Empowerment of Women through Equal Participation in

Decision Making Process

By – Ruby Ojha1

1. Introduction

Empowerment is a process of awareness and capacity building that leads to

greater participation and to greater decision making power and control. One of

the strategies to empower women and to overcome barriers preventing her equal

participation in decision-making process is to allow her to obtain political power

because politics still continues to be a male bastion where self-made women are

the exceptions rather than the rule. There can be no true democracy, no true

people’s participation in governance and development without equal participation

of women and men.

The concept of political participation is closely associated with the concept of

empowerment. A mutually supportive functioning of the two can certainly redirect

and influence a process which has largely failed to tap the energy, knowledge

and ability of women so far. As per the Beijing Platform for Action -"Women's

equal participation in decision-making is not only a demand for simple justice or

democracy, but can also be seen as a necessary condition for women's interest

to be taken into account. Without the active participation of women and the

incorporation of women's perspective at all levels of decision-making, the goals

of equality, development, and peace can not be achieved."

But the fact is that women are largely underrepresented in political participation

and decision-making in India. The inadequate representation of women in

decision-making bodies has been a historical reality in our society. Despite a few

women being at the helm of affairs, women in general remained disempowered

due to various factors. The following table clearly reflects that:

1 Dr. Ruby Ojha is reader in department of Economics, SNDT Women’s University, Mumbai.

Women in decision making in India - 2000

Fields Women as % of men

Executive bodies of political parties 9.1

Cabinet Ministers 10.5

High Court Judges 3.1

Civil Services 6.8

Executive bodies of trade unions 5.6

Source: United Nations Development Programme. (2000). Women in India :  How Free ? How Equal ? New Delhi. P.68

2. Women’s participation at international level

United Nations Declaration of Human Rights states that everyone has a right to

take part in the governance of his/her country. The UN Convention on Elimination

of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) emphasizes equal participation of

women in the political and public life of the country. Besides this, the various

international conferences on women and also the initiatives by the

Commonwealth Parliamentary Association, Inter-Parliamentary Union and others

have ushered in a worldwide movement towards full and equal participation of

women in politics. In most countries, women around the world are meeting the

challenges of leadership, and contributing to change in their communities,

countries and in the international arena in very real ways. Women have held

public office at various levels of government, have initiated and led grass-roots

organizations, and are present in virtually every professional field and in the

private sector.

Yet while progress is being made towards the equality of women and men in

decision-making at all levels, the pace is slow. Women continue to remain under-

represented at all levels of decision-making and their achievements often remain

invisible and unacknowledged. While women’s participation in parliaments is now

the highest it has ever been — at 16.3 per cent across all parliaments — this

2

represents only a marginal increase since 1975, when the participation rate was

10.9 per cent. The most significant increases have been seen in Africa and Latin

America, where on average there has been a gain of more than five percentage

points in the past 10 years. This is due to the adoption of quotas for women.

Female representation in parliaments of at least thirty per cent is widely

considered to constitute a "critical mass" necessary to have a meaningful

impact on the work of the parliament. In 2003 Rwanda became the country with

the highest percentage of women in parliament at 48.8 per cent. Countries with

women representing 30% or more in the lower or single House of parliament, as

at 31 Dec. 2005 is given in the following table:

Countries with women representing 30% or more in the lower or single House of

parliament

Sr. No. Countries % participation of women

1 Rwanda 48.8

2 Sweden 45.3

3 Norway 37.9

4 Finland 37.5

5 Denmark 36.9

6 Netherlands 36.7

7 Argentina 36.2

8 Cuba 36.0

9 Spain 36.0

10 Costa Rica 35.1

11 Mozambique 34.8

12 Belgium 34.7

13 Austria 33.9

14 Island 33.3

15 South Africa 32.8

16 New Zealand 32.2

3

17 Germany 31.8

18 Guyana 30.8

19 Burundi 30.5

20 United Republic of Tanzania 30.4

Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union, see http://www.ipu.org/

As the latest Inter Parliamentary Union figures show, women’s representation in

national parliaments between 1995 and 2005 has shown progress in most

countries but also some setbacks are there including in Norway and countries

with economies in transition such as Hungary, China and the Russian

Federation. Twenty-two countries out of 167 had setbacks in women’s

representation, while ten remained static. Progress is noted where special

measures such as quotas have been introduced to enhance women’s

participation, for examples in Rwanda and reverses where quotas have been

removed, such as in Russia. The threshold or ‘critical mass’ representation of

thirty percent has been achieved in only in 20 countries. Although there is a slight

improvement in the average numbers of women present in parliaments, their

representation in executive bodies has actually fallen in the last decade.

