant DNA and RNA interference technologies that are used in genetic therapies.

Biotechnology and nanotechnology are also converging in ‘nanobiotechnology’. Many of the applications described below, particularly those in health and medicine, include aspects of nanotechnology in their development.

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The global biotechnology market was valued at approximately US$219 billion in 2010 and is forecast to reach US$318 billion by 2014.16

Addressing population growth and change

Genomic medicine: Genomics is the study of all the genes of a cell. Genomics is providing a better understanding of human biology and disease, and is supporting the development of novel diagnostic and therapeutic products. Genomics also means that prescription of therapeutic products may be increasingly guided by the patient’s individual genetic makeup.17 This practice is already common for the prescription of abacavir, an antiretroviral drug, and may soon be used for tamoxifen (a breast cancer drug), clopidogrel (a blood clot inhibitor), and warfarin (a blood thinning agent).

RNA-based therapeutics: RNA interference (RNAi) is a molecular mechanism that controls the activity of genes in living cells. RNAi technology harnesses this mechanism to silence or knock down specific genes. RNAi is being used to create new therapeutics, and to improve disease resistance and reduce undesirable qualities in plants and animals. A number of RNA-based therapeutics are undergoing clinical trials.18 RNA therapeutics is predicted to become one of the fastest growing therapeutic classes in the global pharmaceutical market by 2020.19

Gene therapy: Gene therapy is the insertion of genetic material into an individual’s cells and tissues as a treatment for disease. To date, gene therapy has had some success and, as of 2007, more than 1340 gene therapy clinical trials have been completed, with the majority targeting cancer treatment.20 Recent high-profile clinical studies in gene therapy have reported success in correcting inherited forms of retinal degeneration, severe combined immunodeficiency and adrenoleukodystrophy.21

Stem cell therapies: Stem cell therapies use embryonic and reprogrammable adult stem cells to restore function for people with degenerative diseases. Stem cells from bone marrow have been used for more than 30 years to treat cancer patients with conditions such as leukaemia and lymphoma, and other cell-based therapies have been launched more recently, mainly in dermatology and orthopaedics. There is currently significant investment in the development of new regenerative therapies for diseases including cardiac disease, autoimmune disorders, endocrine and metabolic disorders, central nervous system pathology, diabetes, degenerative liver diseases, degenerative neurological diseases such as Parkinson’s disease, and others. Stem cell therapies might also be used to repair spinal cord injury.

Regenerative medicine: Stem cells may be used to regenerate cells or organs. So far, proof-of-concept studies have been successful in regenerating bladders, tracheas and vasculature. 22 Biotechnology companies in the United States are currently in a Phase I clinical trial of a bladder regeneration platform,23 and Phase II clinical trials for use of stem-cell-derived retinal cells for patients with Stargardt macular dystrophy.

Genetically modified crops: Genetically modified (GM) crops are widely used. In 2011, 160 million hectares of GM crops were planted in 29 countries.24 Many new GM crops are being developed. GM crops are generally designed to improve yield or nutrition, increase resistance to diseases or pests, or deal with adverse conditions such as low water availability, high acidity or salinity. For example, rice crops have been engineered to synthesise vitamin A;25 virus-resistant squash and papaya are being cultivated in the United States;26 and drought-tolerant maize is expected to be released in 2012.27 GM crops may help to meet the increased food needs of a larger population, and to cope with changing conditions brought about by climate change. They may also address environmental concerns—for example, by reducing the need for irrigation or artificial fertilisers. Researchers have produced a GM rice variety that uses nitrogen efficiently to reduce fertiliser use.28

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Livestock production: Biotechnology is already used in a range of ways to improve the production of livestock, including in aquaculture. These include artificial insemination, disease diagnosis and treatment, and the improvement of nutrient utilisation. Research into genomics will allow animals and plants to be selected for breeding on their genetic basis.

Research into the development of transgenic animals is not widely supported at present, with a lack of both public research funding in the area and public acceptance of the technology. However, transgenic livestock may offer human health and environmental benefits. For example, research is examining the development of dairy cows with modified milk properties; and transgenic poultry that are resistant to avian influenza have been developed, reducing the risk of a global bird flu pandemic.

