The Relationship Between Perceived Parental Attitudesand Shyness among Turkish Youth: Fear of NegativeEvaluation and Self-esteem as Mediators

Selda Koydemir-Özden & Ayhan Demir

Published online: 15 April 2009# Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2009

Abstract The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between threeperceived parental attitudes and shyness, testing self-esteem and fear of negativeevaluation as mediators. The study used a total of 492 undergraduate students inTurkey. Data was collected through measures of shyness, fear of negative evaluation,self-esteem, and perceived parental attitudes. The proposed model was estimatedusing path analysis. Goodness of fit statistics showed that the model fit the data well.Results indicated that parental acceptance/involvement predicted self-esteem;perceived parental strictness/supervision predicted fear of negative evaluation; andperceived parental psychological autonomy predicted self-esteem. Self-esteempartially mediated the relationship between parental acceptance/involvement andshyness, whereas it fully mediated the relationship between parental psychologicalautonomy and shyness. Fear of negative evaluation fully mediated the relationshipbetween parental strictness/supervision and shyness. In addition, the relationshipbetween self-esteem and shyness was partially mediated by fear of negativeevaluation. The findings provided evidence for the propositions that parentalattitudes are important in the development of self-image and fears of rejection whichresult in the experience of shyness.

Keywords Parental attitudes . Shyness . Self-esteem . Fear of negative evaluation

Curr Psychol (2009) 28:169–180DOI 10.1007/s12144-009-9054-1

S. Koydemir-Özden (*)Faculty of Education, Department of Educational Sciences, Yeditepe University, 34755, Kayisdagi,Istanbul, Turkeye-mail: skoydemir@yeditepe.edu.tr

A. DemirFaculty of Education, Department of Educational Sciences, Middle East Technical University,Ankara, Turkeye-mail: aydemir@metu.edu.tr

Shyness is a subjective social anxiety paired with behavioral inhibition, whichresults from the prospect or presence of others of interpersonal evaluation (Leary1986). This definition asserts that shyness involves both affective and behavioralfeatures, and that all instances of shyness involve anxiety. Given this overlap,theories of social anxiety have been helpful in understanding the etiology of shyness.Such etiological theories of social anxiety focused on the role of various familialfactors (Bruch 1989; Bruch and Heimberg 1994; Hudson and Rapee 2000), andamong these are parental attitudes and behaviors which generally influence manyareas of young people’s psychosocial functioning (Steinberg et al. 1989).

There is consensus among researchers in relation to the differences between shyand non-shy individuals in terms of perceived parental attitudes such that parentalacceptance is reported more by non-shys whereas parental control is more likely tobe reported by shys (Hummel and Gross 2001; Mills and Rubin 1993). Self reportedshyness is also positively correlated with parental rejection and control; andnegatively with autonomy and affection (Eastburg and Johnson 1990).

Although parental factors contribute a lot to the development of impairedpsychosocial functioning, the literature fails to provide satisfying evidence thatperception of certain attitudes and behaviors of parents serve as direct causal agentsin shyness. The self-presentational model of shyness, which is based in acomprehensive contemporary social-cognitive theory, suggested that all cases ofsocial anxiety or shyness do not arise for precisely the same reasons for allindividuals, although the precipitating factors will involve concerns with how one isappearing to others (Leary and Kowalski 1995). In support of these assumptions, itwas found that people with high motivation to seek approval and fear disapprovaltend to score high in dispositional shyness (Leary and Kowalski 1993; Watson andFriend 1969), showing that fear of negative evaluation is an important cognitivecomponent of shyness construct. Shyness was also explained by negative self-evaluations in that shy people tend to evaluate themselves negatively and hold a lowsense of self-worth (Cheek and Buss 1981; Crozier 1995).

It has been suggested that there is a wide variety of situational and dispositionalfactors that can lead to self-presentational concerns. One of these factors, which hasthe potential to affect the motivation to impress others and the doubts about socialperformance, is parental influence which usually brings about positive or negativeconsequences for the psychosocial adjustment of children and youth (Maccoby andMartin 1983; Steinberg et al. 1989).

