http://www.jstor.orgElementary Physics in the Lyceum and StoaAuthor(s): James LongriggSource: Isis, Vol. 66, No. 2, (Jun., 1975), pp. 211-229Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/229417Accessed: 21/05/2008 07:23Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available athttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unlessyou have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and youmay use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. 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For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.ElementaryP h ys i c s i n th e Lyc eumand S to a By James Lo ngri gg* I THEVIEWP OINTIS S TILLP UTFORWARDi nverymanyh and bo o kso nanc i entph i lo s o ph yand s pec i alac c o unts o fS to i c i s mth ati nph ys i c sHerac li tus i s th eS to i c s 'mai ns o urc e.'Fri ed ri c h S o lms en,h o wever,po s es th e pro blemwellwh enh eas ks ,"are c o ntempo rarys c h o lars ,wh o treatth eS to i cexeges i s o fHo merand Hes i o d wi th as mi leo ras h rugo fth es h o uld ers , wellad vi s ed i fth eyac c eptth eS to i c i nteres ti nHerac li tus asabas i s fo rth ei r o wnapprai s alo fS to i c i s mand i ts plac ei nth eh i s to ryo fGreekth o ugh t?" And h efurth ermakes th epo i nt:"th erec anbeno d o ubtth atth eearlyS to i c srec o gni zed Herac li tus asth ei r &pXjyETqsand mad eth emo s ts trenuo us effo rtsto fi nd th ei rd o c tri nes abo utth efi re,abo utth enatureo fth es o ul,abo ut &Va0URIl'Lc ri u and als oabo utth ek6"yo s anti c i pated i n h i sutteranc es .Th eywere pas tmas ters i nexeges i s ."2Deepers tud yreveals th atth emo s ti mpo rtant Rec ei ved July1973:revi s ed /ac c epted July1974. *Departmento fClas s i c s ,Uni vers i tyo fNewc as tleupo nTyne,Newc as tleupo nTyneNEI7RU, England . Is h o uld li keto taketh i s o ppo rtuni tyo fexpres s i ngmygrati tud eto P ro fes s o rF.S .S o lms en fo rh i s ki nd nes s and enc o uragementi nread i nganearli erd rafto fth i s paper;to th eIns ti tute fo rRes earc h i nth eHumani ti es at th eUni vers i tyo fWi s c o ns i n,Mad i s o n,fo raVi s i ti ngRes earc hFello ws h i pwh i c h i n1970-1971pro vi d ed mewi th th elei s ureto purs ueth es eand o th eri nqui ri esi namo s tc o ngeni aland s ti mulati ngatmo s ph ere;to th eUni vers i tyo fNewc as tleupo nTynefo r leave o fabs enc eand ares earc h grant;and to th eFo nd ati o nHard t,Geneva,fo rth eo ppo rtuni ty to fo o tno teth i spaperund eri d ealc o nd i ti o ns . 'No talls c h o lars ,o fc o urs e,areo fth i s pers uas i o n,butth efo llo wi ngs elec ti o nwi lli llus trate h o wextremelypervas i veth i s as s umpti o nh as been:E.Zeller,S to i c s , Epi c ureansandS c epti c s , trans . 0.J.Rei c h el(Lo nd o n,1879;rei s s ued NewYo rk:Rus s ell&Rus s ell,1962),pp.161,197-198, 204-205,392-396;R.Hi rzel,Unters uc h ungen zuCi c ero 'sph i lo s o ph i s c h enS c h ri ften (Lei pzi g:Verlag S . Hi rzel,1882),Vo l.II, pp.38-40,120-182;W. Wi nd elband ,Hi s to ry o f Anc i ent P h i lo s o ph y,ti ans . fro mth e2nd Germaned i ti o nbyH.E. Cus h man(NewYo rk:Do ver,1956),pp.314-315;R.D. Hi c ks ,S to i cand Epi c urean (NewYo rk:S c ri bner's ,1910),pp.10-13,31;E.V.Arno ld ,Ro man S to i c i s m (Cambri d ge:Cambri d geUni vers i tyP res s ,1911),pp.35-37,70-71,161,176-177,190-191, 195,243,260-261;E.Bevan,S to i c sand S c epti c s(Oxfo rd :Clarend o nP res s ,1913),pp.40,43; E.Zellerand W.Nes tle,Outli nes o fth e Hi s to ry o fGreek P h i lo s o ph y (Lo nd o n:Humani ti es P res s , 1931),p.211;B.Rus s ell,AHi s to ry o fWes tern P h i lo s o ph y (Lo nd o n:Allen&Unwi n,1946),p. 275;M.P o h lenz,Di eS to a(G6tti ngen:Hubert,1948),Vo l.I,p.160;E.Breh i er,Th eHi s to ry o fP h i lo s o ph y: Th eHelleni s ti c and Ro man Age(Ch i c ago :Uni vers i tyo fCh i c ago P res s ,1965),p. 31.Th i s li s t c o uld eas i ly h avebeend o ubled o rtrebled . Th efac tth atth eEpi c ureans ad o pted apre-S o c rati c ph ys i c alth eo ryh as d o ubtles s rei nfo rc edth ebeli efth at th eS to i c s ,i n th ei rturn,d eri ved th ei rs fro mHerac li tus . 2F. S o lms en,"Cleanth es o rP o s i d o ni us ?Th eBas i s o fS to i c P h ys i c s ,"Med eli ngen d er Ko ni nkli jke Ned erland s e Akad emi e vanWetens c h appen,Afd .Letterkund e,Ni euweReeks ,1961,24:23(th i s i srepri nted i n h i s Klei ne S c h ri Jtemt,Hi ld es h ei mn: Olmns , 1968,p. 456). 211 212JAMESLONGRIGG antec ed ents o fS to i c c o s mo lo gyc learlyli ei nth efo urth c enturyand th atth e S to i c s ' greates td ebts are toP latoand ,mo s tes pec i ally,toAri s to tle.3 Alth o ugh i ti s no tmypurpo s eto argueth i s generalth es i s (wh i c h i nany c as e h as alread ybeenably and c o nvi nc i nglyexpo und ed i nd etai lels ewh ere4), i twi llbeth ebas i c c o nvi c ti o nth atund erli es myd i s c us s i o n.Is h allgo o ntopurs uea mo res tri c tly li mi ted yet c o mplementaryli neo fi nqui ryby exami ni ng th erec epti o no fAri s to tle's c o s mo lo gywi th i nth eLyc eumi ts elfand th en c o ns i d eri ngth o s emo d i fi c ati o ns o fth efo ur-elementth eo rymad eby th eS to i c s . It wi ll bei nteres ti ngto s eewh atki nd o fpi c tureemerges .Is h o uld s tres s h ere th at my pri mary ai m i sno t s omuc h toeluc i d ateS to i cph ys i c sby an exami nati o n o fth efo ur-elementth eo rybutc o nvers elyto i llus trateth ed evelo pmento f th i s th eo rybyanexami nati o no fi ts ro lei nth eph ys i c s o f-th eLyc eumandS to a.Here,i fImayanti c i pate,th egai ns s eemto beth emo rei mpo rtant. Th efo ur-elementth eo ry h asbeen o ne o f, i f no t th e mo s t, d urable andi nfluenti al s c i enti fi c parad i gms i nth eh i s to ryo fWes terns c i enc e.Explanati o ns fo ri tslo ngevi tymus tbefo und i ni ts pro no unc ed c apac i tyfo rad aptati o nbo th tomeetexternalc h allenges and to erad i c atei nternali nc o ns i s tenc i es .Ifmy i nterpretati o ni sc o rrec t,th enevenwi th i n th i