Addressing economic growth and change

Raw materials: Organic material (‘biomass’) can be used by industry as a source of carbon to supplement or partially replace fossil carbons (ie oil, coal and gas). Industrial sectors that are beginning to use biomass include energy, chemicals, plastics, food, textiles, pharmaceuticals, paper products and building supplies.

Biomining: Biomining processes metal-containing ores using microbiological technology. It is currently used commercially to extract gold and copper, and to a lesser extent to leach base metals from ores and concentrates.29 Biomining technologies, including bioleaching, can reduce the capital costs and environmental pollution associated with metal extraction.

Biohydrometallurgy: Research is finding new ways to use microbes in the mining and water treatment industries to process ores and concentrates, recover and recycle metals, and remediate wastewater. The techniques have several advantages over traditional methods, including improved recovery rates, and low capital and energy costs. Biotechnology can also be used in oil extraction—microbial enhanced oil recovery uses microorganisms to increase the amount of oil recoverable from wells.

Reagents: Biotechnology could enable the design of safer chemicals and products for industry. Biocatalysts would replace existing reagents, providing safer solvents and reaction conditions.30

Addressing growth in environmental pressures

Biofuels: Biofuels are liquid and gaseous fuels derived from organic matter, and they have the potential to supplement or eventually replace petroleum-based fuels. Falling fuel supplies has led to increased research and production of biofuels. In 2010, more than 100 billion litres of biofuels were produced worldwide.31

One area of research aims to improve the speed and efficiency of converting biomass into biofuels with cleaner and more efficient energy-use profiles. One approach is to create ‘super-fermenting’ yeast and bacteria; another is to develop new biomass sources that are more efficient, reliable, low cost and scalable than current sources. These include byproducts of forest and agriculture, grasses, algae, oilseeds, and potentially sewage.32

Currently, the biomass needed to produce biofuels comes mostly from purpose-grown crops. Biotechnology is being used to develop crops that are optimised for the production of biofuel (see Genetically modified crops, above). New production technologies and sources of biomass are helping to ensure that biofuel crops do not compete with food crops for growing space.

‘Biorefineries’ are already being used to convert biomass resources into energy (biofuels, power or heat) and value-added products (chemicals and materials; see Raw materials, above).33

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Bioplastics: Bioplastics are derived from renewable biological materials rather than petrochemicals. Research is developing new plastics with novel properties and improved functionality34 such as flame retardance. Unlike petrochemical-derived plastics, bioplastics may also be able to decompose to reduce landfill.

What is synthetic biology and what can it do?

Synthetic biology is a new area of research and development that combines engineering principles and biotechnology to design and construct new biological components and systems not found in nature. Sales in the global synthetic biology market were valued at approximately US$0.6 billion in 2010 and are forecast to reach US$4.5 billion by 2015.35

As well as technical applications, synthetic biology is helping to advance scientific knowledge and understanding. For example, synthetic biology is being used to investigate and explain complex biological processes such as the functioning of DNA, cells and organisms.

Addressing population growth and change

Medical treatments: Synthetic biology can be used to engineer molecules and cells to produce novel products or augment the production of current pharmaceuticals. It can also be used to develop ‘personalised medicine’, which means developing individually tailored, and thereby more effective, approaches to disease prevention and health care. Synthetic biology could also develop artificial regulatory circuits to sense and correct metabolic disturbances, such as those found in diabetes.

Vaccines: The first step in the development of a vaccine is the identification of the microbe strain, including its unique genetic code, against which the vaccine will be used. Synthetic biology tools, including rapid, inexpensive DNA sequencing combined with computer modelling, may decrease production time by accelerating this initial step. For example, one industry group is developing a database of synthetically created seed viruses for influenza vaccines to enable more rapid vaccine production by reducing virus identification time.36

Health biosensors: Biosensors can be used to collect quantitative dynamic data about diseases and conditions in minimally invasive ways. Biosensors also have other applications such as detecting viruses, bacteria, hormones, drugs, DNA sequences, toxins and warfare agents.37

Synthetic biology and nanotechnology are also converging in developments such as biochips to monitor health.

