elements of lang. curriculum2

8/17/2019 Elements of Lang. Curriculum2

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ESP PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

Elements of language curriculum

Lecturer : Sulaiman, M. P

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Maria Dentiana Resi &'()*++) -

Melisa &'()*+++ -

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Veroni0a E0a Astuti &'()*++) (-

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Semester : 2 t%

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A. O6er6ie7 of curriculum

Anthony (1965 ) provides a framework for comparing and understanding

the relationships among the various different language teaching activities that

he identified even at the early date. His framework includes three categories

into which all such activities can e classified !

1. Approach" encompasses all points of view on the nature of language andnature of language teaching and learning

#. $ethod" to descri e different plans for presenting language to students in

anorderly manner

%. &echni'ue" to define what actually happens in classroom

Adapted from ichards ogers ( 19*# )


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$c+ay ( 19,* ) descri e the types of sylla uses that have used in

language teaching. -he focuses on sylla uses" which she define as different

ways of organi ing and planning language teaching and learning. -he points to

ways of organi ation that have appeared during the history of language

teaching!

1. -tructural sylla uses

#. -ituational sylla uses

%. /ational -ylla uses

&hree categories " help teachers understand the nature of at least one

aspect of teaching languages" in this case" ways of organi ing their teaching.

#our 1ategories of Language teac%ing Acti6ities

1. Approaches ! 0ays of defining what and how the students need to learn

#. -ylla us ! 0ays of organi ing the course and materials

%. &echni'ue ! 0ays of presenting the materials and teaching

. 23ercises ! 0ays of practicing what has een presented

8a"s of Defining Nee : A99roac%

A99roac%es

4lassical approach Humanism students need to read the classics

rammar translation approach students need to learn with economy of time

and effort

7irect approach students need to learn communication so they

should use

8nly second language in class.

Audio lingual approach students need operant conditioning and

ehavioural

$odification to learn language.


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4ommunicative approach students must e a le to e3press their intentions

that

s they must learn the meanings that are

important to them.

8a"s of Organi ing : S"lla;us

A sylla us provides a focus for what should e studied" along with a

relational for how that content should e selected and ordered. 4urrently the

literature reflects three ma:or types of sylla us ! structural" situational" and national"


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8a"s of 9resenting : Tec%ni


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esponse drill estatement

osetta procedure -entence com ining

-entence modification -peed writing

-u stitution drill &ransformation drill

&ranslation &rue false

Pac0age 9e agogies

PA1$AGED PEDAGOG3ES A/T4OR

4ounselling learning 4urran

7artmouth pedagogy assias

/atural 0ay +rashen

-uggestopedia @o anov

&otal ?hysical espons Asher

However" packaged pedagogies differ >rom the other techni'ues discussedA ove in a num er of ways(1) packaged pedagogies are availa le as ela orate

packages including uilt in approaches" sylla uses" techni'ues" and e3ercises!(#)

packaged pedagogies are usually identified with a single personality ( 4ounseling

@earning with 4urran" the 7artmouth pedagogy with assias"the natural way with

krashen the silent way with gattegno sunggestopedia with lo anov"and total physical

esponse with Asher)!and (%) ?ackaged pedagogies generally have a central point

for distri ution of the package in the form of information and materials

S"stematic A99roac% to Designing an Maintaining Language

1urriculum

& a a9te from !ro7n )? ?a-


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Nee Anal"sis

/eed Analysis in language program is often viewed simply as identification

of the language forms that the students will likely need to use in the target language

when they are re'uired to actually understand and produce the language .&he

analytical focus is on the learners" and their need are viewed in linguistic term. n

truth" it is logical to make the learners the focus of any sound needs analysis.

/eed Analysis will e defined tentatively as the systematic collection and

analysis of all relevant information necessary to satisfy the language learningre'uirements of the students within the conte3t of the particular institutions invloved

in the learning situation. &he same principle applies to the language facus af many

needs analyces.students have needs and concerns other than lingguistic ones.thus the

learners human needs mustt also e acknowledged alongside their purely language

related ones.this in turn means that the definition of needs analysis should e road

ened to include this wider view of needs.needs analysis should e defined tentatively

as the systematic collection and analysis of all relevant information necessary to

satisfy satisfy the languagel earning re'uirements of the students within the conte3t

of the particular institutions involved in the learning situation.

GOALS AND O!@E1T3VES

A @ogical outcome of determining the needs of a group of language

students is the specification of goals that is"general statements a our what must e

accomplished in order to attainand satisfy students needs.


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8 :ectives"on the other hand are precise statements a out what content or skills the

students must master in order to attain a particular goal.>or instance"to write a term

paper"the students might first need to develop several essential li rary skills.8ne

susch skill would e the a ility to finding a particular ook in the card

catalog"locating the call num er for that ook"and finding the ook y locating its

call num er in the stacks.the specification of o :ectives and the process of thinking

through what is involved in achieving the program goals will lead to

analy ing"synthessi ing"and clarifying the knowledge and skill necessary to meet the

students language needs.

&he la el packaged pedagogy will e used here instead of innovative

approaches for four reasons first since the term approach is eing used in this ook

in a restricted way using the phrase innovative approaches would create

confusion.second most of these techni'ues could no longer e considered truly

innovative since they have all een around for some time.third they are pack aged in

that in most cases we can contact enthusiasts of each and uy pack aged materials

that follow the particular pedagogy in 'uestion.fourth each pedagogy is complete in

a sense"including its own approach and some form of sylla us as well as its own

types of techni'ues and e3ercises.

Material De6elo6ment

0ith at least preliminary sets of needs analyses" o :ectives and tests hand

curriculum planners are in the unusual position of eing a le to deal rationally with

the pro lem of materials. t is relatively easy to adopt" develop" or adapt materials for

a program that is well defined in term of need analyses" o :ectives" and test. n fact"

the decision as to which strategy to use( adopt" develop" or adapt ) in putting

materials in place is itself made easier.

n other words" that decisions regarding the approaches" sylla uses" techni'ue"

and e3ercises should always e left up to the individuals who are on site and know

the situation est.