sres tri c ted ti mes panth epro tean nature o f th e fo ur-elementth eo ry i sc learly apparent.Fi nally i t wo uldbe prud ent fo rme,i nvi ewo fth es c anty,largelyfragmentary, and h i gh lyc o ntro vers i al natureo fth eevi d enc eavai lablefo rth i s peri o d o fi ntellec tualh i s to ry,to take o utalargei ns uranc epo li c yand ac kno wled geh ereand no wth ats i nc e d emo ns trati o ni s prec lud ed ,o nec ano nlyreas o nablyh o peto tella"po s s i ble s to ry." II It wasi n i tsquali tati ve gui s e th at th e fo ur-elementth eo ry exerc i s ed i tsgreates t i nfluenc ei nth eh i s to ryo fi d eas .Byand largeth eAri s to teli anwo rld pi c ture d o mi nated natural s c i enc eunti lth es i xteenth c entury.Th ei mmed i atereas o nswh yAri s to tle's i d eas h eld th efi eld fo rs o lo ngareno th ard to d i s c ern.Hi ss ys tem fo rmed th e fi rs t greats ynth es i s i n s c i enc e:bei ngc o mpreh ens i ve,ti gh tly i ntegrated ,and generallyi nh armo nywi th o urc o mmo nexperi enc e,i t c arri eds uc h eno rmo us appealth at i t wasalmo s ttwo mi llenni abefo rei t was replac ed . Ari s to tleh as frequentlybeenc ri ti c i zed fo rh avi ngh ad anad vers eeffec tupo n th e d evelo pmento f natural s c i enc e andfo r bri ngi ngabo ut th e "lo nges t tyranny." Buti ti s s urelyunh i s to ri c alto c as ti gateh i mfo rth everypers uas i venature o fh i s s c i enti fi c parad i gm.Anyblames h o uld belai d upo nth es h o uld ers o f les s ermenwh o werewi lli ngtoac c epth i sth eo ri es unc ri ti c ally. Alth o ugh Ari s to tle's s ys temwas lateri ntegrated i nto th ewi d erframewo rk 3S eeth er-eferenc esc i ted by S o lms en,i bi d ., n.77. 4By Davi dE. Hah mi n "Th e Ori gi ns o f S to i cP h ys i c s " (unpubli s h ed P h .D.d i s s ertati o n,Uni vers i ty o fWi s c o ns i n,1966,s o o n,Igath er,to bepubli s h ed ;s eeIs i s ,1972,63:302).Alth o ugh s everal po i nts h ad o c c urred to mei nd epend entlybefo reHah m's d i s s ertati o nwasbro ugh tto myno ti c e, Iamc o ns i d erablyi nd ebted to th i s valuablewo rk.Itwi llbes eenbelo wth ati nmyo pi ni o n, h o wever,Hah mh as no t pres s ed h i si nqui ryqui tes o far ash emi gh th aved o ne. ELEMENTARYP HYS ICS IN THE LYCEUMAND S TOA213 o fCh ri s ti anth eo lo gyand h i s c o nc lus i o ns werec o ns equentlyh ard ened i ntod o gma,h e h i ms elfwasperfec tlywi lli ng toc o untenanc ec h ange,andh i syo unger c o ntempo rari es and s uc c es s o rs i nth eLyc eumweremani fes tlyno tpreventedby th ei r mas ter'spers o nal auth o ri ty fro m vi go ro us ly c ri ti c i zi ng andevenrejec ti ng i mpo rtantas pec ts o fh i s ph i lo s o ph y.S uc h reac ti o ns wereno tunjus ti fi ed ,fo r Ari s to teli anc o s mo lo gyc o ntai ns wi th i ni ts elfmanys eri o us i nc o ns i s tenc i es andpro blemswh i c hare left ei th er i nad equatelyans wered o r c o mpletelyunres o lved . Examples arefo und i nth ed i ffi c ulti es i nh erenti nAri s to teli and ynami c s 'andi n th eunres o lved pro blems i n th ed o c tri neo fth eelements i ts elf. Ari s to tle's greati nno vati o nwi th i nth eelementth eo ry-h i s i ntro d uc ti o no f th e fi fthelement,th e aeth er-h ad c ertai n ad vantages .Fo r example,i n c o njunc - ti o nwi th th ed o c tri neo fnaturalplac ei tenabled Ari s to tleto abo li s h th e ps yc h o ph ys i c ald uali s mo fP lato and bri ngth eh eavens o nc emo rewi th i nth e s ph ereo fph ys i c alexplanati o n.Th eth eo ryth at th eh eavenlybo d i es aremad e o f an eternalelement,nevers ubjec t toc h angebut und ergo i ngi nc es s antc i rc ular mo ti o n,i si n c o mpleteh armo nywi th Ari s to tle's fi rm c o nvi c ti o no fth eeterni ty o fth ec o s mo s .Itwas als o ,as h eh i ms elfpo i nted o ut,fullyi nac c o rd anc e wi thth e ph eno mena,s i nc e rec o rd sgath ered fo r generati o ns revealed noc h ange i nth eh eavens .Itwasmo reo veratrad i ti o nalbeli efo f"barbari an and Greek ali ke" th at th e c eles ti al regi o nsare mo re h o no rableandd i vi ne th an th e s ublunary realms : Our th eo ry s eemstobear o ut c o mmo n experi enc e andtobe bo rne o ut by i t. Fo r all men h ave s o me c o nc epti o n o f th e nature o fth e go d s , andall wh obeli eve i n th e exi s tenc e o fgo d sat all, barbari anandGreek ali ke, agree th at th e h i gh es t plac ebelo ngs toth ed ei ty-pres umablybec aus eth eys uppo s eth at i mmo rtalth i ngsbelo ngto geth er.... Fo r i nth ewh o lerangeo fti mepas t,s o faraso uri nh eri tedrec o rd s reac h ,no c h angeappears to h avetakenplac eei th eri nth epatterno f c o ns tellati o ns i n th eo utermo s th eaveno r i n th ei nd i vi d uals tarsmaki ngi t up.6 Th i s th eo ryo fth equi ntes s enc eals o enabled Ari s to tleto d rawad i s ti nc ti o n betweend es truc ti veand c reati veh eat.Ac c o rd i ngto Xeno ph o n,S o c rates h admai ntai ned th atth erei s ad i fferenc ebetweenth eh eato fth es unand th at o fo rd i naryfi re:th efo rmermakes vegetati o ngro w,th elatterd es tro ys i t.' Ari s to tlec o uld no w eas i ly ac c o untfo rth i sd i fferenc eo n th e bas i so fth es pec i al natureo fth i s fi fth h eavenlys ubs tanc e;s i nc eth eh eato fth es unpo s s es s esth e abi li ty togenerate li vi ng th i ngsando rd i nary fi re d o esno t, Ari s to tle c o nc lud edth atth eh eati nli vi ngth i ngs and i nparti c ularth egenerati veh eati nth e s eed i smo reaki n toth eelemento fth es tarsth antoo rd i naryfi re.8 Butd es pi teth es eand o th erad vantages ,th ed o c tri neo fth efi fth element als oentai led s eri o us d rawbac ks . Inth efi rs tplac ei t i ll ac c o rd s wi thth eth eo ry 5S eeG.E.R.Llo yd ,Ari s to tle: Th e Gro wthandS truc ture o f Hi s Th o ugh t (Cambri d ge:Cambri d ge Uni vers i tyP res s ,1968),p.179 fo ra c o nveni entac c o unt. 6Ari s to tleDe c aelo270b5ff. 7Memo rabi li a4,7, 7: TJvaKTrS y7SyVOpUVWVwVEV>ExVpA0i )o vOyi avo vh -v1vvaTatKOAX(SOxvi E(rOx, UrT68hTo i ) 7rrup6o s Oepp.ai v6p.evat-r&v&r &T6XXIvTti .S eeto o P h i lebus29b-c . 