Food: Synthetic biology is being used to develop new food plants with desired characteristics. For example, researchers are developing plants that can produce glycyrrhizin—a compound found in liquorice root that is 150–300 times sweeter than table sugar. Australian researchers are also developing high-yield and disease-resistant plant feedstock that can be supplemented with efficient and environmentally friendly microorganisms to minimise water use and replace chemical fertilisers.

Addressing economic growth and change

Raw materials: Synthetically manufactured microorganisms in fermentation vats may be capable of transforming biomass into a wide range of custom chemicals, plastics, fuels, pharmaceuticals and other high-value compounds.38

Biohydrometallurgy: Synthetic biology has the potential to allow the harvest of coal bed methane through synthetic microbial digestion.

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Addressing growth in environmental pressures

Biofuels: Synthetic biology offers the opportunity to greatly increase efficiency and yields of the production of biofuels; many predict that biofuel products will be the first synthetic biology products to market.

One approach is using synthetic or modified organisms to generate ethanol from plant matter. Several Australian companies are developing industrial processes to produce biofuels using bioengineered organisms. They speculate that fuels from these processes could be on the market within five years.39

Another area of research is the production of hydrogen. Hydrogen is highly desirable as a fuel source because it only produces water as a byproduct. Researchers are investigating the manipulation of bacteria (Escherichia coli) to produce hydrogen in addition to other biofuels. Researchers are also investigating ways to produce high yields of hydrogen using starch and water with a synthetic enzymatic pathway.

Palm oil: The proliferation of palm oil plantations at the expense of forest in some countries is of international concern. The oil palm genome is being decoded and researchers are investigating synthetic biology methods to produce a replacement oil.40

Bioremediation: Bioremediation is the use of biological systems to treat environmental contaminants. Microorganisms are being engineered so that they accumulate or degrade substances such as heavy metals and pesticides.41 The design of biological ‘wetting agents’ or biosurfactants could also increase the efficiency of bioremediation efforts and minimise the extent of damage from pollutants.

Environmental biosensors: Laboratory-constructed synthetic biofilms are being developed for use as environmental biosensors. These sensors could be used, for example, to monitor soil for nutrient quality or signs of environmental degradation.

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Summary of enabling technology developments

Enabling technologies and their applications can be at horizon 1 (already being commercialised), horizon 2 (in development) and horizon 3 (blue sky). Some examples are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Developments and applications in nanotechnology, biotechnology and synthetic biology

Development area

Horizon 1: being commercialised (now)

Horizon 2: in development (2012–20)

Horizon 3: blue sky (beyond 2020)

Tools and platforms

Atomic force microscopyBiological detection and analysis toolsSilica modelling and simulation tools

Molecular and genomic engineeringNanofabrication toolsNanolithographyRegenerative medicineTechniques to knock out specific genes (RNA interference)Whole genome selection

Biomolecular engineering and design toolsGenomic engineering

Components, materials and reagents

AgrosensorsNanomaterialsNanopowdersNanoscale componentsNanowiresThermoelectric devices

Advanced stem cell technologyBiocatalystsBiomaterialsBiohydrometallurgyNanomaterialsNanomotorsOrgans and organ components

Advanced enzymesBiocompatible nanomaterialsEngineered functional genomesMetamaterials

Structures, devices and applications

Biological detection devicesFood packagingMarker-assisted selectionNanostructured organic photovoltaicsPassive nanoscale structuresPest resistance and herbicide toleranceSmart glazingSomatic cell nuclear transfer in livestockStem cell therapies

Advanced semiconductorsBioremediationBiosensorsComposite structuresCrops with durable disease resistanceHigh-efficiency solar cellsHolographic memoryNanoarraysNanoscaffoldsRe-engineered metabolic pathwaysSmart implantsSmart medical devicesSynthesis of active nanostructures

