employee turnover intention and professional orientation: a study of detention workers

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SPAEF EMPLOYEE TURNOVER INTENTION AND PROFESSIONAL ORIENTATION: A STUDY OF DETENTION WORKERS Author(s): KUOTSAI TOM LIOU Source: Public Administration Quarterly, Vol. 22, No. 2 (SUMMER, 1998), pp. 161-175 Published by: SPAEF Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40861742 . Accessed: 14/06/2014 00:38 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. . SPAEF is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Public Administration Quarterly. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 194.29.185.230 on Sat, 14 Jun 2014 00:38:17 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

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Page 1: EMPLOYEE TURNOVER INTENTION AND PROFESSIONAL ORIENTATION: A STUDY OF DETENTION WORKERS

SPAEF

EMPLOYEE TURNOVER INTENTION AND PROFESSIONAL ORIENTATION: A STUDY OFDETENTION WORKERSAuthor(s): KUOTSAI TOM LIOUSource: Public Administration Quarterly, Vol. 22, No. 2 (SUMMER, 1998), pp. 161-175Published by: SPAEFStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40861742 .

Accessed: 14/06/2014 00:38

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

.

SPAEF is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Public AdministrationQuarterly.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 194.29.185.230 on Sat, 14 Jun 2014 00:38:17 AMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Page 2: EMPLOYEE TURNOVER INTENTION AND PROFESSIONAL ORIENTATION: A STUDY OF DETENTION WORKERS

EMPLOYEE TURNOVER INTENTION AND

PROFESSIONAL ORIENTATION: A STUDY

OF DETENTION WORKERS

KUOTSAI TOM LIOU University of Central Florida

ABSTRACT

This study examined the relationship between turnover intention and professional orientation among detention case workers. Using a sample of detention workers in two metropolitan detention centers in a southeastern state, the study found that (a) workers' profession- al attitudes were influenced by some personal (e.g., age) and job variables (e.g., job security and (b) the workers' turnover intention was correlated positively with the punitive orientation and gender (female) but negatively correlated with the perceived job security and job satisfaction. Implications concerning the results of this study are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Employee turnover has been a popular research topic among behavior and management researchers for decades. The interest in this topic has to do with the high costs of turnover to organizations (Wanous, 1980). For example, many researchers (Caseio, 1982; Cawsey and Wedley, 1979; Macy and Mirvis, 1983; McEvoy and Caseio, 1985; Smith and Watkins, 1978) estimated that turnover costs for organizations range from $400 to $4,700 per employee. To minimize the cost of turnover, previous studies of turnover (e.g., Cotton and Tuttle, 1986; Pettman, 1973) attempted to identify causes or antecedents of turnover from such sources as personal character- istics, work-related attitudes, and external factors.

While supporting the impact of some work-related variables (e.g., pay and job satisfaction) on turnover, previous studies have not fully examined the relationship between employee turnover and profes- sional attitudes. Several researchers (Bartol, 1979a, 1979b; Mobley,

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(162) FAQ SUMMER 1998

Horner, and Hollingsworth, 1978; Price and Mueller, 1981) exam- ined such relationships by studying turnover and professional atti- tudes among some professional workers. For example, Bartol (1979a) found that turnover expectancy is negatively related to professionalism among computer specialists.

This study attempts to understand the relationship between turnover and professional attitude by examining professional orien- tation among detention workers. Specifically, the study focuses on two issues: (a) the relationship between workers' professional orien- tation (i.e. y attitudes toward detainees) and their personal and job characteristics and (b) the relationship between workers' intention to leave the detention center and their professional orientation.

Assuming that workers' turnover intention relates to their profes- sional orientation, the knowledge sources of such attitudes would be useful to researchers and practitioners who are interested in under- standing job attitudes of detention workers and developing an appropriate policy for future administration and training purposes.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Determinants of Turnover

Previous research on turnover examined the possible determi- nants of turnover from three categories: (a) external correlates such as unemployment rate, accession rate, and union presence; (b) work- related attitudes such as pay, overall job satisfaction, job involve- ment, and organizational commitment; and (c) personal characteris- tics such as age, gender, education, and marital status (Cotton and Tuttle, 1986; Pettman, 1973). The strength and direction of the rela- tionship between the determinants and turnover varied depending on the individual variables and studies.