8S eeDe generati o ne ani mali um 736a-737a7. 214JAMESLONGRIGG o fnaturalplac e.As s o o nasth eaeth erfo rms th eupperli mi ts o fth ec o s mo s , i tbec o mes no ns ens eto attri buteto fi reanabs o lutelyupward mo ti o n,andth ec o nc epto fth eabs o luteli gh tnes s o ffi rei sth erefo rejeo pard i zed .Furth er- mo re,th efo urelements c o meto res twh enth eyreac h th ei rpro perplac e, but th efi fth element,alth o ugh i n i tspro perplac e,mo ves i nc es s antly. Agai n,s i nc eAri s to tleh ad d eni ed th atth eelemento fth es uni s warm,h e h ad d i ffi c ultyi nexplai ni ngth emani fes tph eno meno nth atth es unpro d uc esh eat.To geth i ms elfo uto fth i s pred i c ament,h eputfo rward two th eo ri es , bo th almo s tequallylame.Hes ugges ted i nth efi rs tplac eth atth es unas i t mo vespro d uc es h eat by fri c ti o n, aspro jec ti lesflyi ng th ro ugh th e ai r are o bs ervedtod o ,9and s ec o nd lyth at th es un'smo ti o ns c attersth efi rewh i c h li esbetween i t and th eatmo s ph eri c ai r and fo rc es th i sfi red o wnto earth .'0No to nlywere th es eexplanati o ns awkward pers e,th eyfurth eremph as i zed th efac tth at Ari s to tlewas fund amentallyd eparti ngfro mth etrad i ti o nalGreekbeli efi n th efi erynatureo fth eh eavenlybo d i es .Buti n s pi teo fall th es ed i s ad vantages , th ed o c tri neo fth efi fth elements ubs equentlybec ameanarti c leo ffai th andes tabli s h ed ad i c h o to mybetweenc eles ti aland terres tri alph ys i c s wh i c h wasto pers i s t almo s tunc h allenged o uts i d eth ec las s i c al peri o d unti lNewto n. Ari s to tle's c o s mo lo gi c ald i ffi c ulti es wereno tc o nfi ned to th es upralunary regi o n.Heemplo ys two s eparated ed uc ti o ns o fth eelements i nth eDec aeloand th eDegenerati o ne et c o rrupti o ne. " Inth efo rmerwo rkAri s to tlearri vesatth efo urelements wi th th eh elpo fh i s d efi ni ti o no fth eh eavyand th e li gh t;i nth elattertreati s e,wh ereth eelements arec o rrelated wi th bi nary c o mbi nati o ns o fo ppo s i tes ,th equali ti es h eavyand li gh tarerejec ted earlyi n th epro c es s o fd ed uc ti o n.Th us ,th ed o c tri neo fth ec o s mi c d i s tri buti o no f th e elements andth at o f th ei r mutual trans fo rmati o nres t upo nenti rely d i fferent s ets o fpremi s es ,pres enti ngAri s to tleno to nlywi th th epro blemo fbri d gi ng th e gulfbetweenth e two , but als oo f ac c o unti ngs ati s fac to ri ly fo r meteo ro lo gi c al and geo lo gi c alph eno mena.To meetth es ed i ffi c ulti es h ewas c o ns trai ned toi ntro d uc emo d i fi c ati o ns o f h i searli er th eo ry.In o rd er tomi ti gate th e d i c h o to my Ari s to tleh ad to ad mi tth atai rand fi reareno tth eulti matec o ns ti tuents o f th es ublunaryatmo s ph ereand po s i ted i nth ei rs tead two exh alati o ns -o ne a h o t,d ry,s mo kyexh alati o nfro mearth and th eo th erac o ld ,wet,vapo ro usexh alati o nfro mwater.Hemai ntai ned th atth eupperatmo s ph erec o ns i s tedo f th e h o texh alati o n,wh i c hi si nflammableandpo tenti allyfi re but no tac tually fi re, wh ereasth e lo wer atmo s ph erec o ns i s tso f a mi xtureo f th e twoexh alati o ns . 12 Alth o ugh th es emo d i fi c ati o ns and c o rrec ti o ns to s o meextentpro vi d ed a bri d gebetweenth ed i fferents ets o fpremi s es ,th ed egreeo fi ntegrati o nwasno tac h i eved wi th o utc o s t.Th eth eo ryo fth etwo fo ld exh alati o n,by no meansas i mpo rtantas th ec o nc epto fnaturalmo ti o nand naturalplac ebywh i c h9Dec aelo289a20ff.Th i s beli efwas wi d elyh eld i nanti qui ty.Cf.Luc reti us Dererum natura VI,178; S enec aQuaes ti o nesnaturales2.57.2;Ovi d Metamo rph o s es i i .727and xi v.825;Luc anvi i .513; Vi rgi lAenei di x.588. ?Meteo ro lo gi c a341a12-36. "Dec aelo312a22ff.;De generati o ne et c o rrupti o ne329b6ff. '2Meteo ro lo gi c a340b14-19,341b6-24,359b27-34,and 360a21-27. ELEMENTARYP HYS ICS INTHELYCEUMANDS TOA215 Ari s to tleh adrevo luti o ni zed c o s mo lo gy, 13 h adth e unfo rtunateeffec to f i mpai r- i ng th e s i mpleeleganc eo f th e latter th eo ry.If th e s tratum i mmed i atelybeneathth equi ntes s enc ei s no treallyfi re,th enth ec o rrelati o no fs i mplebo d i es ands i mplemo vements lo s es muc h o fi tsvalue.Agai n,i t i so neth i ngto h o ld th at earth and waterc anbetrans fo rmed i nto ai rand fi re,butqui teano th ertotreat bo thai r andfi re aspro d uc ts o f earthandwater. Und ers uc hc i rc ums tanc esth eyc o uld h ard lyretai nth ei rs tatus aselements and remai no nequaltermswi thth eo th ertwo . 14 Th efac tth atth efo ur-elementth eo ryc o uld read i lybeh armo ni zed wi thc urrentbeli efs i nmed i c i neand bi o lo gygreatlyenh anc ed i tsabi li ty to s urvi ve. Nei th erEmped o c les no rP lato ,h o wever,s uc c eed ed i ni ntegrati ngfullyth e elementth eo ryand th ed o c tri neo fth epo wers o r o ppo s i tes .InIo ni anph ys i c sth eo ppo s i tes playani mpo rtantro le.InAnaxi mand er's th o ugh tth epo wersh o t andc o ldare s eparatedo ff fro m th e Apei ro nrto bri ng abo ut by th ei r i nterac ti o n th egenerati o no fth ec o s mo s , '5and th eyplayaro leh ard lyles s i mpo rtant i nAnaxago ras 'c o s mo go ny.Inmed i c i neth eo ppo s i tes werei ni ti allyh eld tobei nd etermi natei nnumber,6butth ei nfluenc eo fth efo ur-elementth eo ry i ts elfled toth ei rbei ngres tri c ted to th ec elebrated fo ur-th eh o t,c o ld ,mo i s t, andd ry. 17 Oth er wo rksi n th e Hi ppo c rati c c o rpus reveal evi d enc eo f an attempt toi ntegrateelements ando ppo s i tes .In De c arni bus 2 (8.584Li ttre), fo r example, earth i sd es c ri bed asc o ld and d ry,ai r ash o tand wet,and water asth ewettes t and th i c kes t;i nth eDevi c tu1.4fi rei s d efi ned as h o tand d ryand water asc o ld and wet.Th eS i c i li anph ys i c i anand c o ntempo raryo fP lato ,P h i li s ti o n o fLo c ri ,evo lved as i mplers ys temi nwh i c h h ei d enti fi ed fi rewi th th eh o t, ai r wi thth e c o ld , water wi thth e wet, andearthwi thth e d ry (Ano nymus Lo nd i nens i sXX, 25, quo ted i n n. 59 belo w).Emped o c les 'ph i lo s o ph i c als ys tem fi rs t bro ugh t abo ut th es ubo rd i nati o no fth eo ppo s i tes toth eelements i n th at fo rh i mearth , ai r,fi re,and waterareth eulti matereali ti es (D.