Research (e.g., Baumrind 1971; Buri 1989) showed that child rearing practicesare important in the development of certain cognitive biases such as self-evaluationsand concerns over approval/disapproval—two important self-presentational con-cerns. For instance, parents who are neglecting, rejecting, and overprotecting havechildren who tend to have low self-esteem; and parents of high self-esteem childrentend to be more warmly accepting of their children (Haque 1988; Rice 1990). Inaddition, parental supportive behavior characterized by nurturance, warmth, andapproval influences the self-worth of the adolescents (Gecas 1972), suggesting astrong relationship between parents’ evaluation of the adolescent and theadolescent’s self-esteem. In terms of the development of fears of being negativelyevaluated in social situations, it was found that children who were high on need forapproval tended to have parents who employed harsh styles of parenting or child

170 Curr Psychol (2009) 28:169–180

rearing and who are less warm and affectionate; and that overprotection led to achild’s tendency to avoid disapproval (Allaman et al. 1972). Overprotection and lackof autonomy were also shown to result in a child’s tendency to avoid disapproval(Arkin et al. 1986).

The majority of the shyness and social anxiety studies in relation to parentinginfluences used Western samples. However, constructs such as social anxiety, self-esteem, and parenting styles are culturally dependent (Khaleque and Rohner 2002a;Mesquita and Frijda 1992). While Western societies encourage individualism andindependence, Asian cultures tend to emphasize interdependence and respect forauthority (Markus and Kitayama 1991). In terms of parenting styles, researchpointed out that authoritative style, which is characterized by warmth, responsive-ness, and discipline, contributes best to the psychological functioning of children(Buri et al. 1988; Lamborn et al. 1991). However, for Chinese and Asian Americanchildren, not for White Americans, authoritarian parenting style was found to bringabout more positive outcomes than authoritative style (Steinberg et al. 1994).

Traditional Turkish society strongly emphasized interpersonal relationships,especially the ones with the family (İmamoğlu 1987). Being dependent on andobeying the family is expected from the family members since maintaining theharmony in the family is seen as highly important. Recent studies, however, havedocumented that with the rapid social change towards liberalization, among Turkishpeople from educated segments of the society, there is a shift from a collectivistorientation to a more individualistic one, although people maintain their relationalvalues (Göregenli 1997; Karakitapoğlu-Aygün and İmamoğlu 2002). On the otherhand, children are still expected to be dependent on the parents (Mocan-Aydın2000), and thus obedience to values and rules of the family is highly valued(Kagitcibasi, 1996). It can be said although middle class parents attempt to createless hierarchical relationships with their children and do foster independence, theycontinue to value compliance.

This study used a sample from a reputable and highly competitive university ofTurkey. Recent studies using samples with the same population (e.g., İmamoğlu andKarakitapoğlu-Aygün 2004; Koydemir 2006) indicated that these individuals reflectcharacteristics of both traditional and contemporary middle-SES Turkish culture, butwith a desire to become more individualistic. Since meanings of shyness may vary fromculture to culture (Chen et al. 1995), it is important to study whether the relationshipsamong culturally dependent constructs such as shyness, self-esteem, and parentingstyles operate differently in populations representing different cultural characteristics.

The current study aimed at clarifying the contribution of parenting styles toshyness by testing whether self-esteem and fear of negative evaluation are mediatingfactors between different parental attitudes and shyness. It was hypothesized thatperceived parental psychological autonomy and acceptance/involvement would benegatively related to shyness through their positive relationships with self-esteem.On the other hand, perceived strictness/supervision would be positively related toshyness through its negative relationship with self-esteem and positive relationshipwith fear of negative evaluation. Although the direct relationships among perceivedparental attitudes and shyness were also tested, because of lack of researchsupporting the direct role of parental attitudes on shyness, no related hypotheseswere made. Fear of negative evaluation was hypothesized to be positively, and self-

Curr Psychol (2009) 28:169–180 171171

esteem to be negatively associated with shyness. Considering the previous researchfindings (e.g., Kocovski and Endler 2000) self-esteem was also hypothesized to benegatively associated with fear of negative evaluation.