Language Teac%ing

4ontrary to what might at first seem to e true" the system advocate for

curriculum development allows teachers more freedom than usual in the classroom


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to teach as they feel appropriate. &he teachers and students should e aware of what

the o :ectives for a given course are and how the testing will e conducted at the end

of the course. &o those ends" the teachers need support and also need to e intimately

involved in the process of curriculum development and revision. All curriculum

process are descri ed as group efforts. &he primary reason for this emphasis is the

most teachers" as individuals" are in no position to do such tasks well. Hence"

8 :ectives" test and materials development should all e group efforts drawing on

the e3pertise" time" and energy availa le from everyone involved in the program. &he

kind of support can help teachers do a superior :o at what they are hired for

teaching.

Program E6aluation

2valuation might e defined as the systematic collection and analysis of all

relevant information necessary to promote the improvement of the curriculum and to

assess its effectiveness within the conte3t of the particular institutions involved.

2valuation " on the other hand" can take advantage of all the a ove information andtools to assess the effectiveness of a program" ut can also utili e in the information

gathered in the process of (1) developing o :ectives" (#) writing and using the tests"

(%) adopting " developing" or adapting materials" ( ) teaching

?rogram evaluation" than might e defined as the ongoing process of

information gathering" analysis " and synthesis" the entire purpose of which is to

constantly improve each elements of a curriculum on the asis of what is known

a out all of the others elements" separately as well as collectively.


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su :ective and o :ective information. &he definition will use in this ook

meant to com ine the est futuresof all three of these definitions" as well

as include elements that have either een left out or glossed over in other

definitions. n order to accomplish all this and actually perform a needs

analysis" certain systematic steps must e followed. &he remainder of

this chapter will ela orate on these steps and provide suggestions for a

reasona le set of procedures and steps to accomplish each. . $aking asic 7ecisions A out &he /eeds Analysis

efore any needs analysis can take place" curriculum planners must

make certain fundamental decisions. 0ho will e involved in the needs

analysisG 0hat types of information should e gatheredG 0hich points of

view should e representedG And how might points of view and program philosophy interactG

1. 0ho will e involved in the needs analysisGa. &he target group is made up of those people a out whom

information will ultimately e gathered. &he usual target

group is the students in a program" ut sometimes the

teachers and administrators are also targeted. . &he audience for a needs analysis should encompass all

people who will eventually e re'uired to act upon the

analysis. &his group usually consists of teachers" teacher

aides" program administrators" and any governing odies or

sepervisiors in the ureaucracy a ove the langiage program.c. &he needs analysis are those persons responsi le for

conducting the needs analysis. &hey may e consultans

rought in for the purposes" or mem ers of the faculty

designated for the :o . n addition to conducting the needs

analysis" this group will pro a ly e responsi le for

identifying the three groups. &he needs analysis as

individuals and as a group must e willing to devide up"

share" and delegate responsi ilities or the entire needs

assesment process may prove unreli a le.d. &he resoutce group consists of any people who may serve as

sources of information a out the target group. n some

conte3ts" parents" financial sponsors" or guardians may e

included as sources of valua le information a out the target


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group. n other case" outsidera (such as future employers or

professors from the studentsC conten courses) may provide

valua le information a out the target language that students

will eventually need to use.#. 0hat types of information should e gatheredG

According to stuffle ean (19,,) four divergent philosophies

can arise in needs analysis! the discrepancy" the democratic" the

analytic" and the dignostic. &he importance of such philosophies

lies in the fact that they will affect the types of information that

will e gathered. >or instance" the discrepancy philosophy is one

which needs are viewed as differences" or discrepancies" etween a

desired performnace from the students and what they are actualydoing.

%. 0hich points of view should e representedG&he point of view taken on each oh these dichotomies will in

turn e realted to and influenced y the philosophy that is

dominant in a given program.

c. athering nformation

ichards" platt" and we er (19*5" p. 1*9) suggest that a needsassesment seeks information on!

a. &he situations in which a language will e used (including who it

wil e used with) . &he o :ectives and purposes for which the language is neededc. &he types of communication that will e used (wtitten" spoken"

formal" informal)d. &he level of proficiency thet will e re'uired.

As a starting point" these categories might suffice" ut this is list

incomplete and far too prespective for the purpose in this ook.

As the noted earlier" the needs analysis (in consultation with the

teachers and administrators in the particular program) must

delineate the areas of conse'uense for information gathering and

must do so clearly and early.d. 23ample /eeds Analysis

&he various needs assesment instruments and procedures discusses

earlier can generate a large 'uantity and a wide a variety of data. -uchinformation provides a useful starting point for developing or evaluating a


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language program. 7ata must e analy ed" interpreted" and evaluated efore

the resulting information can e to the practical realities of curriculum

development. &he applications of informal and formal needs analysis that

were conducted at 2@4 and in 2@ at @

scores. nitially" only students with estimated &82>@ scores

higher than 5J were accepted.

%. 8 servation


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&his process involved doing interviews and holding

meeting with engineering professors and students.

. $eetings

&his include weekly teachers meeting" regular

seminars workshop to discuss 2-? issues" weekly meeting for

each skill area" and weekly meeting for multiple section each

course.

5. ;uestionnaires

&his 'uestionnaire was designed to investigate the

studentsC attitudes toward various aspects of the program

particularly materials" teaching" and logistical issues.

6. -ummari ing &he esults

&he final product of this needs assesment process was a

list of goals" organi ed and listed in great details as shown in the

e3cerpt given. Here" goals were meant to provide general

descriptive statements that outline courses aims" and o :ectiveswere meant to e the means y which microskills could e

operationali ed with the ultimate aim of reaching the over all

goals. &hese goals" microskills" and o :ectives" in turn would

provide the listening courses with a slid asis for test

development" materials development and teaching. &his list was

the est availa le at the time ecause it was ased on a widw

variety of information sources" as well as profesional :udgmnetwithin the 2@ . /evertheles +im in and ?roctor (19*6) provided

a foundation. /one of the curriculum development that has een

acomplished in recent years in the 2@ would have een possi le

without the hard work of all those graduated students cited a ove"

who put their hearts and soul into trying to figure out he language

and situation needs of our students.

e. -ummary


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1. Goals an O; ecti6e1. /eed" oals" and 8 :ectives

&he process of need analysis can generate a tremendous amount of

information that must e sorted and utili ed in some way within the

curriculum. 8ne way to use this information is to apply what has eenlearned in the needs analysis for the formulation of program goals and

o :ectives.a. oals

?rogram goals are defined in this ook general statement concering

desira le and attaina le program purposes and aims ase on

perceived language and situation needs. n deriving goals from

perceived needs" four points should e remem ered!•

oals are general statement of the programCs purpose.• oals should usually focus on what the program hopes to

accomplish in the future" and particularly on what the

students should e a le to do when they leave the program.• oals can serve as one asis for developing more precise and

o servanle o :ectives.• oals should never e viewed as permanent" that is" they

should never ecome set in cement. . 8 :ectives

nstructional o :ectives will e defined here as specific

statement that descri e the particular knowledge" ehaviors" and or

skill that the learner will e e3pected to know or perform at the end

of a course or program. 4onsider the following Eo :ectivesF that

were stated for an upper level 2-@ for academic purposes class at a

well known American university!y the end of the course" a student will e a le to!