-K.31B6;s eeB17.18),but, unli keP h i li s ti o n,h ed i d no tevo lveaneffec ti vec o rrelati o no felements ando ppo s i tes .InEmped o c les 'th o ugh tfi reh as th equali ti es h o tand bri gh t,water c o ld and d ark(31B21);wi th h i mth eo ppo s i tes h avelo s tth ed o mi nantro le th eyplayed i nearli erIo ni anph ys i c s .Th i s i s als o s ubs equentlyth ec as ewi thDemo c ri tus ,wh o red uc es th emto th es tatus o fs ens ati o ns wi th no ph ys i c al reali ty(D.-K.68A135,63-67;B117,125),and P lato d o es es s enti allyth es ame th i ng,no twi th s tand i ngth efac t th at h ewasd eeplyi nfluenc ed by P h i li s ti o n. 18 '3S eeF. S o lms en,Ari s to tle'sS ys tem o f th e P h ys i c al Wo rld(Ith ac a,N.Y.:Co rnellUni vers i tyP res s , 1960),p. 406. 4Ibi d ., p.398. "5S ee H.Di els and W.Kranz,Di eFragmente d er Vo rs o krati ker(6th ed .,Berli n:Wei d manns c h e Buc h h and lung,1951-1952),12A9,10,16,17a and c f. 27.(Th i s wi ll be c i ted h ereafterasD.-K.) '6S eeAlc maeo n's th eo ry(Aeti us v.30,1 D.-K.24B4). 17 S ee th ereac ti o n toth i si nno vati o nby th e auth o r o f th e Hi ppo c rati c treati s eOn Anc i ent MWed i c i ne I. "8S eeTi maeus61d -62b(s ee S o lms en,Ari s to tle's S ys tem,pp.344-345.S o lms enpo i ntso ut,h o wever, th atth ereares o mes i tuati o ns i nwh i c h P latod o es makeus eo fth eo ppo s i tes ,e.g.,Ti maeus50a, 58d ,59d ,79d -e,and 82a-b).Fo rP h i li s ti o n'si nfluenc eupo nP lato s eeC.Fred ri c h ,Hi ppo krati s c h e Unters uc h ungen(Berli n: Wei d manns c h eBuc h h and lung,1899), pp. 46-48;M. Wellman, Di e Fragmente 216JAMESLONGRIGG Ins pi teo fth ed o mi nantpo s i ti o no fth eelements and th es ubo rd i nati o n o fth ero leo fth eo ppo s i tes wi th i nth eph i lo s o ph yo fth eAc ad emy,i nth e fi eld s o fmed i c i neand bi o lo gyth eo ppo s i tes pred o mi nated .Ari s to tle,s tarti ng fro mP lato i nph ys i c s and th emed i c alth eo ri es i nbi o lo gy,d o ubtles s felti t i nc umbentto bri ngth eo ppo s i tes and elements i nto h armo ny.Ac c o rd i nglyi n th eDe generati o ne et c o rrupti o neh ed evelo ped as c h emefo rth etrans fo rmati o n o fth eelements wh i c h no t o nlybro ugh to ppo s i tes and elements i nto h armo ny but wasals obas edupo nh i sgeneralth eo ryo fgenes i s and c h ange.Heas c ri bedto eac h o fth eelements bi naryc o mbi nati o ns o fth eo ppo s i tes :h o tand d ry to fi re,c o ld and d ryto earth ,h o tand mo i s tto ai r,and c o ld and mo i s ttowater.Butth i sbri lli ant i nno vati o nd i d no t ac h i evec o mpletes uc c es s .(Weh ave alread y s een th at i n meteo ro lo gyAri s to tleh adtoi ntro d uc eth e twoexh alati o ns .) Ari s to tle fo und th at i t wasnec es s aryi n bi o lo gytoallo w th e o ppo s i tes tofunc ti o n asi nd epend entpri nc i ples ,s i nc e i t pro ved to oawkwardtoh ave th emi ns eparably attac h ed to th eelements asquali ti es .Ac c o rd i ngly,i ns pi teo fh avi ngattac h edtwo quali ti es to eac h element,i nbi o lo gyAri s to tlefo und i tad vantageo us toc h arac teri zeeac h elementbyas i nglequali ty.S o h ec h arac teri zed earth asd ryrath erth anc o ld ,fi reas h o trath erth and ry,ai ras mo i s trath erth an h o t,and water asc o ld rath erth an mo i s t. " Alth o ugh th i sc o upli ngo felementsand o ppo s i tes s eems atfi rs ts i gh tno tali ttleo d d ,s i nc eo newo uld naturally bepred i s po s ed to as s i gnmo i s tnes s rath erth anc o ld nes s to water,i twi llbe s eenupo nreflec ti o nth at Ari s to tle's pro c ed urewasc o nd i ti o ned by h i s previ o usc o rrelati o no fth eelements wi th bi naryc o mbi nati o ns o fo ppo s i tes .Ifh eh adc h arac teri zed wateras wet,as o newo uld expec t,Ari s to tlewo uld h avebeen left wi thc o ld nes s andd rynes s tod i s tri butebetweenai r andearth ,s i nc eh o tnes smani fes tlyc h arac teri zes th eelementfi re.Butai r i s h o tand mo i s t,s o nei th er c o ld no rd ryc o uld bei ts bas i c c h arac teri s ti c .Ac c o rd i nglyAri s to tleh ad noalternati vebuttoas s i gnc o ld nes s towater. Ho wever,wh enweturnto th ebi o lo gi c alwri ti ngs ,wh erewewo uld expec t to fi nd th i s newd evelo pmentad vantageo us lyappli ed ,wefi nd th atAri s to tle emplo ys no tth i s s ys tembutac o rrelati o no felements and o ppo s i tes i d enti c al to th eo neo ri gi nallypro po und ed byP h i li s ti o n.Th ei nnateh eato fanani mal i s referred to o no c c as i o nas th e"i nternalfi re."20 Th es emeni s d es c ri bedas"wet and waterli ke."'',Agai n,i nh i s d es c ri pti o no fth ec o mpo s i ti o no fth e ti s s ues , Ari s to tleas s o c i ateswetnes s (no t c o ld !) wi thwater, h ard nes s and d rynes swi th earth .22Fi nally,h ec o ns i d ers th atth efunc ti o no fth ei nh aled ai ri s toc o o lth ei nnateh eat.23Iti s i nth i s las tth eo ry,i nwh i c h th efunc ti o no fai r i s th ato farefri gerant,th atwes eeth emo s ts tri ki ngd i vergenc efro mth e d er S i keli s c h en Arzte (Berli n:Wei d mnanns c h e Buc h h and lung,1901),pp.81-85;and W.W. Jaeger, Di o klesvo n Karys to s (Berli n:G.J.G6s c h en's c h eVerlags h and lui ng,1938;2nd ed .,Berli n:Walter d eGruyter,1963),pp.8-11,211-213. '9De generati o ne et c o rrupti o ne331a3-6. 20De res pi rati o ne473a4,474b12,478a1 6-17and De ani ma 416a9-10. 21De generati o ne ani mali um 737a1 1-12and 747a18. 