Women in Decision-making Bodies

Women 1995 (% of total) 2005(% of total)Heads of state or government 6.4 4.2Presiding officers of parliament 10.5 8.3Parliamentarians 11.3 15.7Ministerial positions Data not available 14.3

Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), 2005. Women in PoliticsThe Platform for Action and the Millennium Development Goals

3. Women’s participation in India

In consonance with international shifts in the global paradigm from a growth-

oriented to a human development approach, India also has in recent years

focused on women’s empowerment. To make this commitment a reality, the

4

state has taken a number of measures to ensure that women get their due as

citizens and participants in a democratic society. This has resulted in reserving

one-third of seats in local government for women. The recent passage of 73rd

and 74th Constitutional Amendments providing 33.33 percent reservation to

women in Panchayats and Nagarpalika Bodies has been considered as landmark

towards women’s empowerment at the lower level. It has served as a major

breakthrough towards ensuring women’s equal access and increased

participation in political power structures. These Amendments provided for

reservation of 33.33 per cent of elected seats for women at different levels of

local governance in both rural and urban areas. There is also a one-third

reservation for women of posts of chairpersons of these local bodies. These

Amendments have initiated a powerful strategy of affirmative action for providing

the structural framework for women’s participation in political decision making.

Women have come forward in large numbers. Initial attempts to get women to

stand for elections was not very successful and many of the women who came

into these positions of power were mere proxies for their male relatives.

However, over time, and with assistance from the government and non-

governmental organizations working together to provide leadership training to

women, this has been changing. Gradually they have become independent. In

fact they have begun to contest unreserved seats also. Today, India is the only

country in the world that can boast upwards of around one million women in

positions of power at the village and municipal levels. The following table gives

an account of women’s participation in Panchayati Raj Institutions.

Women in Panchayati Raj Institutions (1995-2001)(Figures in 000)

Year Women Men Total

1995* 318

(33.5%)

630 948

2001· 725

(26.6%)

1,997 2,722

5

Note : Figures within parentheses indicate percentage to total.

*    Data refers to 9 States – Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan,Tripura and West Bengal.

· For whole of India (as on 18.10.2001)

Source : Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, New Delhi.

The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments in 1993 have brought forth a

definite impact on the participation of women in terms of absolute numbers, in

grassroots democratic institutions viz. Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and

Local Bodies. In fact, these amendments have helped women not only in their

effective participation but also in decision-making in the grass-root democracy.

However, the all India figures for women show that their representation in 2001 is

still low. It is true, that the quota is not always filled up; but it is heartening to see

women as elected heads of Panchayat even in remote, poor and backward

villages. It has enabled women to become active participants in the process of

planning and decision-making at the village level. Through non-governmental

organizations and grass-roots organizations, women have been able to articulate

their interests and concerns and have placed women's issues on the national,

regional and international agendas.

However much more needs to be done to empower women in local self

government so that they can play a more proactive role in decision-making and

by their very presence encourage more and more women to come forth and

demand their rights. For this, capacity-building is required through knowledge,

education and training in diverse areas pertaining to women, such as laws and

rights and programmes for women.

4. Women in parliament in India

Women’s participation in political decision making at all levels plays a central role

in the process of enhancing women’s participation in public life for upholding

women’s interest. Increasingly, women have stood for elections and got elected

6

as members of State Legislative Assemblies and the Parliament. The number of

representatives has been steadily increasing. Although the number of women in

Parliament has increased from 59 in 1998 to 73 in 2005, their share continues to

be very low, as they represent only 9.24 per cent of the total Members in

Parliament in 2005. It is shown below:

Representation of Women in Parliament (1998-2005)

 Year Females Males Total

1998 59

(7.2%)

761 820

1999 67

(8.5%)

723 790

2001 70

(8.5%)

750 820

2005 73

(9.24%)

717 790

 Note : Figures within parentheses indicate percentage to total.

 Source: 1. Election Commission of India.

2. National Informatics Center, Parliament House, New Delhi.

The number of women in the Central Council of Ministers continues to remain

extremely low. Following table reflects it clearly:

7

Representation of Women in the Central Council of Ministers 1985 -2005

Year Females Males Total

1985 4

(10.0%)

36 40

2001 8

(10.8%)

66 74

2005 7

(10.4%)

60 67

Note : Figures within parentheses indicate percentage to total.

Source : National Informatics Center, Parliament House, New Delhi.

These trends point out very clearly to the need for affirmative action besides

addressing these issues in a systematic and expeditious way so that women’s

concerns gain political prominence and a fairly representative number of women

are in position not only at grass root level, but also at the state and national

levels.