• ?repare a term paper (including footnotes" i liography" title

page and so forth).• &ake note on a lecture.• Answer 'uestions following such a talk.

#. >rom oals &oward 8 :ectives7eveloping statement of perceved need into program goals" and these

in turn into clear o :ectives" is an effective way to clarify what will e tought

in each classroom" planners can make efforts to coordinate across couses and

through out an entire language program. n other words" the process of convering perceptions of studentsC need into goals and o :ectives provides


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the asic units that can in turn e used to define and organi e all teaching

activities into a cogent curriculum.%. etting nstructional 8 :ectives on ?aper

a. -ources of deas >or 8 :ectivesA num er of sources are availa le to help formulate o :ectives from

the goals of a program. &hese include other programs and their

curriculum" the ooks and :ournals that constitute the language teaching

literature" and educational ta3onomies that were worked out as far ack as

the 195Js.a) 8ther language programs

) &he literaturec) &e3onomies

. -ound nstructional 8 :ectives>or the planners is to state them as clear and unam iguousinstructional o :ectives. >or e3ample" my overall goal in this chapter is tohelp the reader develop the skill necessary to define and write clear instructional o :ectivies ( a Eneed"F at least in my perception). n other totransform the goal into potential o :ectives" first reak it into tha smallesr sepera le units" geoup those units logically" and then e3press them as aset of goal. &he following o :ectives have result from this process!

• 7istinguish etween curriculum goals and instructionalo :ectives.

•

ecogni e complete or instructional o :ectives.• ecogni e vaguely stated instructional o :ectives as well as

clearly state ones.• 0rite clear and complete perfomance o :ectives including

su :ect" perfomance" conditions" a measure" and criterion

According to $ager (19,5) suggested three components necessary for the formulation of good o :ectives!

?erformance ! an o :ective always says what a learner ise3pected to e a le to do.4onditiona ! an o :ective always descri es the importantconditions under which the permance is to occure.4riteria ! wherever possi le" an o :ective descri es thecriterion of accepta le performance y descri ing how well thelearner must perform in order to e cosidered accepta le.

&he type of instructional o :ectives descri ed here willcontain five element they are!a) -u :ect

) ?erformancec) 4onditionsd) $easure ande) 4riterion


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. ?ros and 4ons of 4urruculum 8 :ectivesAccrording to o itt (19# ) defined that specipication for these school

activities would ecome the o :ectives of edication.n other hand according to &yler(19 9"pp.59 6J) refined these nations y

proposing guidelines for developing o :ectives. He elived that educationgoals were est stated as o :ectives that would descri e changes in student

ehavior.5. 23ample oals And 8 :ectives

8 :ectives is :ust agglomeration unless they are somehow organi ed and presented so the they can e utili ed for further curruculum development. &othe right" the perfomance o :ectives are presented as a continuation of thesentence at the top! Elearners should e a le to deal with various aspects of health and welfareF which is relly a goal statement. &his kind of clear organi ation can help teachers and srudens to understand a set of o :ectives


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D. Testing

&est will e e3amined in terms of whether they are norm referenced or

criterion referenced test" which differ fundamentally in the ways they are

applied to different types of decisions. &hen will outline a strategy for

creating successful test within a language program including suggestion for

integrating test into the overall cirriculum and using checklists to help in

evaluating the 'uality of test and to aid in administering those test.

Ma0ing Dicisions 8it% Tests

&hese four categories are pro a ly emphasi ed ecause they fit neatly withfour of the fundamental types of decisions that must e made in language

program.

a) ?roficiency decisions&eachers sometimes find themselves in the position of having to

determine how much of a given language their students have learned and

retained. n such a case" general" overall language a ility is the focus

without reference to any particular program ( and its o :ectives" teaching"and materials). -uch information may prove necessary when students are

completely new to a program" and it is necessary to get a general nation

of how much of the language they know" for e3ample" to make intelligent

admissions decisions. -o" proficiency decisions involve tests that are

general in nature ( and not specific to any particular program) ecause

proficiency decisions re'uire general estimares of studentsC proficiency

levels. -uch a curriculum" in ad:usting the level of goals and o :ectivesto the true a ilities of the students" or in making comparisons across

programs. 7espite the fact that proficiency decisions are general in

nature" they nevertheless very important in most language programs. ) ?lacement decisions

?lacement decisions should e ased on instruments that are either

designed with a specific program in mind or" at least" seriously e3amined

for their appropriateness to a specific program. &he tests upon wich

placement decision are ased should either e specifically designed for agiven program (and or track within a program) or" at least" carefully


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e3amined and selected to reflect the goals and a ility levels in the

program. &hus a placement test will tend to apply only to a specific

program and will e narrower in purpose than a proficiency test.c) Achievement decisions

Achievement decisions are central to any language curriculum. 0eare in the usiness of fostering achievement in the form of language

learning. n fact" this ook promotes the idea that the purpose of

curriculum is to ma3imi e the possi ilities for students to achieve a high

degree of language learning. &he tests used to monitor such achievement

must e very specific to the goals and o :ectives of a given program and

must e fle3i le in the sense that they can readily e made to change in

response to what is learned from them a out the other element of thecurriculum. n other word" well considered achievement decisions are

ased on tests from which a great deal can e learned a out the program.

&hese tests should" in turn" e fle3i le and responsive in the sense that

their result can e used to affect changes and to continually assess those

changes against the program realities.d) 7iagnostic decision

7iagnostic decisions are focused on the strengths and weaknesses

of each individual vis a vis the instructional o :ectives for purposes of correcting deficiencies E efore it is too lateF. Hence" diagnostic decisions

are aimed at fostering achievement y promoting strengths and

eliminating weaknesses.