22S ee es p.De parti busani mali um 65 la33,653a22-24and De res pi rati o ne477b24ff. 23 De res pi rati o ne475bl5ff.,478a28ff.;De parti bu-s ani mali um 642a31ff.,668b33ff. ELEMENTARYP HYS ICS INTHELYCEUMANDS TOA217 th eo ryo felements expo und ed i nth eDegenerati o ne et c o rrupti o ne,wh ereai r i sd es c ri bed ash o tand mo i s t. AtDei uventute 480a28-b6h es pec i fi c allys tates th atth eai ri s c o ld wh en i tenters th ebo d yand i s warmwh enexh aled o nlybec aus ei th as c o mei ntoc o ntac twi th th ei nternalh eat.Iti s c ertai n,th en,th atfo rAri s to tle's th eo ry o fres pi rati o nth ees s enti alquali tyo fai r i si tsc o ld nes s .Co ns equentlybetween Ari s to tle'sbi o lo gi c alth o ugh tandh i s ph ys i c al th eo ryth ereexi s tsa fund amental d i s c repanc y.Th i s and o th eras pec ts o fAri s to tle's ph ys i c s c amei nfo rc ri ti c al s c ruti nybo th wi th i nand o uts i d eth eLyc eum,and ,aswes h alls ee,th i s o nc e agai nres ulted i n c o ns i d erablemo d i fi c ati o ns o fth eth eo ry. Th ewri ti ngs o fAri s to tle's i mmed i ates uc c es s o rs to th eh ead s h i po fth e Lyc eum-Th eo ph ras tus and S trato -s h o wc learlyth atAri s to tle's d i rec ti nflu- enc ed i d no ti nh i bi tfreeenqui ryamo ngyo ungerP eri pateti c s .Alth o ughTh eo ph ras tus d o es no td eparts o rad i c allyas S trato d o es fro mAri s to tle'steac h i ngs ,h ereveals h i s i nd epend enc efro mh i s mas teri ns everali mpo rtant res pec ts ,no t leas t, perh aps ,wh enh e c ri ti c i zesth e latter'sall-pervas i veteleo lo gy i n h i sMetaph ys i c s .In th i swo rk Th eo ph ras tus rejec tsth e i d ea o f a c o mpreh ens i ve teleo lo gy,mai ntai ni ngth at"wi th regard to th evi ewth atallth i ngs arefo r th es ake o fan end and no th i ngi si n vai n,th eas s i gnati o no fend s i si ngeneral no teas y,as i ti s us uallys tated to be"(10a22).To s uppo rtth i s c o ntenti o n h eas ksfo rwh atpurpo s ei s flo o d i ngand d ro ugh t,wh ati sth eus eo fbreas tsi nth emale,o rh ai ro nc ertai nparts o fth ebo d y?Hepo i nts o uts tri ki ng i ns tanc es o ffai lureo fpurpo s ei nth enaturalpro c es s es o fbi rth and nutri ti o n i nani mals and rejec ts o th erteleo lo gi c alexplanati o ns wh i c h Ari s to tleh i ms elf h ad putfo rward .Hec o nc lud es th atali mi tmus tbes etto th eas s i gni ngo f naturalc aus es .Ind enyi ngteleo lo gi c alexplanati o nh ereTh eo ph ras tus i s no t, o fc o urs e,c atego ri c allyrejec ti ngAri s to tle's us eo fth i s pri nc i plebutrath er d evelo pi ngupo nth elatter's o wnth o ugh t;Ari s to tleals o o no c c as i o nres tri c tsth eappli c ati o no fth i smo d eo fexplanati o n.24 Els ewh ere i n h i sMetaph ys i c s Th eo ph ras tus s h o wsh i si nd epend enc eo f Ari s to tle wh enh erejec ts th eexplanati o no fth emo ti o no fth eh eavens as d ueto th e attrac ti o no fth eUnmo ved Mo ver.P lato ,i tmaybeo bs erved ,h ad mad eth e s elf-mo ved Wo rld -S o ulth ec aus eo fallmo vementi nth ec o s mo s (P h aed rus245c 5ff.;LawsX895e-897b).Ari s to tle,h o wever,was unwi lli ngto ac c eptth i svi ewo nth egro und s th atunles s th eFi rs tMo verwerei ts elfunmo ved th ere wo uld ens ueavi c i o us regres s .Agai n,th eP ri meMo verrnus t beac tual.But qua ac tuali ti s unmo ved .Ifth eP ri meMo verwerei ts elfi nmo vement,i t wo uld toth at extentpartake i npo tenti ali ty.Ari s to tleth erefo reres o lved P lato 'ss elf-mo veri nto anac ti veand pas s i vepart,anunmo ved mo verand afi rs t mo ved ,and explai ned allmo vementi nth ec o s mo s as d ueulti matelyto an unmo ved fi rs tmo vero uts i d ei t.Th eUnmo ved Mo verc aus es th emo ti o no f th efi rs t mo ved ,th es ph ereo ffi xed s tars , by d es i re(i i pEc Ls ).25 24E.g., De parti busani mali um 677a16ff. 25P h ys i c s241b24-243a2,254a3-257a33,261b27ff.,266alOff.,267a21-b26;Metaph ys i c sA 1072a2 1-b4. 218JAMESLONGRIGG ButAri s to tle's beli efth atth es o uli sno tth eulti matec aus eo fallmo vement d i d no trec o mmend i ts elfto Th eo ph ras tus ,wh o argues asfo llo ws agai ns tth e c o nc epto fth eunmo ved mo ver(5b28ff.):Ari s to tle's th eo ryexplai ns th e mo vemento fth eh eavenlybo d i es (and ulti matelyterres tri almo vementaswell) byth ei ri mpuls e(EOEff)to ward th efi rs tmo ver.Buti fth i s i mpuls ei s tobetakens eri o us ly,th ei mpli c ati o ni sth atth eh eavenlybo d i es h aves o ul;andi fth eyh aves o ul,th eyalread yh avemo vement,wh i c h s eems to ac c o mpany s o ul,fo rli febelo ngs to th o s eth ath aves o ul.Th us ,wh ati s putfo rward asth ec aus eo fmo vementpres uppo s es th eexi s tenc eo fmo vement.Furth ermo re, wh i leth ebes tth i ngi nth ewo rld mi gh tbeexpec ted to pro d uc eth ebes tki ndo fmo vement,th es pati almo vementpro d uc ed byth efi rs tmo veri s i nferi o r to th eps yc h i c almo vementwh i c h i s pres uppo s ed byth es pati almo vement. Th eo ph ras tus 'o bjec ti o n,th en,i s th atth eth i ngd es i red c anno tbeth efi rs t c aus e o f mo vement,s i nc e th eperc epti o no f th eth i ngd es i red i nvo lves anac ti ve mo vement,wh i c hprec ed es th e mo vemento fd es i re. Th es o ul o fth e fi rs t-mo vedbo d y mus t, th erefo re,be h eldtobe th e fi rs t c aus e o f mo vement.Th us Ari s to tle'sth eo ryac tuallypres uppo s es th atth es o ulpo s s es s ed byth es tars i s th efi rs t real mo verand lo gi c allyentai ls th epo s i ti o no fP lato . Th eo ph ras tus h i ms elf,i t may be no ted ,ulti mately revertstoth e pre-P armeni - d ean,pre-S o c rati c po s i ti o nwh enh eas ks wh eth eri nfac tanyexplanati o no f th emo ti o no fth eh eavens i sreally nec es s ary: Yet tobe mo vedi sat any rate pro per bo thtonature i n general andtoth e c eles ti al s ys tem i n parti c ular. Henc e als o , i f ac ti vi tyi so f th e es s enc e o f eac hnatural o bjec t, andaparti c ular th i ng wh en i ti sac ti ve i sals oi nmo vement, asi nth e c as e o f ani malsand plants(wh i c hi fth ey are no ti nmo vement are ani malsand plantso nly i n name), i t i sc lear th at th e c eles ti al s ys tem als oi n i tsro tati o n i si n ac c o rd anc e wi thi tses s enc e, andi f i t were d i vo rc edfro m th i sandwere at res t