Method

Participants

A non-clinical sample of 492 undergraduate students (286 females, 206 males)selected randomly from various departments of Middle East Technical Universityparticipated in the present study. The mean age of the participants was 20.55 (SD=1.97), ranging from 17–25. Approximately all of the participants (95%) describedtheir families as representing middle socio-economic class.

Instruments

Parental Attitude Scale (PAS; Lamborn et al. 1991) was originally developed to beconsistent with the theoretical framework of Baumrind (1968, 1971). It assessesthree dimensions of parental attitudes: acceptance/involvement, strictness/supervi-sion, and psychological autonomy. Acceptance/involvement refers to the degree towhich individuals perceive their parents as loving, responsive, and involved;strictness/supervision assesses ultimate parental monitoring and supervision of thechildren; and psychological autonomy refers to non-coercive and democraticdiscipline of parents. Responses at the first and third dimensions are measured ona four-point Likert-scale; whereas the first two items of the second dimension ismeasured on a seven-point Likert-scale, and other items are measured on a three-point Likert-scale. Items of each scale are summed to get an overall subscale score,which ranges from nine to thirty six for the first and third subscales, and from eightto thirty for the second subscale.

The measure was standardized for Turkish adolescent samples by Yılmaz (2000).Test-retest reliability coefficients and Cronbach’s alpha internal consistencycoefficients were .82 and .70 for acceptance/involvement subscale; .88 and .69 forstrictness/supervision subscale; and .76 and .66 for psychological autonomysubscale, respectively.

Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale (RCBSS; Cheek and Briggs 1990) is ameasure of dispositional shyness consisting of thirteen items (e.g., “I am sociallysomewhat awkward” or “I feel inhibited in social situations”) which are rated on afive point Likert-scale, ranging from “very uncharacteristic” to “very characteristic”.Items are totaled for an overall shyness score that can range from thirteen to sixtyfive. Higher scores reflect greater experiences of shyness.

The scale was found to be internally consistent (α=.90), and forty five-day test-retest reliability coefficient was .88 (Cheek and Briggs 1990). It correlated highlywith Social Avoidance and Distress Scale (Watson and Friend 1969, r=.77), andSocial Reticence Scale (Jones et al. 1986; r=.79). The Turkish version of thirteen-item Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale (Koydemir and Demir 2005) was found

172 Curr Psychol (2009) 28:169–180

to be internally consistent (r=.91), and it correlated highly with a measure of socialanxiety (r=.77).

Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (BFNE; Leary 1983) is a brief version ofthe original thirty-item Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (Watson and Friend 1969).The scale was developed to measure apprehension about receiving negativeevaluation from others. BFNE consists of twelve items, all of which were selectedamong the original items (e.g., “I am afraid that others will not approve of me”).While the original instrument employs a true-false format, in the brief version, allitem responses are scored on a five-point Likert-type scale. All items are totaled foran overall score which ranges from twelve to sixteen.

BFNE correlated highly with the original version (Watson and Friend 1969,r=.96), had high internal consistency (r=.90), and had a test-retest correlation of .75with a 4 week interval (Leary 1983). For the present study, a Turkish version of thebrief version (Koydemir and Demir 2007) was used which was found to have goodinternal consistency (α=.94). Acceptable criterion validity was also reported for theTurkish version.

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg 1965) is a measure of global self-esteem, designed to assess the extent to which a person considers him/herself worthy,holds a positive attitude toward him/herself, or alternatively feels useless. It has 10-items with a four-point Likert-type scale ranging from “1=strongly agree” to “4=strongly disagree” with higher scores indicating greater perception of self-worth inoneself. Responses are summed to obtain a total score that can range from ten to forty.

Rosenberg reported that the scale had high internal consistency (r=.80) as well ashigh test-retest reliability (r=.85; 2 week interval). The Turkish version of the scale(Çuhadaroğlu 1985) had a test-retest reliability of .75, and correlation coefficient of.71 between psychiatric interviews and self-esteem.