Regarding the impact of personal characteristics on turnover, for example, studies (e.g., Cotton and Tuttle, 1986) found that turnover is (a) negatively correlated with age, tenure, number of dependents, and marital status and (b) positively correlated with gender (women), education, intelligence, and behavior intentions.

Concerning the influence of work-related variables on turnover, studies (e.g., Blau and Boal, 1987, 1989; Cotton and Tuttle, 1986' Good, Sisler, and Gentry, 1988) showed that turnover is negatively correlated with most positive job attitudes: pay, performance, role clarity, overall job satisfaction, satisfaction with specific aspects of a

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FAQ SUMMER 1998 (163)

job (e.g., supervision, co-workers, promotion), job involvement, organizational commitment, and the interaction between job in- volvement and organizational commitment.

Previous research on turnover did not fully examine the relation- ship between professional attitudes and turnover. Some researchers mentioned this issue in their studies of turnover behavior and atti- tudes among professional workers (e.g., Bartol. 1979a, 1979b; Butler, Larkent and Miner, 1983; Hellriegel and White, 1973; Koch and Steers, 1978; Porter at al, 1974; Price and Mueller, 1981). The few studies that tested the relationship between turnover and profession- al attitudes provided some inconsistent findings.

For example, Bartol, 1979a, 1979b) found that professional atti- tudes (measured in terms of professional commitment) were signifi- cantly correlated with turnover expectancy but not to turnover. Aryee, Wyatt, and Min (1991), on the other hand, showed that turnover intention was unrelated to professional commitment and realization of professional expectation. Both studies emphasized the need of understanding the relationship between professional attitude and turnover in order to extend the generalizability of the impact of professional attitude.

ORIENTATION OF DETENTION WORKERS

As the front door to the juvenile justice system, detention work- ers play a critical role in shaping subsequent responses to youth (Frazier and Cochran, 1986). The job role of detention workers combines elements of youth service responsibilities with and expec- tations of correctional officers in adult prisons or jails (Dembo and Dertke, 1986; Poole and Pogrebin, 1988). Under these kinds of job elements, detention workers may experience ambivalence about their role because of their concerns about custody and security,

The ambivalent role may lead the workers to develop two pri- mary orientations toward juvenile detainees. On the one hand, the workers may consider themselves as service providers or youth counselors whose primary responsibility is to begin the treatment process with youth during their stay in detention (Gilmore and Schall, 1986). On the other hand, they may also view themselves as traditional correction officers whose major responsibility is disciplin- ing inmates and control of excessive inmate/detainee power (Dembo and Dertke, 1986; Hepburn, 1987).

Few studies (Dembo and Dertke, 1985; Liou. 1994, 1995),

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however, examined work environment and job attitudes of detention care workers. For example, Liou (1994, 1995) found that detention workers' personal and job characteristics (e.g., age, job security) affect their professional attitudes toward detainees and that such attitudes also affect their job and organizational attitudes. Specifical- ly, Liou noticed that detention workers' treatment attitudes are posi- tively correlated with their perceived job involvement, job stress, and organizational commitment.

Similar studies of professional orientation (attitude toward inmates) among adult correctional officers also indicated that sever- al individual and job characteristics seem to determine correctional officers' professional orientation (e.g., Crouch and Alpert, 1982; Cullen et al, 1985; Poole and Pogrebin, 1988; Whitehead and Lind- quist, 1989). For example, studies (e.g., Jurik, 1985; Poole and Rego- li, 1980; Toch and Klofas, 1982) found that individual characteristics such as education and age are more positively related to counseling orientation than to custodial orientation. Other studies (e.g., Cullen, 1989; Hepburn and Albonetti, 1980; Jurik, 1985; Poole and Regoli, 1989; Shamir and Drory, 1981) reported that correctional seniority and role conflict are positively related to punitive, custody orienta- tion.