i t wo uldbe a c eles ti al s ys tem o nly i n name; fo r th e ro tati o n i sa s o rt o fli fe o fth e uni vers e. S urely, th en, i f th e li fe i n ani malsd o esno t needexplanati o n o r i stobe explai nedo nlyi nth i sway, may i tno tbeth ec as e th at i nth eh eavens , to o ,and i nth e h eavenly bo d i es , mo vement d o es no t need explanati o n o ri stobe explai nedi n a s pec i al way? 26 Th epo s i ti veas pec ts ,th en,th atemergefro mTh eo ph ras tus 'c ri ti c i s mo f Ari s to tleareh i s c o ntenti o nth atth erei sno need to lo o kfo ranexplanati o n o fmo vementwh i c h belo ngs rath erto th ees s enc eo fth i ngs th atpo s s es s i t,27 and s ec o nd lyth atmanyfeatures o fth euni vers es h o uld beac c o unted fo r, no tbyteleo lo gi c alexplanati o n,butas th ei nevi tableres ulto fmo vements o f th eh eavenlybo d i es .28 26Th eo ph ras tus Metaph ys i c s ,ed .W. D.Ro s sand F.H.Fo rbes (Oxfo rd :Clarend o nP res s ,1929), 10a9-19(27-28). 27 Ibi d ., 10a9-21;als o6a5-14. 28 Ibi d ., 7a22,10b26-1lal,and I Ib24-12a2.S eeto o Ci c ero De natura d eo rum 1. 35,wh o d ec laresth at Th eo ph ras tus o n o c c as i o n i d enti fi ed Go dwi thth e c eles ti al s ys tem: necveroTh eo ph ras ti i nc o ns tanti a ferend a es t;no d o eni mmentid i vi ntum tri bui t pri nc i patum, mo d oc aelo , tum autem s i gni s s i d eri bus que c aeles ti bus .And als o ClementP ro trepti c us 5.58.1.51.4-6S tah li n:6o 8'Ep&o -Lo s tKELVO'OEo 4po .TOQSO 'AP LUTOT'XOVSq Vy6pLyOS7Tri vo pv6v,7Tq1TvE1JpOVrT6V OE6VVITOVOEL. ELEMENTARYP HYS ICS INTHELYCEUMANDS TOA219 S tratogo esevenfurth erth an Th eo ph ras tus .He no t o nly d i s c ard sth e c o nc ept o fth eunmo ved mo verbutals o rejec ts c o mpletelyth eteleo lo gi c alvi ewo f nature.Ci c ero tells us i nh i s wo rkDenatura d eo rum (1,35)th atS trato th e ph ys i c i s twaso fth eo pi ni o nth at"all d i vi nepo werres i d es i nnatureand th at nature,wh i c h i s apo werwi th o uts h apeo rc apac i tyto feel,c o ntai ns i ni ts elf all th ec aus es o fc o mi ng-to -be,o fgro wth and o fd ec ay."29 No rd i d Ari s to tle's mo s ts tri ki ngad d i ti o nto th efo ur-elementth eo ry,th e d o c tri neo f th e qui ntes s enc e,es c apec ri ti c i s m wi th i n th e Lyc eum.S tratorefus edto ac c eptth i s c o nc eptand th ed uali s ti c c o s mo lo gyi tentai led and revertedto th etrad i ti o nalbeli efth atth enatureo fth eh eavens i s fi ery.30 Th erei sals o evi d enc eto s ugges tth atTh eo ph ras tus ,to o ,to o kani nd epend ents tando nth i s matter.Inh i s treati s eDei gneh es i gni fi c antlymakes no attempttoac c o untfo rth eo bs erved wo rki ngo fth es unwi th th eai d o fth eh ypo th es i so fth efi fth elementbutrath ero perates by d i fferenti ati ngtwo fo rms o ffi re, as s umi ngth at i n th e c eles ti alregi o nth erei sa purefo rmo fh eat wh i c h bes to wsafruc ti fyi ngand generati vewarmth upo nani mals and plants (Dei gne44; Y6OVLfLOS KOJ(wVKU-'fVwrCv). Bei ngc o mpo s ed o fextremelyfi nemateri al,th e s un's warmth i s ableto permeateearth lymatterand s o pro d uc ei ts effec t. Th i s th eo ryenables Th eo ph ras tus toavo i dth e abs urd i tyo f Ari s to tle's explana- ti o ns o fth es un's h eatbyfri c ti o n,buti ti s c h arac teri s ti c th ath ed o es s o by explo i ti ngth e latter'sd i fferenti ati o nbetweentwofo rms o ffi re at De generati o ne ani mali um 736b35."3Th us ,alth o ugh th e Ari s to teli anc o nc epto f th e fi fthelement bec ame at a later peri o ds uc han arti c le o f unques ti o ni ngfai th , far fro mmeeti ng wi th bli nd ac c eptanc ewi th i nth eLyc eumi twas s o o nrejec ted .Ho wever,no t o nlywas th efi fth elementattac ked ,th ed o c tri neo fth eelements as awh o le c ame i n fo r rad i c al reapprai s alby Ari s to tle'ss uc c es s o rs .Th eo ph ras tus c o gently argues th atfi repo s s es s es i d i o s ync rati c c h arac teri s ti c s no ts h ared by th eo th er th reeelements : 29S eeals o Ac ad emi c a II,38,121;P lutarc h Ad vers usCo lo tem 14,p.11 15b;Mi nuc i msfeli x19, 8; Lac tanti us De i ra 10,1 and 10, 34. 30S eeS to baeus Ec lo gae ph ys i c ae 1.23,1; Aeti us II,11,4(H.Di els ,Do xo graph iGraec i , 3rd ed ., Berli n:Walterd eGruyter,1958,p.340[h ereafterreferred to as D.G.];F.Weh rli ,S trato n vo n Lamps ako s ,Bas el:S c h wabe,1950,Fr. 84). 31 It s h o uld perh aps be ad d ed th atI am no tpers uad ed by th o s es c h o lars wh o c i teth etes ti mo ny o fTaurus ,quo ted byJo h nP h i lo po nus i nDeaeterni tate mund i520.18(F.Wi mmer,Th eo ph ras tiOpera o mni a,P ari s :Di d o t,1866,Fr. 35)-e)o 4pc WT69(rLquv "ELTOO'pCXTOVKatL TOITTOVK -yi K&t ITupOS P&MT,T& btTpOt KLtL 0 o i Upc vo c ; faTTaLtKTO01T(V.OVKEUTL S E."TOUTtXEyEL ELuc &ywv TO1TrEIJaTOV a9fi M,TOKVKXO-?OpqTLKOV-i ns uppo rto fth ei rc lai mth atTh eo ph ras tus d i d no t gi ve upth ec o nc epto fth e fi rs t bo d y.Th eo ph ras tus 'i ntro d uc ti o no f th e7rEf1(TOV UCORLt to c o unter avi ewo fth es tars and h eavenaki nto th ato fth eTi maeusd o es no tnec es s ari lyentai lh i s o wn ac c eptanc eo fth equi ntes s enc e(s eeP .S tei nmetz,Di eP h ys i k d es Th eo ph ras t, Bad Ho mburg:M. Geh len,1964, pp.163-164,336). But, h o weverth at may be, i t mus t be ac kno wled ged th at S i mpli c i us ' quo tati o nIn ph ys i c a 20.17(Fr.18 Wi mmer): &TEL8b[OVK]'OVE)[Li VKLVqOTEWS Ob8EITEpIEVO'XEKTEOV-1TL&VTLt -yOp & KLV-q6ELTOtTqS(X16(vEa;---VEvi &XXOLWTLKq's K&L ITUOxqTLKi l- OVX V1TEp TWV ITEpI TO1EvOV c ertai nlys ugges ts th at Th eo ph ras tus at s o me ti me s ubs c ri bed toth ed o c tri neo fth efi fth element. 