Advanced composite ceramicsDisease-resistant transgenic livestockFunctional biological nanostructuresCrops with increased yield potentialMicrobial enhanced oil recoveryNanobased semiconductorsNanojoiningNanomachinesNanorobotsNanosensorsNanotribologySelf-powered devices

Systems integration and intelligence

BioinformaticsIntegrated energy storage systemsSolid-state lighting

BiofuelsBiological electronic interfacesBioplasticsCell-based therapiesDrug delivery systemsFuel cellsMedical diagnosticsNanohydrogen production and storagePersonalised medicine and therapeuticsPharmocogenomicsSynthetic tissues

Biofabrication templatesBiomimetic design processesCognitive science integrationDirected self-assembly systemsGeoengineeringHydrogen productionMetabolic pathway engineeringNanobiotechnologyNanocomputingNanoinformaticsTissue engineering systems

Source: Australian Institute for Commercialisation42

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The impact and uptake of enabl ing technologies

How might enabling technologies help meet our national challenges?

Nanotechnology, biotechnology and synthetic biology are delivering a wide range of new technologies and applications. As has been shown above, these can be used to help meet the challenges triggered by growth in our population, economy and environmental pressures.

In Australia, there are particular issues in each of these trends that may be aided by enabling technologies.

Population growth and change

Ageing of the population: Australia’s ageing population profile will mean increased health care needs, particularly for chronic diseases such as diabetes. It is projected that Australia’s health expenditure will increase from 4 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2009–10 to 7.1 per cent by 2049–50.43 Health care may be an area of particular strength and growth for enabling technologies. These technologies may deliver new treatments for disease including implants and replacements for defective genes. Enabling technologies may also provide new protective foods, and personalised nutritional and lifestyle approaches to disease prevention.

In the area of devices, better electronics could supplement an expanded e-health system to provide telemedicine and telecare to support the needs of people who are remote from medical centres. New assistive technologies such as biorobotics, brain–machine interaction or mobility systems may restore function to incapacitated people.

Food security: While Australia does not have problems in feeding its population, population growth will place pressure on Australia’s agricultural sector to produce sufficient food. Currently, agricultural productivity growth is slowing. Enabling technologies may provide healthier, higher yield crops and healthier, more productive livestock. Enabling technologies may also make farming practices more sustainable by reducing water and fertiliser use and improving soil health.

Biosecurity: Biosecurity involves preventive measures to reduce the risk of transmission of infectious diseases or pathogens, quarantined pests or invasive alien species. As an island, Australia enjoys many advantages in biosecurity and is vigilant in trying to keep out unwanted organisms. Enabling technologies may assist in these efforts, particularly in the area of detecting and treating infectious diseases.

RNAi and transgenic technologies could be applied to treat significant biosecurity risks. For example, the generation of transgenic cattle that are resistant to the foot-and-mouth disease virus would eliminate one of Australia’s biggest biosecurity threats: foot-and-mouth disease is exotic to Australia and it is estimated that a single outbreak would cost $8–16 billion in lost trade and tourism.44

National defence: Defence and national security involve a combination of food, energy, biosecurity and other forms of security, as well as military, counter-terrorism and defence operations. Enabling technologies may contribute to all of these areas. The United States is investing in enabling technology for military applications, such as nanoelectronics for information warfare and unmanned combat vehicles; high-performance nanomaterials for

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armour and vehicles; and nanobiotechnology for detection or destruction of chemical and biological agents.

Economic growth and change

Mining boom: Australia is currently experiencing a mining boom. However, Australia’s share of global investment in mineral exploration is declining. Enabling technologies may have the potential to improve mining productivity in Australia to address this downturn through new extraction processing such as biomining. Biomining can be used to process low-grade deposits, especially small or remote deposits that could not be cost-effectively treated by existing technologies.