In sum, based on the literature reviewed, this study attempted to explore the relationship between turnover intention and professional orientation. Focusing on detention workers' attitudes, the study tests the following two hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1: Detention workers' personal and job characteris- tics (e.g., age, tenure, job security, job satisfaction) are correlates with their professional orientations (attitudes toward detainees).

Hypothesis 2: Detention workers' professional orientations (treatment or punishment attitudes) are correlated with their turn- over intention, controlling for their personal and job characteristics.

While the first hypothesis was tested and supported by research- ers (e.g., Liou, 1994), the second hypothesis has not been fully examined and is the focus of this present study.

METHOD

Research Subjects

In this study, civil service detention workers were surveyed in two regional metropolitan detention centers in a southeastern state of

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the United States. A questionnaire and cover letter guaranteeing anonymity of participants were distributed to workers who volun- teered to participate and were relieved from their day or evening shift for the time required to complete the survey. The questionnaire included items examining not only the job attitude issues (turnover intention) but also issues relating to the detention policy and training materials (evaluation of courses such as case management and handling hostile children). The questionnaire was pretested among detention workers who participated in a detention service training session.

A total of 109 workers from both centers responded for an over- all response rate of 63 percent.1 Fifty-three percent of the respond- ents were from one detention center and 47 percent from the second center; 69 percent from the day shift and 31 percent from the evening shift. Respondents from the two centers were very similar in their demographic profiles which also closely matched those of the general populations of detention care workers in the two centers.2

Research Variables and Measures

The dependent variable was turnover intention. Turnover inten- tion assesses the chance and probability that the detention workers will leave their jobs in the future, which was measured on a 6-point Likert scale. The content of the turnover intention question is very similar to those used in other studies of public employees' job atti- tudes (e.g., Balfour and Wechsler, 1996). Previous studies demon- strated that turnover intention is constantly and significantly corre- lated to turnover behavior (Cotton and Tuttle, 1986; Delessio, Sil- verman, and Schuck, 1986; Miller, Katerberg, and Hulin, 1979; Mill- er, Powell, and Seltzer, 1980; Mitchel, 1981; Steel and Ovalle, 1984).

The professional orientation of detention workers played an intermediate role in the present study. First, the study used profes- sional orientation as a dependent variable in order to understand the relationship between such orientation and workers' personal and job characteristics. Then, as an independent variable, professional orien- tation, coupled with other individual and job variables, was used to predict the workers' turnover intention. The professional orientation questions were measured on a 7-point scale, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7) and contained nine items regarding both punishment (e.g., "youth need firm discipline") and treatment- oriented ("youth need treatment and rehabilitation") attitudes

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toward the detainees. Based on the results of a factor analysis, the punitive and treat-

ment items were found to be empirically independent from each other (Liou and Bazemore, 1994). The reliability coefficients (coeffi- cient alphas) for the punishment index and for the treatment index were .71 and .75, respectively.

The independent variables included three personal and three job- related variables. The personal variables consisted of age, gender, and education; while the job-related variables were years of service at the detention center and perception of job satisfaction and job security. Job security measured employees' perceived job security on a 7-point scale ranging from very false to very true. Job satisfaction was measured using questionnaires suggested by Taylor and Bowers (1972) and Van De Van and Ferry (1980). The questionnaires measure various dimensions of job satisfaction including: job itself, pay, supervisors, co-workers, promotion opportunities, and career development. The reliability coefficient for the variable of job satis- faction is .80.

These variables were selected as major research variables be- cause they were found to be correlated with professional orientation and turnover in studies reviewed earlier (e.g., Dembo and Dartke, 1986; Liou, 1995).

ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

To test the two hypotheses, a correlation analysis and three multivariate regression analyses were used. The results of the corre- lation analyses (Table 1) provided some basic information about the relationship between research variables. First, the results showed that personal and job variables are correlated to professional orien- tation variables. Next, there are no high correlation problems be- tween independent variables (multicollinearity) which are essential to the following multivariate regression analyses.