220JAMES LONGRIGG Ofallth es i mplebo d i es fi repo s s es s es th emo s tremarkablepro perti es .Fo rai r, waterand earth o nlyc h angei nto o neano th er,no neo fth emc angeneratei ts elf. Buti ti s th enatureo ffi re,no to nlyto generatebutals o to exti ngui s h i ts elf. A s mall fi re c an generatea large o ne anda large o ne put o ut a s mall o ne.Furth ermo re, mo s t wayso fgenerati ngfi re i nvo lvefo rc e,e.g.th e s tri ki ngto geth ero fs o li d bo d i esli ke s to nes ,o r th erubbi ngto geth ero ffi res ti c kso rfro mth eai r i ts elf wh enc lo ud saregath ered to geth erand c o lli d e.Fi re, th en,s eems almo s talways tobegeneratedbyfo rc e.Wec angeneratefi rebutwec anno tgenerateanyo fth eo th erth ree, fo revenwh enwed i gawellwed o no tbri ngwateri nto bei ngbuto nlymake i t vi s i ble by c o llec ti ngi t fro m a s c attered s tate. Butth egreates tand mo s ti mpo rtant d i fferenc ei sth at, wh ereas th eo th erelements ares elf-s ubs i s tentand d o no trequi re as ubs trate,fi red o es -atanyrate,s uc h fi reas i s perc epti bleto o urs ens es .Th i si struewh eth erwei nc lud eli gh ti no urc o nc epto ffi reo rno t,s i nc eli gh trequi resai ro rwateras as ubs trate.Ifli gh ti s no ti nc lud ed ,bo th th efi reo fflameandth ato faglo wi ngc o alexi s ti nas ubs trate.Flamei s burni ngs mo ke.Ac o ali san earth ys o li d .Itmakes no d i fferenc ewh eth erth efi rei si nth es ky o ro nearth . Inth efi rs tc as e,fi rei s burni ngai r,i nth es ec o nd c as ei ti s ei th erallth eth ree o th erelements burni ngo rtwo o fth em.S peaki nggenerally,i ti s always th ec as e th ateveryth i ngwh i c h i s burni ngi s ,s o to s peak,i nth epro c es s o fc o mi ngi ntobei ng.Fi rei s afo rmo fmo ti o n.Itperi s h es as i tc o mes i nto bei ngfo ras s o o n as i tleaves i ts s ubs tratumi tals o peri s h es i ts elf.Th i s i s wh atth eanc i ents meant wh enth eys ai d th atfi rei s always i ns earc h o fnutri ment.Th eys awi tc o uld no t s ubs i s ti ts elfwi th o uti ts materi al.And s o i ts eems s trangei nth efi rs t plac e toc allfi reaFi rs tP ri nc i plei fi tc anno ts ubs i s twi th o uts o memateri al.Fo rth us i t wi ll nei th erbeas i mpleth i ngno rableto exi s tpri o rto i tss ubs trateand materi al, unles s byc h anc eth ereexi s ts i nth eo utermo s ts ph ereaki nd o ffi rewh i c h i spureand unmi xed h eat.Ifs o i tc o uld no tburnand burni ngi s th enatureo f fi re.32 Th eo ph ras tus 'o bs ervati o nth atfi rec ano nlyexi s ti nas ubs tratelead s h i m fi rs tto th ec o nc lus i o nth ati t c anno tbeanelementbutmus tbeac o mpo undand th ento th es ugges ti o nth atth eh o tand c o ld areno tmerelyattri butes(,aU&O-q)butrath erpri nc i ples(&pXo L).`3 Th i s s ugges ti o ni s laterd evelo ped by S trato ,wh o regard ed th ees s enti alc aus es to beth equali ti es o fth i ngs 34andth epreemi nentquali ti es to beth eh o tand th ec o ld .35 Th evi ewth atfi rei sno tanelementbutac o mpo und marks as tri ki ngmo d i fi c ati o no fAri s to tle'sth eo ry,buti twas no tth eo nlyres pec ti nwh i c h Th eo ph ras tus evi d entlyfelt th atc h angewas d es i rable.Ourevi d enc ei s unfo rtunatelys o mewh ats ketc h y, butbri efh i nts i nth es urvi vi ngfragments o fh i s wo rks o nnaturals c i enc e s eem s uffi c i enttoreveal th at Th eo ph ras tus mad e o th eri mpo rtantmo d i fi c ati o nswi th i nth efo ur-elementth eo ry.Welearnfro mDei gne25and 26th at Th eo ph ras tus refus ed to ac c eptAri s to tle's d ec larati o nth atai r i sc h arac teri zedbyth equali ti es h o tand mo i s t;o nth ec o ntrary,h es ubs c ri bed to th ebeli ef th at ai r i sno t h o tbut c o ld .Onei mpli c ati o no fth i srepo rti sth atTh eo ph ras tus32Dei gne 1-4. 33Ibi d ., 8.1. 34S ee S extus P yrrh o ni ae h ypo typo s es III,33(Fr. 43Weh rli ):YTpn1TWVh i O4VJULKOc T6ti TOLOT-qTnt (&pXi lV XAyEL). S eeals o GalenHi s to ri a ph i lo s o ph i c a 18 (D.G.,p.611;Fr. 42Weh rli )and P s eud o - Clemens Rec o gni ti o nes VIII,15 (Fr. 44Weh rli ). 35S to baeusEc lo gae ph ys i c ae 1.10.12(Aeti us 1, 3, 24;D.G.,p.288;Fr. 45Weh rli ). ELEMENTARYP HYS ICS INTHELYCEUMANDS TOA221 evi d entlyrejec ted h i s mas ter's attemptto d ed uc eth eelements i nth epurely s c h emati c mannerd es c ri bed i nDegenerati o ne et c o rrupti o ne, wh ered i fferent pai rs o fo ppo s i tes areas c ri bed to eac h element.Th eo ph ras tus als o s eems toh aved i s c ard ed Ari s to tle's neatand i ngeni o us s c h emefo rth emutualtrans - fo rmati o n o f th e elements ,s i nc e fi re i sexc lud ed fro m th e natural trans fo rmati o n o fth eelements i nDe i gne. Th emo d i fi c ati o no fth equali ti es as c ri bed to ai r,i nad d i ti o nto s etti ngfi re s ti llfurth erapartfro mth eo th erth reetrad i ti o nalelements ,s i nc ei talo ne i s no tc h arac teri zed byc o ld nes s ,s eems als o to h avepers uad ed Th eo ph ras tustogi ve up th e Ari s to teli anc o nc epto fnatural plac e. At any rate, th ei mpli c ati o n o fDeventi s22s eems to beth atai rbyvi rtueo fi ts c o ld nes s naturallymo vesd o wnward s ;i t mo ves upward so nly wh en i t i spus h ed fro m beh i nd by TOOEppo v. Th us ,ac c o rd i ngtoTh eo ph ras tus ,earth , water, andai r are all h eavy and po s s es sa d o wnward o r c entri petaltend enc y,wh ereasT6o OEppo v alo ne po s s es s es li gh tnes sandmo ves upward s . Ari s to tleh adc o ns i d ered th at fi re andai r, th e twoelementsc h arac teri zed byth equali tyo fh eatand byth etend enc yto mo veupward s , wereth eac ti veelements ,wh ereas th eo th ertwo ,wh i c h werec o ld and h adad o wnward tend enc y,h eregard ed as pas s i ve.S i mpli c i us tells us i nh i sc o mmentaryo nth eDec aelo(700.3Hei berg)th at Th eo ph ras tus ,li keAri s to tle, equatedth e po s s es s i o n o f th e c h arac teri s ti c sh eavi nes sandc o ld nes swi thpas s i vi ty, o f li gh tnes s andh eat wi thth e c apac i ty fo r ac ti o n. Th ec ruc i al d i fferenc ebetween th e vi ewpo i ntso f mas ter andpupi l i sth at Ari s to tle regard ed twoo f th e trad i ti o nal elements aspas s i ve i n nature wh ereasTh eo ph ras tus plac edth ree i n th i sc atego ry. S trato o nc eagai ns eems prepared to d epartevenfurth erfro mAri s to tle and rejec ts c o mpletelyth ed o c tri neo fnaturalplac e.Ins tead h es ubs ti tutesth