Matc%ing Tests To Pur9oses

a) /orm refferenced versus criterion refferenced tests

8ne definition for a criterion refferenced tests is a test which meansures astudentCs performance according to aparticular standard or criterion which

has een agreed upon. &he student must reach this level of performance to

pass the test" and studentCs score is therefore interpreted with reference to the

criterion score" rather than to the scores of other students. ( ichards" ?latt"

0e er 19*5" p. 6*)&his is markedly different from the definition for a norm refferenced test

given in the same source a test which is designed to mearsure how the

performance a particular student or group of students compares with the


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performance of another student or group of students whose score are given as

the norm. A studentCs score is therefore interpreted with reference to the

scores of other students or groups of students" rather than to an agreed

criterion score. ( ichards" ?latt" 0e er 19*5" p. 6*) ) Adopt" develop" or adaptG

Adopting language tests&he tests that are used for program decisions are very often ought from

commercial pu lishing house. &ests are also sometimes adopted from other

language program or taken straight from the current te3 ook.c) 7eveloping language tests

t the est of all possi le worlds" sufficient resources and e3pertise will e

availa le in a program so that proficiency" placement" achievement" and

diagnostic tests can e developed and fitted to the specific goals of the program and to the specific population studying in it. f this the case"

decisions must e made a out which types of tests to develop first.d) Adapting language tests

&he process of adapting a tests to a specific situation will pro a ly involves

some variant of the following strategy!1. Administer the test to the students in the program.#. -elect those items that appear to e doing a good :o of spreading out

the students for an / &" or a good :o of measuring the learning of

the o :ectives with that population for a 4 &.%. 4reate a shorter" more efficient" revised version of the test that fits

the a ility levels of the specific population of students.. 4reate new items that function like those that were working well in

order to have a tes of sufficient length.

Organi ing An /sing Test Results

Having decided to adopt" develop" or adapt tests (or some com ination of allthree) curriculum planners must ne3t put the tests into and egin to use them for

decision making. &he ne3t step is to ensure thet all the necessary physical condition

for the test have een met. efore actually administrering the test" check to make sure

that there are ade'uate materials on hand (with a few e3tra copies of everything). All

necessary e'uipment should e handy and in good repair ( with ackups if that is

appropriate). ?roctor must e trained in their duites and have sufficient information

to do a professional :o of test administration. After the test has een administered" provision must e made for scoring. Again" ade'uate space and scheduling are


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important so that 'ualified staff can e properly trained to carry out the scoring of

the test. 2'ually important is the interpretation of the results. &here must e a clearly

defined purposes for the result" and provision for helping teachers use scores and

e3plain them to their students. deally" there will also e a well defined place for the

results in the overall curriculum planning.

E=am9le Testing Program

&he e3ample of testing programs provided here are meant to emphasi e the

importance of having awell integrated program of different types of tests that (1)

assist the administrators and teachers in making decision a out the students" (#)

provide feed ack to the teachers" and (%) aid in e3amining the various elements of

curriculum.

Guang %ou Englis% Language 1enter, B%ongs%an /ni6ersit"

1rierion5reference iagnostic an ac%ie6ement test

&his last reali ation led directly to the development of 4rierion referencedtests that were ased on the o :ectives of our courses. &hese tests were development

y the teachers in each skill area to directly reflect the o :ectives of their courses and

the types of activities that were going on in those courses.

!enefits Of A Soun Testing Program

>irst" the tests helped us to closely e3amine our preceptions of the studentsCneeds. >or e3ample" we found that they could prform 'uite well (sometimes with 1JJ

percent accuracy) on all the items for some of the o :ectives on the first day of class.

0hen we discovered this type of situation" it ecome 'uite clear to us that our instal

perceptions in those o :ectives.

-econd" after we discovered that some o :ectives did not need to e taught"

we had the freedom to concentrate instead on the remaning o :ectives or to add new

o :ectives designed to meet more advanced needs.


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&hird" changing the o :ectives due to what we learned from the tests

naturally led to rethinking our materials an teaching strategies to meet newly

perceived needs of the students.

&he fourth and last enefit gained from ourtesting program was that whenever we needed to focus on program evaluation" we had a great deal of information

ready to e presented.

2nglish language institute" university" of hawaii at manoa

0e used four sets of procedures that help us toensure that students are working at the

level that most enefits all parties concerned!

a) ntial screening proceduresefore students are admitted to or the 4riterion referenced diagnostic and achievement tests" the lead teachers has

proven essential in rallying the teachers to review and revise each of the forms for

each course and getting the tests to the teachers on time for use in class. n addition"

it has proven important that this lead teachers do the scoring and get the results ack

to the teachers within # hours. -uch promptness has made the results particularly

useful and helped in garnering teachersC support for the entire testing program.


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f) 2@ testing program0e sincerely hope that the vast ma:ority of the students who are served y the

procedures discussed a ove are correctly classified" placed" diagnosed" and

promoted. However" decisions are made y human eings" and even when they are

ased on seemingly scientific information in the form of test score" human

:udgments can e wrong. n correct decisions can cost a student a great deal in the

form of e3tra tuitin aid or e3tra and unnecessary time spent studying 2-@. 4ertainly"

all of this take alittle more effort on the part of the administrator and teachers" ut the

enefits gained from effective and humane testing procedures accrue to all !

students"teachers" and administrators alike. /ote that the strategies that we find so

usefull can easily e generali ed and adapt to other language program.

Summar"n this chapter" the dicision has centered on setting up a testing program that can help

decision makers match the correct test (and other information sources) to each of the

decions that must e made a out students. &he overall message of this chapter was that

there are a variety of different test types that can help in making responsi le decisions

a out studentsC lives. n addition" a comprehensive testing system provides valua le

information for the revision and development of the other elements of the curriculum"

that is" the needs analysis" goals and o :ectives" materials" teaching" and programevaluation.

E. Materials

0orking from the general parameters of the program design" as defined

y the need analysis" goals and o :ectives" and tests" curriculum developers arein an e3cellent position to egin materials development. $aterials will e

defined here as any systematic description of the techni'ues and e3ercises to

e used in classroom teaching. &he surest test of the via ility of a set of

materials is for a teacher to e a le to implement them without any aid from

their original creator. f that teacher is successful" the chances are that the

materials are systematically and clearly descri ed. &he curriculum developers

should have a clear understanding of the programCs theoretical positions (the


25/49

approaches and sylla uses)" as well as its more practical orientations

(techni'ues and e3ercises).