Procedure

After permission to conduct the study was obtained from the university administrationand ethics committee, in their regular classroom hours, students in groups were given apackage including all questionnaires and a demographic information sheet. Anexplanation of the study was also included in this package. All participantsvolunteered to participate in the study without any incentives.

Results

Relationships Among Variables

Table 1 presents the correlation matrix for study variables. Perceived parentalacceptance/involvement, psychological autonomy and self-esteem had significantnegative associations with shyness; whereas the association between fear of negativeevaluation and shyness; and between fear of negative evaluation and self-esteem

Curr Psychol (2009) 28:169–180 173173

were negative. Significant positive correlations between parental acceptance/involvement and self-esteem; and between parental psychological autonomy andself-esteem were encountered. There was also a significant negative correlationbetween parental psychological autonomy and fear of negative evaluation.

Path Analysis for Model Testing

The hypotheses were tested through path analysis by using Lisrel 8.30 statisticalsoftware (Jöreskog and Sörbom 1993). First, a saturated model including all pathsfrom three parental attitudes, self-esteem and fear of negative evaluation to shyness;paths from parental attitudes to both self-esteem, and fear of negative evaluation; andpath from self-esteem to fear of negative evaluation were tested. The paths fromstrictness/supervision to shyness and self-esteem; from psychological autonomy toshyness; from acceptance/involvement to fear of negative evaluation; and frompsychological autonomy to fear of negative evaluation were not significant. Thus,these paths were removed to create a more parsimonious model. This second modelwas assessed in terms of overall goodness-of-fit, and then individual paths weretested for significance. Multiple goodness-of-fit indices were relied on, namely thechi-square statistic (χ2), ratio of chi-square to degrees of freedom (χ2 / df ), rootmean square error of approximation (RMSEA), goodness of fit index (GFI), adjustedgoodness of fit index (AGFI), and Bentler-Bonett normed fit index (NFI) (Kelloway1998). Overall, the analysis indicated that the model excellently explained the data;χ2 (4)=4.02; RMSEA=.068; GFI=1.00; AGFI=.99; NFI=.99.

Direct and Indirect Effects

The significant direct paths in the revised model with the beta weights are depictedin Fig. 1. Perceived parental acceptance/involvement and self-esteem weresignificantly negatively related to shyness; whereas fear of negative evaluation wassignificantly positively related to shyness. Perceived psychological autonomy, andacceptance/involvement were significantly positively associated with self-esteem;and strictness/supervision was significantly positively associated with fear of

Table 1 Means, standard deviations for, and intercorrelations between the study measures

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6M SD

1. RCBSS 1.00 30.46 9.22

2. BFNE .47** 1.00 32.27 9.89

3. RSES −.48** −.33** 1.00 32.00 4.83

4. P-AA −.23** .06 .22** 1.00 18.29 2.73

5. P-SS −.01 .08 −.10 −.33** 1.00 16.44 4.69

6. P-PA −.18* −.13* .18* .13 −.02 1.00 24.68 4.18

N=492. RCBS=Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale; BFNE=Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale;RSES=Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale; P-AA=Parental Acceptance/Involvement; P-SS=Parental Strict-ness/Supervision; P-PA=Parental Psychological Autonomy.

*p<.05, **p<.001

174 Curr Psychol (2009) 28:169–180

negative evaluation. Moreover, self-esteem was significantly negatively related tofear of negative evaluation.

Table 2 presents the indirect path coefficients, standard errors, t values, andsignificance levels for the model. Estimates of total indirect effects and standarderrors were used to compute t ratios for each meditational path. Then, t ratios weretested for statistical significance. Partial mediation was encountered when the directand indirect effects were both statistically significant. On the other hand, fullmediation was encountered when the indirect effect was significant, but the directeffect was not significant. As the path coefficients implied, fear of negativeevaluation fully mediated the relationship between perceived parental strictness/supervision and shyness. The relationship between perceived parental acceptance/involvement and shyness was partially mediated by self-esteem; and the relationshipbetween psychological autonomy and shyness was fully mediated by self-esteem. Inaddition, as expected, fear of negative evaluation partially mediated the relationshipbetween self-esteem and shyness.