Enabling technologies may also reduce the environmental impact of mining through new processes and better remediation. Transgenic microalgae have already been used for the removal and recovery of heavy metals from industrial wastewater, and other transgenic microbes have been used to biodegrade heavy metals in soil.45

Global competitiveness: The Australian manufacturing sector is a significant contributor to the Australian economy. It produces around 12 per cent of GDP and almost 40 per cent of exports. However, the Australian manufacturing industry is facing increasing competition from regional trading partners and the rise of low-cost, low-wage manufacturing economies.

To meet these challenges, Australian manufacturers will need to increase productivity and decrease costs. They may also need new products to attract market share of new technologies. Enabling technologies may be able to provide these.

Growth in environmental pressures

Climate change: A changing climate in Australia will deliver more frequent and more extreme weather events including heatwaves, storms, cyclones and bushfires, and a continued decline in rainfall in southern Australia.46 Addressing these issues might require changing the way buildings and infrastructure are designed, diversifying water supplies and improving Australian water use, rethinking the way in which vulnerable coastal areas are developed, and planting more drought-tolerant crops. Enabling technologies can play a role in many of these areas to mitigate the effects of climate change (eg by providing biofuels to supplement or replace carbon-intensive fossil fuels; or genetically modified crops to adapt to increasing aridity).

Energy efficiency and sustainability: There is an increasing drive towards clean, renewable energy and lower carbon emissions in Australia. Enabling technologies may provide new energy sources and more efficient technologies to reduce energy use.

Sustainable use of water: Australia is one of the driest countries in the world. A changing climate, together with a growing population and economy, will place additional pressure on Australia’s water reserves. Enabling technologies may help us to grow more food with less water; use less water in industry and homes through water-saving systems; and use stormwater, desalination and recycling to reduce reliance on rainfall for water supplies.

How might enabling technologies disrupt existing industry?

The revolutionary nature of enabling technologies and many of their applications means that they are likely to have a disruptive effect on current industries. Enabling technologies may assist in generating paradigm shifts in many industry sectors, including the following examples:

• In energy production, new technologies may provide cheaper, more effective energy sources. These may displace older technologies and business enterprises that rely on them.

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• In health care, new technologies may change current practices in prevention, diagnosis and treatment of disease.

• In electronics, new applications may improve the processing and storage capacity of computers and mobile devices and rapidly change global computing capabilities and practices.

In all industry sectors, enabling technologies may improve the manufacturing systems themselves. This would require significant investment in new plants and equipment, and training of employees in new processes. Enabling technologies may also assist in making existing industries more efficient and environmentally sustainable.

What are the key factors affecting the development and uptake of enabling technologies?

While enabling technologies may help us address national challenges, they may also bring their own unintended problems and risks. There are a number of potential barriers and influences to the successful development and uptake of enabling technologies and their applications.

Research

Research and development: Enabling technologies are a cutting-edge area of research. This means that researchers have great challenges in developing the understanding needed to advance, and there is a high cost in this area of research. Researchers also have great opportunities in developing and commercialising breakthrough products and systems. The increased convergence of disciplines and technologies will drive innovation.

Government support: Government support for research and development is essential. This can include funding for research projects, funding of research facilities and equipment, funding for training the next generation of researchers, and incentives for researchers to collaborate nationally and internationally. Research is supported in different ways at different stages: basic research is usually wholly government funded, and development and commercialisation are usually partly funded by industry. Funding at all stages of research is needed for the development of enabling technologies.

Collaboration: The interdisciplinary nature of enabling technologies means that successful collaboration between researchers will be important to the progress of research and development. Successful technology transfer will also need effective collaboration between research, industry, regulators and end-users.

Safety and impact

Risks: The development of new technologies encompasses a range of potential risks. Nanotechnology can create new materials and devices. However, there are concerns about the possible toxicity and environmental impact of certain types of nanomaterials under specific conditions. Biotechnology and synthetic biology have the potential to affect human life and health, and raise concerns about biosecurity and the use of technology to enhance human performance.

Along with research and development of enabling technologies, it is important that research is also conducted to evaluate the impact of the new technologies on health, human society and ethics, the economy, and the environment.