&he materials come from three strategies! adopting" developing" and

adapting materials. Adopting materials involves deciding on the types of materials that are needed" locating as many different sets of those types as

possi le" evaluating the materials" putting them to use" and reviewing them on

an ongoing asis. 7eveloping materials will e discussed in terms of three

phases! developing" teaching (field testing)" and evaluating the materials.

Adapting materials includes all of the steps necessary in adopting them" ut

must additionally incorporate phases that allow for analy ing what is worth

keeping in the materials" classifying that remaining material" filling gaps fromother sources" and reorganai ing all of this to fit the program in 'uestion.

#rame7or0 #or Material Design). A99roac%

Approaches as ways of defining what the students need to learn ased

on assumptions and theoretical positions drawn from diciplines as diverse as

linguistics" psychology" and education.(. S"lla;us

&he teaching activities called sylla uses are predominantly concernedwith the choices necessary to organi e the language content of a course or

program. &he procedures involved in developing a sylla us should eventually

include e3amining instructional o :ectives" arranging them in terms of

priorities" and then determining what kinds of techni'ues and e3ercises are

re'uires in order to attain those o :ectives. &he information gathered in the

course of conducting a language need analysis will help to determine kthe

direction that a particular sylla us planning pro:ect will go since the same

units of analysis used in the needs analysis will tend to e used in the

o :ectives that result. &hus a programCs approach affects the units of analysis

in the needs analysis" and predetermines the shape that the o :ectives will

eventually take.A num er of different kinds of sylla uses as follows!

a. -tructural (organi ed around grammatical structures) . -ituational (organi ed around various settings in which the learners are

likely to use the language)c. &opical (organi ed around themes or topics)d. >unctional (organi ed around communicative functions)


26/49

e. /otional (organi ed around conceptual categories)f. -kills (organi ed around skills)g. &ask or activity ased (organi ed around activities)

*. Tec%ni


27/49

presented in terms of its teachers and students. /e3t step in a lueprint for the

systematic development or materials is some sort of description of the types

of instructional materials that are envisioned. >inally" an effective lueprint

for materials development must include some form of evaluation component

that take the form of detailed plans for studying the effectiveness of the

materials" or discussion processes that will e instituted the constantly revise

and upgrade materials" or oth.

/nits Of Anal"sis

&he following components of a sylla us are specified!

1. &he situations in which the foreign language will e used" including thetopics that will e deal with.

#. &he language activities in which the learner will engage.%. &he language functions that the learner will fulfill.

. 0hat the learner will e a le to do with respect to each topic.5. &he general notions that the learner will e a le to handle.6. &he language forms that the learner will e a le to hadle.,. &he language forms that the learner will e a le to use when the course is

completed.*. &he degree of skill with which the learner will e a le to perform.

Sco9e An Se


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8%ere Do Materials 1ome #romC). A o9ting Materials

Adopting materials in a rational manner is not as easy as it might

at first appear. >irst" it is necessary to decide what types of materials are

desira le. -econd" all availa le materials of these types should e located :ust in case they might prove useful. &hird" some form of

review evaluation procedures must e set up to pare this list down to only

those materials that should e seriously considered so that final choices

can e made. >ourth" some strategy for the regular review of these

adopted materials must e set up to make sure that they do not ecome

irrelevant to the needs of the students and the changing conditions in the

program.(. De6elo9ing Materials8verall curriculum issues including deciding on the theoritical of

the program in terms of approaches and organi ational principles in terms

of sylla uses. &he central steps involved in materials development are

creating" teaching and evaluating. 7uring the creating phase" the first step

is to find teachers who are willing to work on materials. &he teaching

phase can e viewed as an opportunity to field test the materials. 7uring

the evaluating phase" the materials developers should e :ust as critical of the programCs materials as they would e of commercially prepared

materials.*. A a9ting Materials

&he stage in adapting materials is to find and evaluate materials

that might serve at least some of the studentsC needs and help to meet at

least some of the course o :ectives.


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#. Teac%inga. 3ntro uction

&his chapter talked a out how to e3amine the need analysis

information" o :ectives" test" and materials can e implemented in the

teaching phase of curriculum development. &he focus of the teaching

phase is on the kinds of instruction that will characteri e the program. &hat

is" on the kinds of teaching that will e re'uired to achieve the goals of the

program.

;. Orienting an 3n6ol6ing Teac%ers in t%e 1urriculum&his discussion will center on ways to put initial information in

various forms into the hands of teacher" especially those who are new to


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the program. enerally" the purpose of such information dissemination is

to anticipate the kinds of 'uestions that all instructors will have.1. nitial nformation

&he initial information is important part of teaching element of

curriculum development. nitial information can take the form of anorientation" teacherCs guide" and reference documents.

a) 8rientationAn orientation meeting might consist of nothing more than

a one hour get together during which the teacher are given the

asic information they will need to accomplish their :o . ) &eacherCs uide

t is good idea for planners or administrators to prepare a

handy guide or hand ook containing all vital program

information" so that teachers can refer to it when they have

'uestions.

c) eference 7ocuments&eachers should also receive copies of the relevant course

o :ectives and any handouts such as! -ylla uses"

packet modules" reference dictionaries" grammars" and the like

#. &ypes of nformation teachers need&he administrators or planners must carefully consider what

kinds of information to convey to new staff ecause it will have an

impact on the entire curriculum in the form of how teachers initially

feel and carry out their work.a) 4onte3t of the program

f the curriculum is large scale and for use in a pu lic

school setting" information might usefully e supplied a outnational" state" or school district language policies.

) @earners /ew teachers will 'uite naturally e curious a out the

learners they will e teaching. 4urriculum designers should

provide teachers with information that focuses on studentsC

characteristics.n other words" curriculum designers must determine from

the possi le range of learner varia les.c) &eachers


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&he curriculum planners will have gathered important

information a out the kinds of teachers the program depends on.d) nstruction

t is an overall approach that has a particular emphasis in

academic program or a set of general proficiency guidelines.

c. Su99orting Teac%ersA successful curriculum will provide much more in teacher support.