Discussion

This study was an attempt to clarify the role of perceived parental attitudes inshyness in a sample of Turkish university students. Based on the relevant literature, ameditational model was developed and tested in which self-esteem and fear of

Table 2 Path weights, standard errors, t and p values for indirect effects for revised model

Path Weight SE t-value p Mediation

Shyness from:

Parental acceptance/involvement −.09 .02 −4.19 <.01 Partial

Parental strictness supervision .04 .02 2.51 <.01 Full

Parental psychological autonomy −.07 .02 −3.36 <.01 Full

Self-esteem −.12 .04 −8.11 <.01 Partial

N=492, SE=Standard Error

Fig. 1 Final path model: Pathcoefficients for influence ofparentig styles, self-esteem, andfear of negative evaluation onshyness. Note. Path coefficientsare partial regression betaweights. Arrows denote directpaths. *p<.05, **p<.01

Curr Psychol (2009) 28:169–180 175175

negative evaluation was proposed to mediate the relationship between differentparental attitudes and shyness.

In terms of direct relationships between parental attitudes and cognitions, thefindings specifically showed that parental acceptance/involvement predicted self-esteem; perceived parental strictness/supervision predicted fear of negative evalua-tion; and perceived parental psychological autonomy predicted self-esteem. Thesefindings suggested that when individuals perceive lack of acceptance/involvementand/or psychological autonomy in their parents, they tend to have negative self-evaluations; whereas when strictness/supervision is perceived, individuals haveincreased concerns over being negatively evaluated. The hypothesis that strictness/supervision would predict self-esteem, however, was not supported.

Previous research showed that the primary cause of low self-esteem is a history ofdisapproval or rejection by family. Parents who are rejecting or indifferent ratherthan accepting and affectionate toward their children tend to foster low self-esteem(Baumrind 1989). Similarly, researchers have identified the familial predictors offear of negative evaluation as different practices that parents use in raising theirchildren. In general, children who are concerned about receiving negative evaluationtended to have parents who used strict and harsh modes of child rearing and who donot provide enough autonomy for the child (Allaman et al. 1972; Bögels et al. 2001).In the present study, aspects of these arguments were supported in that while self-esteem was predicted by acceptance/involvement and psychological autonomyprovided by parents, fear of negative evaluation was predicted from parentalstrictness/supervision.

With regard to indirect effects, it was found that fear of negative evaluation fullymediated the relationship between strictness/supervision and shyness indicating thatperceiving controlling attitudes from parents lead to increased fears of rejectionwhich in turn leads to shyness. On the other hand, self-esteem fully mediated therelationship between psychological autonomy and shyness. This finding shows thatperception of parental attitudes which encourage autonomous behaviors, results inincreased sense of self-worth which consequently triggers experience of shyness.The relationship between perceived parental acceptance/involvement and shynesswas partially mediated by self-esteem since there was also a direct associationbetween acceptance/involvement and shyness. Thus, perceiving parental acceptance/involvement both directly and indirectly lead to the experience of shyness.

These findings supported evidence for the propositions that relationship withparents during childhood may affect the individual to be vulnerable to become shy inearly adulthood (Bruch and Cheek 1995), and early relationships with parents havesubstantial influence on the individuals’ vulnerability to become shy or sociallyanxious. Thus, it can be concluded for the present sample that an unaffectionateparental style without any encouragement or opportunity for expressive communi-cation is likely to foster a negative self-image or sense of self with concerns overreceiving rejection which consequently result in the experience of shyness.

Findings are also consistent with the assumptions of self-presentational theory(Leary and Kowalski 1995; Schlenker and Leary 1982). As the theory proposed,situational factors in combination with cognitive influences may lead to thedevelopment of dispositional characteristics. Similarly, in this study, a contextualfactor - parental attitude—interacted with two cognitive variables to predict shyness.