Public concern: The risks involved in enabling technologies have already triggered community concern, which will undoubtedly continue as these technologies are further developed. Causes of risk concern are complex and are shown to be best addressed by addressing the causes of concerns, such as trust, failure to adequately consult, regulation and consumer choices. If done

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properly, in line with responsible innovation principles, this can allow for both development of new technologies in line with public values and allow for investment in research and development of the technologies.

It is important that the community is kept fully informed and engaged about the technologies and their impacts throughout the research and development process. Research into the potential impact of the technologies will also be an important component in addressing public concern.

Regulation: The potential of the new technologies to affect human health and wellbeing, and the environment, means that appropriate regulation is needed. This should prevent or minimise any unwanted effects, and take account of public concern. Conversely, such regulation may constrain or prohibit technological development in particular areas. For example, regulatory requirements such as long-term clinical trials increase the cost of research and development and the time to market.

Social impact: Enabling technologies may provide new solutions for developing countries in the areas of clean water, reliable energy and health care. However, there is concern that the benefits of enabling technologies may only reach affluent nations. Developments in enabling technologies could also result in changes to industry sectors and skills needs and to concerns around privacy.

Commercialisation

Market pull: The breakthrough nature of these technologies means that they may be ‘pushed’ onto the market, rather than ‘pulled’. However, these technologies are likely to be able to assist in delivering solutions to a range of current challenges. In order to develop a market pull, research and development will need to target particular challenges in areas of high need and commercial interest.

In addition, it is important that industry, community and government understand both the risks as well as the benefits of the technologies, and are able to make informed choices about the use of the new technologies.

Intellectual property: Intellectual property rights (eg patents) protect the rights of developers. Some researchers advocate openness and minimal patenting to drive innovation, while others indicate that having strong intellectual property protection is the best way to protect openness and innovation. Patents that are very broad (covering a fundamental technique or process) can stifle innovation in the area, but can also provide other researchers with information that can assist their research. Industry may be unwilling to invest in research and development without patent protection, though they will need the financial capacity to contest any patent infringement.

Technology transfer: Developments that are successful in the laboratory may not be successful on a large scale or may be difficult to scale up to production levels. The cost of commercialising completely new technology may be prohibitive. Breakthrough technologies may require additional infrastructure and market innovation to be successful.

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Conclusion

Enabling technologies—including nanotechnology, biotechnology and synthetic biology—have broad applications and have the potential to dramatically change many areas.

Enabling technologies are developing rapidly and billions of dollars are being invested worldwide. Enabling technologies could help to address national and global challenges including population and economic growth and change, and the subsequent growth in environmental pressures.

However, a number of key factors will affect the development and uptake of the technologies, including support for research, effective regulation and effective research–industry collaboration. Enabling technologies also bring a range of potential risks that must be managed to ensure Australia gets the maximum benefit from the new technologies.

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Glossary

Biofuels Fuels derived from organic matter, which may supplement or replace petroleum-based fuelsBiomass Organic material from living or recently living organismsBioremediation The use of microorganisms to remove pollutants from the environmentBiotechnology The use and manipulation of living systems and organisms to develop useful productsDNA Deoxyribonucleic acid; a chemical structure containing the genetic instructions used in the

development and functioning of living organismsEnabling technology

An invention or innovation that can drive radical change in the capabilities of a user or culture; a technology supporting the development of other technologies

Gene The basic physical unit of heredity; a unit within the genome containing instructions for a particular part of the development and functioning of living organisms (eg eye colour)

Horizon 1 Technologies currently availableHorizon 2 Technologies currently under development with commercialisation expected within the next

10 yearsHorizon 3 ‘Blue sky’ technologies to be developed in the long term (greater than 20 years from now)Nanotechnology The manipulation of matter on an atomic and molecular scale: from 1 to 100 nanometres; ‘nano’

means 10–9 or one billionthNanotechnology can produce nanotools, nanomaterials, nano-objects, etc

RNA Ribonucleic acid; one of the chemical structures essential for the development and functioning of living organisms

Synthetic biology The design and construction of new biological components and systems that are not found in nature

Technology transfer

The commercialisation and uptake of technology into the marketplace, industry and community

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