-uch support may take the form of helping the teachers to understand their

place in the curriculum.1. &he teacherCs and studentCs place in the curriculum

&he following are some of the roles that teachers may assume in the

curriculum!

a) /eed analyst ) ?rovider of student inputc) $otivator d) 8rgani er and controller

n general" the place of learners in the curriculum will relate to their

preferences with regard to concept like the following!

a) @earning approaches ) Attitudes toward learningc) @earning style

d) -trategies used in learning

#. Helping teacher to teach8n the asis of their ackground" training" and e3perience"

teachers will determine what techni'ue and e3ercises to use in setting

up the learning e3periences that they elieve will est help ring

a out learning.%. ?roviding a framework of support

A systematic curriculum provides teachers with the kinds of

support they need" such support can come in the form of

administrative support or curricular support.

a) administrative support&he administrators can help most y providing the teachers whit

uffers etween them and negative aspect of the world outside the

program.

) curricular support


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4urriculum development process is designed to make the

individual teacherCs :o easier.

. 7ealing with the politicsf one takes the view that politics is one of the important means y

which curriculum is implemented" politics can e viewed positively

and handled in such a way that the overall curriculum will enefit.. Monitoring Teac%er

&hough it is often seen y teachers as something other than support"

monitoring teacherCs performance in the classroom can e a way of

olstering their effort.

1. 0hat is good teachingG?ennington and rown (1991) include three indicators of e3cellence

in all aspect of a language program! consistency" efficiency" and

effectiveness.

#. 8 servation4lassroom o servation means of supporting teachers. A

classroom o servation is any situation in which the teacher is eing

o served for whatever" reasons in the act of teaching.

%. -tudentsC 2valuation8ne e3cellent source of information for monitoring the classroom

performance of teachers on a day to day asis is provided y the

teachersC students. &he information thus o tained pro a ly offers a

closer reflection of the normal operation in the classroom than

information o tained during a formal o servation.

e. Re6itali ing Teac%ers&eachers are also rumored to e living" reathing" creative human

eings. -ince they are human eings" they often have pro lems that may

interface with their work.1. &eacher urnout

ecause teachers are human eings" they do not have infinite

reserves of stamina in fact they may sometimes get tired and run

down.#. rowing as a teacher


33/49

As a remedy for the urnout pro lem" rasse (19*#!5) suggest

that teachers must adopt positive attitudes toward their su :ect matter"

their students" their colleagues" the program" and themselves.

f. Summar"t was argued that teaching should draw on all other curriculum elements

and form an important component of the curriculum in its own right" one

that will help teachers to escape the isolation that may e a root cause of

urnout.


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G. Program e6aluation

3ntro uction

&he primary information gathering and organi ation elements of the

curriculum have een include in the needs analysis and testing compenents as

represented y the goals and o :ectives. &he insights and information gained

from these curriculum activities can e further analay ed and synthesi ed into

la eled the materials and teaching components of the systematic curriculum

model that serves as the asis of this ook. &he model" readers might think thatneeds analysis" goals and o :ectives" testing" materials" and teaching are five

se'uential steps that should e instituted chronologically. &he arrows and the

links to evaluation are meant to imply three things.

>irst" in an ideal situation" curriculum development would start with a

through needs analaysis and progress through the steps. However" such an

ideal sitution is actually very rare and for political or other reasons" the

curriculum planners may start the process with some element other than need

analysis" formulation of goals and o :ectives" articulation of tests" and delivery

of instruction are all going on at the same time.

-econd" the process of curriculum development is never finished

( unless of course a program is canceled ). &hus provisions must always e

made for revision of all the curriculum elements with a view to improving

them. ndeed" the i directionality of the arrows within the models signifies

that as focus is placed on any particular element of the curriculum the work on

that component may reveal a need for revisions in the preceding ( or

succeeding ) elements.

&hrid" program evaluation on the right side of the model is the glue

that connects and holds all the elements together. n the a sence of evaluation"

the elements lack cohesionK if left in isolation" any one element may ecome

pointless. n short" the heart of the systematis approach to language curriculum


35/49

design is evaluation! the part of the model that inculdes" connects" and gives

meaning to all the other elements.

ichards et al. (19*5" p. 9*) define evaluation as Ethe systematic

gathering of informatio for purposes of making decisions.F At first glance" thisseeems to e a servicea le definition" ut reflection reveals that is too road

and could e'ually well e used to define other curriculum components such as

needs analysis and teting. n truth" needs analysis and testing information

might well e included in an evaluation" ut this fact does not strengthen the

definition given a ove.

?opham (19,5" p. *)" systematic educational evaluation consists of a

formal assessment of the worth of educational phenomena. f the ichards et

al. definition was too road" ?ophamCs is too restrictive. 4ertainly" there should

e an element within a program evaluation that focuses on Eformal

assessmentF" ut there is also room for a num er of other more informal

activities. However" there are also forms that focus on improving the

curriculum" and they are perhaps the most constructive and useful types.

?ophamCs definition does not seem ade'uate.

0orthen and -anders (19,%" p. 19) evaluation is the determination of

the worth of a thing. t includes o taining information for use in :udging the

worth of a program" product" procedure" or o :ect" or the potential utility of

alternative approaches designed to attain specified o :ectives. &his may e

unnecessarily limiting implying a goal oriented approach to the evaluation

process" while ignoring the potential of evaluation to affect curriculum

improvment.

rown (19*9a" p. ##%) as Ethe systematic collection and analaysis of

all relevant information necessary to promote the improvment of a curriculum

and assess its effectiveness within the conte3t of the particular institutions

invloved. /otice that there are two purposes for the information! the promotion

of improvement and the assessment of effectiveness.

2valuation is a term that is used in a num er of different ways" there

are testing and measurment. &esting only to refer to procedures that are asedon tests. $easurment more roadly to include testing" ut also other types of


36/49

measurments that result in 'uantitative data such as attendance records"

'uestionnaires" teacher ratings of students ( or students ratings of teachers) and

so forth. 2valuation includes all kinds of testing and measurments" as well as

other types of information" some of which may e more 'ualitative in nature.

;ualitative data gathering procedures as interviews" case studies" classroom

o servations" meetings"diaries" or even conversations over coffee.

A99roac%es to Program E6aluation

rown (19*9a) points out" these can all e placed into one of four categories!

goal attainment approaches" static characteristic approaches" process oriented

approaches" and decision facilitation approaches.

?roduct 8riented Approaches ( goal attainment )

?roduct oriented approaches are :ust what they sound like. 0hen these

approaches are used" the focus of the evaluation is on the goals and insructional

o :ectives with the purpose of determining whether they have een achieved.