176 Curr Psychol (2009) 28:169–180

In addition, the relationships among shyness, self-esteem, and fear of negativeevaluation are not surprising given the propositions of contemporary cognitivetheories of social anxiety and shyness (e.g., Rapee and Heimberg 1997; Schlenkerand Leary 1982). Previous research demonstrated that individuals who feardisapproval tend to score high in social-evaluative concerns (e.g., Alden et al.1992; Leary and Kowalski 1993) and that there is an inverse relationship betweenself-esteem and shyness (e.g., Crozier 1995; Jones et al. 1986). Consistent withprevious work (Kocovski and Endler 2000), the effect of self-esteem on shyness wasalso partially mediated by approval concerns.

Many studies (e.g., Bruch 1989; Hummel and Gross 2001) showed that perceivedparenting styles are related to shyness, such as a positive association of shyness witha strict parenting, and a negative association with an involving parenting. However,the indirect influence of parental attitudes on shyness through cognitions has been aneglected focus in shyness research. This study is believed to contribute to theliterature by demonstrating the mediating role of self-esteem and fear of negativeevaluation between different perceived parental attitudes and shyness.

Although it is known that constructs related to psychosocial functioning areinfluenced by culture (Khaleque and Rohner 2002b), research among non-Westerncultures obtained inconsistent results with regard to the effects of parenting styles ondifferent developmental aspects among youth. As Hill (1995) argued, even thoughparenting behaviors may be similar across cultures, the meaning attached in terms ofdevelopment of children may be different. The findings of the present sample seemconsistent with the results obtained with Western samples in that, a betterpsychosocial functioning is associated with a responsive and affectionate parentalattitude rather than overcontrolling parenting.

These findings can be attributed to the changing sociocultural structure of Turkishyouth who are from more educated parts of the society and are exposed toglobalization. That is, after 80 s, Turkey has experienced many advances intechnology, individuals’ life style and world views. There has been a lot ofmodernization by the influence of liberalization.

As mentioned earlier, recent research have demonstrated that participants selectedfrom the same population have become more individualized (e.g., İmamoğlu 2003;İmamoğlu and Karakitapoğlu-Aygün 2004). Thus, it can be argued that perceptionof different parental attitudes by middle class educated Turkish youth and the effectsof these attitudes on their psychosocial functioning are similar to the experiences ofindividuals from Western societies. However, further research may examine variouscultural factors such as self-aspects or value orientations besides parental attitudes.Cross-cultural studies will also make it possible to make more accurate comparisonsbetween different cultures.

Various limitations of this study can be given. This study relies only on theparticipants’ self-reports. The students may have made reports in accordance withgetting social desirability. Results should be taken cautiously and they need to bevalidated with further studies using other assessment tools such as observation orparents’ reports. In addition, multiple measures for construct of shyness can also beused to capture the other aspects of social-evaluative concerns. The findings canonly be generalized to Turkish university students whose major characteristics werediscussed before. It is difficult to infer the meaning of shyness and other social

Curr Psychol (2009) 28:169–180 177177

concerns such as fear of negative evaluation for Turkish youth only based on thesefindings. Further research may focus on the positive and negative meaningsattributed to these constructs in order to make more accurate arguments regardingcultural issues.

References

Alden, L. E., Teschuk, M., & Tee, K. (1992). Public self-awareness and withdrawal from socialinteractions. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16, 249–267.

Allaman, J. D., Joyce, C. S., & Crandall, V. C. (1972). The antecedents of social desirability responsetendencies of children and young adults. Child Development, 43(4), 1135–1160.

Arkin, R. M., Lake, E. A., & Baumgardner, A. B. (1986). Shyness and self-presentation. In W. H. Jones, J.M. Cheek & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment, pp. 189–203. NewYork: Plenum.

Baumrind, D. (1968). Authoritarian vs. authoritative control. Adolescence, 3, 255–272.Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology Monograph, 4,

1–103.Baumrind, D. (1989). Rearing competent children. In W. Damon (Ed.), Child development today and

tomorrow, pp. 349–378. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Bögels, S. M., van Oosten, A., Muris, P., & Smulders, D. (2001). Familial correlates of social anxiety in

children and adolescents. Behavior Research and Therapy, 39, 273–287.Bruch, M. A. (1989). Familial and developmental antecedents of social phobia: Issues and findings.