Two multivariate regression analyses were employed to examine the relationship between professional orientation and personal and job variables (i.e., the first hypothesis). As presented in Table 2, the results of the analysis showed that (a) treatment orientation was related positively to age, education, and job satisfaction but negative- ly to tenure and job security and (b) punishment orientation was related negatively to age and positively to perceived job security,

In order to test the relationship between turnover intention and

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professional orientation (i.e., the second hypothesis), another multi- variate regression analysis was used. The analysis revealed (Table 3) that detention workers' turnover intention was related positively to gender (female) and punishment orientation and negatively to their perceived job security and job satisfaction.

DISCUSSION

This study examines the relationship between detention workers' turnover intention and professional orientation. The findings sup- ported both hypotheses but with different interpretations. With regard to the first hypothesis, the study showed that detention workers tended to be (a) treatment-oriented if they were older, had a high level of education, few years of employment at a detention center, and expressed a low level of job security or (b) punishment oriented if they were younger and expressed a high level of job security. For the second hypothesis, the study indicated that employ- ee turnover intention was greater among female detention workers who expressed low levels of job security and job satisfaction and possessed a highly punitive orientation.

The findings add to the list of previously reported determinants of voluntary turnover in that employees' turnover intention may be influenced by their professional orientation. In the case of detention workers, punishment orientation contributes significantly to their intention to leave their organizations.

These findings also provide additional evidence to support previ- ous literature on professional orientation and turnover intention. First, the findings about the impact of age, education, and job satis- faction on professional orientation are similar to those reported by the studies of professional orientation among correctional officers (e.g., Whitehead and Lindquist, 1989; Jurik, 1985; Poole and Regoli, 1980; Hepburn and Albonetti, 1980) and studies of professional orientation among detention workers (e.g., Dembo and Dertke, 1986; Liou, 1995).

Next, the findings about the impact of personal factors (e.g., female) and job factors (e.g. job satisfaction) are consistent with those of the earlier studies. For example, job satisfaction was the strongest predictor in the present model of turnover intention among detention workers. In other words, the argument that dissat- isfied workers tend to leave their organizations was confirmed in this study.

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Taken together, the findings of the study provided important information to public managers in general and detention managers in particular regarding the administration and training of employees. First, considering the potential impact of professional orientation on turnover intention, the managers may want to recruit employees who possess professional attitudes coinciding with the organizational policy and to train employees who develop attitudes that negatively affect their job attitudes and performance. In the case of detention work, the policy emphasized treatment-oriented attitude regarding the interaction between detention workers and detainees. The present study supported such policy by finding that punishment- oriented attitude was significantly correlated with turnover intention.

Recognizing the importance of professional orientation in public administration, the managers also need to pay attention to the impact of personal, job, and organizational factors on such orienta- tions. In the case of detention workers, the study found that the detention work environment has a negative impact on the workers' professional orientations. For example, the study found that both tenure (i.e., years of employment) and job security were negatively correlated with treatment orientation. In addition, the study also noted that some personal variables affect the worker's professional orientation. For example, punishment orientation was negatively correlated with age and gender. In other words, punishment orienta- tion tended to be high among workers who were male and younger.

To promote the treatment attitude and minimize the punishment attitude, again, detention managers should address training and education programs to their workers. The content of such training and education programs should emphasize the workers' important role as youth counselors and service providers so they can develop and maintain the treatment-oriented attitude. The target groups of the training and education programs are workers who are young, male, with many years of services, and have a higher level of job security.

Finally, considering the relationship between turnover intention and professional orientation found in the present study, further research may want to examine such relationships among other pro- fessions (e.g., social workers). Answers to the following questions are important in confirming the findings of this study. Does professional orientation of other workers affect their job attitudes such as turn- over intention investigated in this study? Does the worker's work environment affect the development of such orientation? What is the

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administrator's policy to address such an issue in order to promote positive job attitudes and a high level of job performance?

Further studies of these questions will contribute not only to the generalizability of the present study but also to the implication of the impact of professional orientation among practitioners and re- searchers of public management.

NOTES

1. The original target population of 172 was reduced from a potential total of 202 because 30 workers were unavailable for the survey due to annual leave or illness.

2. Seventy-seven percent of the participants are black, 44 percent female, and 73

percent are between the ages 20 and 39. On the average, the participants have 5.16

years of experience and 19 percent have college degrees while 52 percent have

completed some college and 22 percent have high school diplomas.

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