&yler (19 #) felt that programs should e uilt on e3plicitly defined goals"

specified in terms of the society" the students" and the su :ect matter" as well as on

measura le ehavioral o :ectives. &he purpose of a program evaluation is to

determine whether the o :ectives have een achieved" and whether the goals have

een met.

&he approach that Hammond (cited in 0orthen -anders 19,%.p. 16*)

advocated was also product oriented. His model included five types to e followed

in performing a curriculum evaluation !

1) dentifying precisely what is to e evaluated#) 7efining the descriptive varia les%) -tating o :ectives in ehavioral terms

) Assessing the ehavior descri ed in the o :ectives5) Analy ing the result and determining the effectiveness of the program.

$etfessel and $ichael (196,) share the product oriented approach" ut they

provide more detailed steps" including eight ma:or evaluation phases!

1) 7irect and indirect invlovment of the total school community

#) >ormation of a cohesive model of oard goals and specific o :ectives%) &ranslation of specific o :ectives into communica le form


37/49

) nstrumentation necessary for furnishing measures allowing inferences a out

program effectiveness5) ?eriodic o servations of ehaviors6) Analysis of data given y status and change measures,) nterpretation of the data relative to specific o :ectives and road goals*) ecommendations culminating in further implementation" modifications" and

in revisions of road goals and specific o :ectives.

-tatic 4haracteristic Approaches-tatic characteristic evaluation is also performed to determine the

effectiveness of a particular program. &his type of evaluation is conducted y

outside e3perts who inspect a program y e3amining various accounting and

academic records" as well as such static characteristics as the num er of

li rary ooks" the num er and seating capacity of classroom" the parking

facilities" and so forth. -tatis characteristic evaluations are used even

accerditation.Accerditation is a process where y an association of institutions sets

up criteria and evaluation procedures for the purpose of deciding whether

individual institutions should e certified (accredited) as mem ers in good

standing of that association.

?rocess 8riented Approaches&his shift was partially due to the reali ation that meeting program

goals and o :ectives" while important" was not very helpful in facilitating

curriculum revision" change" and improvment. -criven and -take wrew two of

the most important advocates of process oriented approaches.-crivenCs (196,) model contri uted a num er of principles that have

promoted a process oriented approach to program evaluation. &he model he

advocated was called goal-free evaluation " that is" evaluation is which limits

are not set on studying the e3pected effects of the program vis a vis the goals.-takeCs (196,) approach to process evaluation was called the

contenance model. t consisted of the following asic elements!1) egin with a rationale#) >i3 on descriptive operations (intents and o servations)%) 2nd with :udgmental operations (standars and :udgment) at three different

levels! antecedents (prior conditions)" transactions(interactions etween

participants)" and outcomes (as in traditional goals ut also roader in the

sense of transfer or learning to real life).


38/49

7ecision >acilitation Approachesn these approaches" evaluators attempt to avoid making :udgments.

nstead" they favor gathering information that will help the administrators andfaculty in the program make their own :udgments and decisions. 23amples of

this approach are the 4 ??" 4-2" and 7iscrepancy models of evaluation.4 ??" descri ed in -tuffle eam et al. (19,1)" is an acronym for

4onte3t (rationale for o :ectives)" nput (utili ation of resources for

achieving o :ectives)" ?rocess (periodic feed ack to decision makers)" and

?roduct (measurment and interpretation of attainments during and at the end

of a program). -tuffle eam (19, ) lists four key elements that should e

remem ered in performing program evaluation!

1) 2valuation is performed in the service of decision making" hence it

should provide information that is useful to decision makers.#) 2valuation is a cyclic" continuing process and therefore must e

implemented through a systematic program.%) &he evaluation process includes the three main steps of delineating"

o taining" and providing. &hese steps provide the asis for a

methodology of evaluation.) &he delineating and providing steps in the evaluation process are

interface activities re'uiring colla oration.

&he 4-2 model is named after the acronym for the 4enter for the

study of 2valuation at


39/49

1) 7efining program standards#) 7etermining whether a discrepancy e3ists etween some aspects of

program performance and the standards governing that aspect of the

program

%) ive stages suggested y ?rovus will show that this actually a

process oriented approach!

1) ?rogram description stage#) ?rogram installation stage%) &reatment ad:ustment stage (process)

) oal achievment analysis stage5) 4ost enefit analysis.

?rovusCs model shows the degree to which the evaluation of

evaluation approaches has een a healthy and progressive one. &he strenghts

of those other approaches were incorporated in their descendants.

T%ree Dimensions T%at S%a9e Point of Vie7 on E6aluation&he patterns invlove at least three dimensions (also discussed in

rown 19*9a)! formative versus summative" process versus product" and

'uantitative versus 'ualitative. n each case" they seem to e points at the

ends of a scale alog which variation can occur. >irst is related to the purposes

for gathering the information" the second is associated with the types of

information eing gathered" and the third is connected with the sorts of data

and analysis that will result.

?urpose of the nformation>ormative evaluation takes place during the ongoing curriculum

development processes. &he aim of this type of evaluation is to collect and

analy e information that will help in improving the curriculum. &he types of

decisions that result from formative evaluation are usually numerous and

relatively small in scale ecause such decisions are meant to result in

modifications to and fine tuning of an e3isting curriculum. -ummative

evaluation is usually characteri ed as occuring at the end of a program. &he

purpose for gathering information in a summative evaluation is to determine

the degree to which the program was succsesful" efficient" and effective.


40/49

enefit from formative evaluation and summative evaluation!

formative can e uilt into the curriculum as it is in the model" while

summative evaluation may prove useful if it can e viewed as a pause during

which focus will e rought to ear on assessing the success" efficiency" and

effectiveness of the program Lat least to that point in time.

&ypes of nformation&he relationship etween formative and summative evaluation

depends on variations in the purposes for gathering information" the different

etween process and product evaluation depends on variations in the types of

information that will e used! process evaluation as any evaluation as that

focuses on the workings of a program (processes). ?roduct evaluation as that

sort of evaluation in which the focus is on whether the goals (products) of the

program are eing achieved.n planning evaluation procedures for a program" consider including

oth product and process types of information. &o that end" oth 'uantitative

and 'ualitative means for gathering and analy ing evaluation information

may prove useful.