Clinical Psychology Review. Special Issue: Social phobia, 9, 37–47.Bruch, M. A., & Heimberg, R. G. (1994). Differences in perceptions of parental and personal

characteristics between generalized and nongeneralized social phobics. Journal of Anxiety Disorders,8, 155–168.

Bruch, M. A., & Cheek, J. M. (1995). Developmental factors in childhood and adolescent shyness. In R.G. Heimberg, M. G. Liebowitz, D. A. Hope & F. R. Schneier (Eds.), Social phobia: Diagnosis,assessment, and treatment, pp. 163–182. New York: Guilford.

Buri, J. R. (1989). Self-esteem and appraisals of parental behavior. Journal of Adolescent Research, 4,33–49.

Buri, J. R., Louiselle, P. A., Misukanis, T. M., & Mueller, R. A. (1988). Effects of parentalauthoritarianism and authoritativeness on self-esteem. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,14, 271–282.

Cheek, J. M., & Buss, A. H. (1981). Shyness and sociability. Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology, 41, 330–339.

Cheek, J. M., & Briggs, S. R. (1990). Shyness as a personality trait. In W. R. Crozier (Ed.), Shyness andembarrassment: Perspectives from social psychology, pp. 315–337. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Chen, X., Rubin, K. H., & Li, B. (1995). Social and school adjustment of shy and aggressive children inChina. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 337–349.

Crozier, W. R. (1995). Shyness and self-esteem in middle childhood. British Journal of EducationalPsychology, 65, 85–95.

Çuhadaroğlu, F. (1985). Adolesanlarda benlik saygısı. [Self-esteem in adolescents]. Unpublished DoctoralDissertation, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara.

Eastburg, M., & Johnson, W. B. (1990). Shyness and perceptions of parental behavior. PsychologicalReports, 66, 915–921.

Gecas, V. (1972). Parental behavior and contextual variations in adolescent self-esteem. Sociometry, 35(2),332–345.

Göregenli, M. (1997). Individualist and collectivist tendencies in a Turkish sample. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 28, 787–793.

Haque, A. (1988). Relationship between perceived maternal acceptance-rejection and self-esteem amongyoung adults in Nigeria. Journal of African Psychology, 1, 15–24.

Hill, N. E. (1995). The relationship between family environment and parenting style: A preliminary studyof African American families. Journal of Black Psychology, 21, 408–423.

178 Curr Psychol (2009) 28:169–180

Hudson, J. L., & Rapee, R. M. (2000). The origins of social phobia. Behavior Modification, 24, 102–129.Hummel, R. M., & Gross, A. M. (2001). Socially anxious children: An observational study of parent-child

interaction. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 23, 19–42.İmamoğlu, E. O. (1987). An interdependence model of human development. In Ç. Kagitcibasi (Ed.),

Growth and progress in cross-cultural psychology, pp. 138–145. Lisle, The Netherlands: Swets andZeitlinger.

İmamoğlu, E. O. (2003). Individuation and relatedness: Not opposing but distinct and complementary.Genetic, Social and General Psychology Monographs, 129(4), 367–402.

İmamoğlu, E. O., & Karakitapoğlu Aygün, Z. (2004). Self-construals and values in different cultural andsocioeconomic contexts. Genetic, Social and General Psychology Monographs, 130(4), 277–306.

Jones, W. H., Briggs, S. R., & Smith, T. G. (1986). Shyness: Conceptualization and measurement. Journalof Personality and Social Psychology, 51(3), 629–639.

Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (1993). Structural equation modeling with the SIMPLIS commandlanguage. Chicago: Scientific Software International.

Kagitcibasi, C. (1996). Family and human development across cultures: A view from the other side.Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

Karakitapoğlu-Aygün, Z., & İmamoğlu, E. O. (2002). Value domains of Turkish adults and universitystudents. The Journal of Social Psychology, 142, 333–351.

Kelloway, E. K. (1998). Using lisrel for structural equation modeling. London: Sage Publications.Khaleque, A., & Rohner, R. P. (2002a). Perceived parental acceptance-rejection and psychological

adjustment: A meta-analysis of cross cultural and intracultural studies. Journal of Marriage and theFamily, 64, 54–64.