5. Constraints in Equal Participation

Throughout the world, the power relations that shape social, political, economic

and cultural life prevent women from participating fully in all areas of their lives,

whether it’s in the home, or in the public arena. While women’s dedicated efforts

to challenge the status quo have allowed more women to reach positions of

power in recent years, women continue to be under-represented in all areas of

decision-making and still face significant barriers to their full and equal

participation in the structures and institutions which govern their lives.

The traditional working patterns of many political parties and government

structures continue to be barriers to women's participation in public life. Women

may be discouraged from seeking political office by discriminatory attitudes and

practices, family and child-care responsibilities. The low proportion of women

among economic and political decision makers at the local, national, regional and

8

international levels reflects structural and attitudinal barriers that need to be

addressed through positive measures. There are a number of factors which

constrain women’s participation in public life and decision-making. These include:

· economic dependency and a lack of adequate financial resources

· illiteracy and limited access to education and the same work opportunities

as men

· discriminatory cultural and social attitudes

· burden of responsibilities in the home

· intimidation, harassment and violence

· lack of access to information

A considerable homework, groundwork and elaborate efforts are needed to

overcome these, and to march confidently along the path to an inclusive society.

6. Conclusions

On the basis of the foregoing analysis we can draw following conclusions:

1. Despite the widespread movement towards democratization in most

countries, women are largely underrepresented at most levels of

government, especially in ministerial and other executive bodies, and have

made little progress in attaining political power in legislative bodies and in

achieving the target endorsed by the Economic and Social Council of

having 30 per cent women in positions at decision-making levels by 1995.

2. In order to assess the outcome of equal participation of women and men

in decision making it is important that we examine both the processes by

which equal participation can be achieved, as well as whether lead to

enhanced empowerment of women.

3. Women have shown how well they adapt to roles in governance and

decision-making and all evidence shows that their performance often far

outshines that of men, while their concerns remain close to the ground

and focus on real, survival issues. It is thus in everyone’s interest that

9

increasing numbers of women are brought into governance and decision

making.

4. Much more needs to be done, not only to accelerate the inclusion of

women into formal decision-making bodies, but also to increase their

impact in decision-making.

5. Quotas are increasingly been used to ‘fast track’ marginalized groups into

political institutions. They have become a powerful instrument for

increasing the representation of women in public institutions. The core

idea behind this system is to recruit women into political positions and to

ensure that women are not isolated in political life.

6. The quota strategy is a beginning which has the potential to kick-start

other processes of empowerment of women but which cannot by itself be

the answer to gender inequality.

7. Political participation in women’s movements, political representation in

decision- making bodies, and political leadership in both these arenas of

politics are required to ensure that women and men have equal access to

both the processes of decision- making and benefit equally from the

outcomes of those processes.

7. Recommendations

In this section the paper reflects upon what measures are required be taken to

increase both numerical as well as substantive representation of women in

decision making bodies.

1. There is a need to organize regular and comprehensive impact

assessments of empowerment policies and programmes for women’s

participation in decision- making bodies.

2. Political equality for men and women in state constitutions needs to be

reemphasized, securing fundamental rights for all.

3. Strategies to expand the participation of women in state and international

bodies, such as quotas for women should be supported. Such strategies

should include both participation of and leadership by women.

10

4. Leadership training of women participating in political processes is a key

resource for their effectiveness as members of organizations.

5. To be able to participate in decision making, women have to be educated

and economically empowered.

-----------

8. References

1. Arunachalam, Jaya and Kalpagam, U. (ed.), Development and

Empowerment :Rural Women in India, Rawat Publications, New Delhi – 2006

2. Chowdhury, Renuka, Strategies to Overcome Barriers Preventing Women’s

Equal Participation in Decision-Making, 1st Commonwealth Women

Parliamentarians Conference, New Delhi, India,4th Session - 24 September

2007

3. John, Mary E., Women in Power? Gender, Caste and the Politics of Local

Urban Governance, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XLII, No 39, P – 3986.

4. Palnitkar, Sneha, Women in Local Self Government, (pulished in) Empowered

Women, Editors: Regional Centre for Urban and Environmental Studies

(RCUES) of All India Institute of Local Self Government, Mumbai.

5. Policy and Influence, Report, WOMANKIND Worldwide, London.

6. Rai, Shirin M., Background paper for the UN Expert Group Meeting on “Equal

participation of women and men in decision- making processes, with particular

emphasis on political participation and leadership” 24-27 October 2005, Addis

Ababa,Ethiopia.

7. Report, National Resource Centre for Women, Department of Women and

Child Development, Government of India.

8. Stine Ankerbo & Karina Hoyda, Education as a Means to

Women’s Empowerment, Approaches to Development (U-landslære) Aarhus

University, Spring 2003.

___________

11