&ypes of 7ata and Analaysis

;uantitative types of data analysis at one end and 'ualitative types of

data and analysis at the other end. ;uantitative data are counta le its of

information which are usually gathered using measures that produce results

in the form or num ers. ;ualitative data consist of more holistic information

ased on o servations that may not readly lend themselves to conversion into

'uantities or num ers.

nteractions Among 7imensions

&he discussion in the preceding three sections was intended to help planners in choosing among the availa le options and tailoring a set of

evaluation procedures for a paticular program. &hese decisions will pro a ly

entail considering options somewhere etween the e3tremes of the

dimensions invloved.

Doing Program E6aluationAll these decisions must eventually lead to the actual gathering of

evaluation data. ;uantitative and 'ualitative information should e gathered periodically on each of the curriculum components so that each can e


41/49

revised and improved" ut also so that the degree ao overall succces of the

entire program can e assessed.

athering 2valuation 7ata•

;uantitative 2valuation studies;uantitative data are those its of information that are

counta le and are gathered using measures that produce results in the

form of num ers. >or each of these procedures" the ta le indicates with

an EDF in the appropriate column whether the procedure is used

primarily to gather 'uantitative or 'ualitative information. &he

procedures :ust listed are perdominantly used to collect 'uantitative data"

though in some cases they may e modified to o tain 'ualitative data.

&he importance of using 'uantitative data is not much in thecollection of those data" ut rather in the analysis of the data" which

should e carried out in such a way that patterns emerge. -tatistic ased

e3perimental study designed to investigate the effectiveness of a given

program. &he e3perimental group is the one that receives the treatment"

while the control group receives no treatment. A treatment is something

that the e3perimenter does to the e3perimental group.&he purpose of giving a treatment to the e3perimental group

and nothing to the control group is to determine whether the treatment

has een effective.

• ;ualitative 2valuation -tudies;ualitative data consist of information that is more holistic

than 'uantitative data. -uch data are often ased on o servations that do

not readily lend themselves to conversion into 'uantities or num ers.

;ualitative information gathering! records analysis" system analysis"

literature review" letter writing" case studies" diary studies" ehavior

o servation" interactional analysis" individual interviews" group

interviews" delphi techni'ue" advisory meetings" interest group meetings"

review meetings" and opinion surveys.

/sing !ot% uantitati6e Data an ualitati6e Met%o s;uantitative data" as provided y test scores" seem 'uite

different from the 'ualitative data provided y" for e3ample" studying the :ournals kept y students for a semester in a writing class. An oral tests


42/49


43/49

various components of the curriculum as they were implemented in

the program.

E=am9le Program E6aluation Pro ects uang hou 2nglish @anguage 4enter" Ihongsan irst" formative evaluation occured

at all times during the program. -econd" summative evaluation was

carried out on a yearly asis. &hrid" we found it particularly useful to

survey students who had finished the program.As result" we used every 'ualitative and 'uantitative tool

availa le to us to revise and improve our curriculum. ?roducts in the

form of tests" materials" and teaching procedures that would foster language learning.

2nglish @anguage nstitute"


44/49

these data sources can e viewed! in terms of effectiveness" efficiency"

and attitudes.&he chapter ended with discussion of e3ample evaluation

pro:ects drawn from the 2@4 program in 4hina and the 2@ at the


45/49


46/49


47/49

-ituation analysis is an analysis of factors in the conte3t of a planned or

present curriculum pro:ect that is made in order to assess their potential impact on

the pro:ect

8%" Situation Anal"sisC

&he conte3ts are diverse and particular varia les that come into play in a

specific situation are often the key determinants of the success of a program

T%e Goal of Situation Anal"sis

&he goal of situation analysis is to identify key factors that might positively

or negatively affect the implementation of a curriculum plan

Societal #actors

). 0hat current language teaching policies e3ist and how are they viewedG

(. 0hat are the underlying reasons for the pro:ect and who support itG

*. 0hat language teaching e3perience and tradition e3ist in the countryG

. How do mem ers of the pu lic and other relevant professionals view foreign

language teachingG

5. 0hat community resources are availa le to support the innovationsG

Project Factors:

1. Who constitute the project group and how are they selected?

2. What are the management and other responsibilities of the team?

3. ow are goals and procedures determined?

!. What e"perience do members of the team ha#e?

$. What is the time frame of the project?

%nstitutional Factors:

1. What leadership is a#ailable within the school to support change

and to help teachers cope with change?


48/49

2. What are the school&s physical resources' including classroom

facilities and other technological and library resources?

3. What is sta( morale li)e among teachers?

!. What problems do teachers face and what is being done about

them?

$. ow committed is the institution to attaining e"cellence?

*eacher Factors:

1. What is teachers& typical bac)ground' training' e"perience' and

moti#ation?

2. What )inds of beliefs do the teachers typically hold concerning )ey

issues in teaching?

3. *o what e"tent are teachers open to change?

!. ow pro+cient are they in ,nglish?

$. What teaching loads do teachers ha#e and what resources do they

ma)e use of?

Learner #actors

1. 0hat are the learnersC past language learning e3periencesG

#. How motivated are the learners to learn 2nglishG

%. 0hat are their e3pectations for the programG

. Are they a homogeneous or a heterogeneous groupG

5. 0hat type of learning approach do they favorG

A o9tion #actors

1. 0hat advantages does the curriculum change offerG

#. s the innovation very complicated and difficult to understandG

%. s the use of the innovation consistent with e3isting eliefs" attitudes" andorgani ationG

. Have the features and enefits of the innovation een clearly communicated

to teachers and institutionG


49/49

5. How clear and practical is itG

Program Ta%unan (+)) (+)(

1. 7alam satu tahun ada erapa hari ela:ar efektifG (##1 hari untuk :awa

tengahK #51 hari untuk :awa timurK dan # J hari untuk :awa arat dan 7 =)#. Hari ela:ar efektif terse ut ter agi men:adi erapa mingguG (%* minggu

untuk :awa tengahK # minggu untuk :awa timurK dan J minggu untuk :a ar dan 7 =).

3m9lementasi

?erencanaan dan pengelolaan keempat tahap pem ela:aran terse ut dituangkandalam entuk encana ?elaksanaan ?em ela:aran ( ??). -atu ?? memuat satugenre dan sekitar 1J atau 11 kali pertemuan.

elements of lang. curriculum2

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