Khaleque, A., & Rohner, R. P. (2002b). Reliability of measures assessing the pancultural associationbetween perceived parental acceptance-rejection and psychological adjustment: A meta-analysis ofcross-cultural and intracultural studies. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 33, 87–99.

Kocovski, N. L., & Endler, N. S. (2000). Social anxiety, self-regulation, and fear of negative evaluation.European Journal of Personality, 14, 347–358.

Koydemir, S. (2006, June). Association of relational, individual, and collective self-aspects with socialanxiety among Turkish university students. Paper presented at the 4th International Conference on theDiological Self, Braga, Portugal.

Koydemir, S, & Demir, A. (2005). [Reliability and validity of 13-item Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale].Unpublished manuscript.

Koydemir, S., & Demir, A. (2007). Psychometric properties of the brief version of the Fear of NegativeEvaluation Scale. Psychological Reports, 100, 883–893.

Lamborn, S. D., Mounts, N. S., Steinberg, L., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1991). Patterns of competence andadjustment among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful families.Child Development, 62, 1049–1065.

Leary, M. R. (1983). A brief version of the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale. Personality and SocialPsychology Bulletin, 9, 371–376.

Leary, M. R. (1986). Affective and behavioral components of shyness: Implications for theory,measurement, and research. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectiveson research and treatment, pp. 27–38. New York: Plenum.

Leary, M. R., & Kowalski, R. M. (1993). The interaction anxiousness scale: Construct and criterion relatedvalidity. Journal of Personality Assessment, 61, 136–146.

Leary, M. R., & Kowalski, R. M. (1995). Social anxiety. NY: The Guilford.Maccoby, E. E., & Martin, J. A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent—child

interaction. In P. H. Mussen & E. M. Hetherington (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology:Socialization, personality, and social development (4th ed), pp. 1–101. New York: Wiley.

Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, andmotivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–53.

Mesquita, B., & Frijda, N. H. (1992). Cultural variations in emotions: A review. Psychological Bulletin,112, 179–204.

Mills, R. S. L., & Rubin, K. H. (1993). Socialization factors in the development of social withdrawal. InK. H. Rubin & J. Asendorpf (Eds.), Social withdrawal, inhibition, and shyness in childhood, pp. 117–148. New Jersey: Erlbaum.

Mocan-Aydın, G. (2000). Western models of counseling and psychotherapy within Turkey: Crossingcultural boundaries. Counselling Psychologist, 28, 281–299.

Rapee, R. M., & Heimberg, R. G. (1997). A cognitive-behavioral model of anxiety in social phobia.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 741–756.

Curr Psychol (2009) 28:169–180 179179

Rice, K. G. (1990). Attachment in adolescence: A narrative and meta-analytic review. Journal of Youthand Adolescence, 19(5), 511–538.

Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Schlenker, B. R., & Leary, M. R. (1982). Social anxiety and self-presentation: A conceptualization and

model. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 641–669.Steinberg, L., Elmen, J. D., & Mounts, N. S. (1989). Authoritative parenting, psychosocial maturity, and

academic success among adolescents. Child Development, 60, 1424–1436.Steinberg, L., Lamborn, S. D., Darling, N., Mounts, N. S., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1994). Over-time changes

in adjustment and competence among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, andneglectful families. Child Development, 65, 754–770.

Watson, D., & Friend, R. (1969). Measurement of social-evaluative anxiety. Journal of Consulting andClinical Psychology, 33(4), 448–457.

Yılmaz, A. (2000). Eşler arasındaki uyum ve çocuğun algıladığı anne-baba tutumu ile çocukların,ergenlerin ve gençlerin akademik başarıları ve benlik arasındaki ilişkiler. [Relationships betweenmarital adjustment, child perception of parenting style, and children’s, adolescents’, and young adults’academic achievement and self-perceptions]. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Hacettepe Univer-sity, Ankara, Turkey.

180 Curr Psychol (2009) 28:169–180