e Demo c ri teanbeli efth at all bo d i es are h eavy andh ave a c entri petaltend enc y, and i fs o meares eento mo veupward s and res tupo no th ers ,th i s i s bec aus e o fth epres s ure,wh i c h th eh eavi erexertupo nth eli gh ter,s queezi ngth em upward s .36 P res umablyth ed i fferenc ei nth ewei gh to fbo d i es was explai nedo nth ebas i so fth eato mi s ti cas s umpti o no femptyi nters pac es wi th i nth em. It h asbeens eenth at Th eo ph ras tus 'd ec i s i o ntoc h arac teri zeai r wi thc o ld nes srath er th anh eat led h i mtomake c h anges i n Ari s to tle's th eo ryo fth eelements . Th es ec h anges are s ofund amentalth at i t c an o nly be i nferred th at Th eo ph ras tus ' reas o n fo r i ntro d uc i ngmo d i fi c ati o nmus t h ave been a c o mpelli ngo ne.Unfo rtu- nately o ur evi d enc ei ss od efec ti veth at we c an o nly s pec ulate.Jus t asTh eo ph ras - tus 'rejec ti o no fth equi ntes s enc eh as puth i mi napo s i ti o nwh i c h enabledh i mto c i rc umvents o meo uts tand i ngd i ffi c ulti es i nAri s to tles 'c o s mo lo gy,s oh i s fi rmas s erti o nth atai ri s c o ld enabled h i mto c o rrec tapro no unc edi nc o ns i s tenc yno to nlybetweenAri s to tle's o wnth eo ryo fth etrans fo rmati o n o f th e elementsandc o ntempo rarybi o lo gi c al andmed i c al beli efs , but als obetween Ari s to tle's o wnph ys i c aland bi o lo gi c alth eo ri es .Ith as beens eenabo veth at th erei s go o d evi d enc eth atth ebeli efth atai ri s c o ld and s erves to c o o lth e i nnateh eatwas h eld byAri s to tleh i ms elf.Weh aveGalen's s tatementth at Di o c leso fCarys tus , li ke P h i li s ti o n o fLo c ri , h eld th at th e purpo s eo fres pi rati o n 36S i mpli c i us In d e c aelo121a32,(267.29Hei berg,Fr. 52Weh rli );s een. 55. 222JAMESLONGRIGG i stoc o o l th e i nnate h eat.37 It i sc o nc ei vableth at i t wasth e fo rmer'sc o ntempo rary i nfluenc ewh i c h pers uad ed Th eo ph ras tus to maketh eattemptto rec ti fyth e i nc o ns i s tenc yi nAri s to tleand bri ngth efo ur-elementth eo ryi nto s ti llc lo s er h armo nywi th c urrentmed i c aland bi o lo gi c alth eo ry.38 Iti sagai ns tth i s bac k- gro und o fc ri ti c al reapprai s alwi th i nth eLyc eumi ts elfth atth eS to i c s 'th eo ry o fth eelements s h o uld be vi ewed . III Alth o ugh th ei nfluenc eo fAri s to teli anc o s mo lo gyupo nth ato fth eS to i c sh asbeen rec o gni zed ,les sattenti o n h asbeen pai dtoth e po s s i bi li ty th at s ubs equent d evelo pments wi th i nth eLyc eumals o h ad a c o ns i d erablei nfluenc eupo nth e S to i c s .Iti s d i s ti nc tlypo s s i bleth atno to nlyd i d th ereac ti o nagai ns tc ertai n as pec ts o fAri s to tle'sc o s mo lo gywi th i nth eLyc eumi ts elfc reateanatmo s ph ere i nwh i c h th eS to i c s wereenc o uraged to i ntro d uc emo d i fi c ati o ns o fth efo ur- elementth eo ry,butals o th atc ertai nques ti o ns rai s ed ,and po s s i blyeventh e s o luti o nspro po s ed by Ari s to tle'syo ungerc o ntempo rari es ands uc c es s o rs , d i rec tly i nfluenc ed th eS to i c s .It i sno tewo rth yth at s ubs equenttoP eri pateti c prec ed ent th eS to i c s makeno us eo fafi fth element.Th eys ubs c ri beto th ec ano ni cfo urand to th etrad i ti o nalbeli efth atth eh eavens arefi ery.39 Th i s c eles ti al fi re,wh i c h th eyc alled aeth er,0d i ffers fro mearth lyfi reno to nlybec aus e i ti s purerbutals o bec aus ei ts mo ti o ni s c i rc ulari ns tead o fs trai gh t.4'Th e S to i c s th us d i d no tfi nd i tnec es s aryto po s i ttwo d i fferentbo d i es to ac c o unt fo r th e twod i fferenttypeso f mo ti o n.Th eyals oexplo i ted th e d i s ti nc ti o nbetween th e twotypeso f fi re wh i c hTh eo ph ras tus h admad e s omuc ho f. Th eyrec o gni zedth ec reati veand s us tai ni ngfi reo fth eaeth er,th elrvpTEXVLKOV,and th e d es truc ti vefi reo fo urearth lyexperi enc e.42 37Wellman,Di eFragmente d er S i keli s c h en Artze, Fr.15:Ti js 4&rvTo vOfepf.ao T4xs&vawtUs TLS;s (ILXLCFrTOVTEKOatALo KXqS E XEyo V. 38Iti s perh aps wo rth rec alli ngh ereth atDi o c les i s ac tuallyquo ted byTh eo ph ras tus as an auth o ri tyfo rami neralo gi c alpro blem(s eeDelapi d i busv.28:d OTrEpKOc tALOKXA9s'EXEAYEv). S ee W. W. Jaeger, "Di o c d es o f Carys tus : A New P upi l o f Ari s to tle," P h i lo s o ph i c alRevi ew, 1940, 49:393-414; p.397,n.16(repri nted i nS c ri pta mi no ra,Ro me:Ed i zi o ni d i S to ri aeLetturatura,1960,Vo l. II,pp.243-265;p.247,n. 2).Onth ed ateo fDi o c les s een. 63belo w. 39S eeAeti us II,11.4(D.G.,p.340b6):Zqvo v7TFptLVo V ELV'aL To 6v o pavo 6v(H.vo nArni m, S to i c o rum veterum fragmenta, Lei pzi g:Teubner,1903-1924,1.116[c i ted h ereafterasS .V.F.]); S to baeus Ec lo gae ph ys i c ae I.p.129,1.W(S .V.F.11.413):qXLOslTi vp &TTLV ELXLKP LVESand Ci c eroAc ad emi c ae quaes ti o nes1. 11.39:Denaturi s autem s i c s enti ebat, pri mum uti nquattuo r i ni ti i s rerum i lli squi ntam h ancnaturam ex qua s uperi o res s ens uset mentem effi c irebanturno n ad h i beret. 40Ci c ero Denatura d eo rum 1.36;Tertulli anAd vers usMarc i o nem 1.13and Mi nuc i u.sfeli x19.10 (S .V.F.1.154).It i spo s s i bleth at i n ad o pti ngth i snameth eyi nteni d eda tac i t c o rrec ti o no fAri s to tle and arejec ti o no fh i s c ri ti c i s mo fAnaxago ras fo rafals eetymo lo gyi nd eri vi ngth eterm(XflOp fro mth everb&d OELV(to blaze).S eeDe c aelo270b24f.and S i mi pli c i usInd e c aelo119,2Hei berg (D.-K.59A73). 4'A&ti us I,12,4:TO fJ.V 1TEpLyELOV 4505S KOXT'Ei ElLexVTO8OU'OepLo v 1TEpL(S Epus KLVEITaL.(S .V.F. 1.101and D. G.,p.311). 42Cf. Zeno 's vi ewas s tated byAri us Di d ymus apudS to baeumEc lo gae ph ys i c ae 1.25,3,p.213, 15Wac h s muth =Fragmentaph ys i c a33D.G.,p.467=S . V.F.1. 120: b{oy&p y7v'qs up6OS ,TOJEVc rTEXVOVKOLJE4XXOVELS EVTOT'VTpO(V,T08E TEXVLKOV, (XVi )TILK6VKat TTfpXqTLKOv, OtOV6VTOLS (S VTOLS &0TLKLtt4OOLS ... S eeto o Ci c ero De natura d eo rum2.15.40-41(S .V.F.1.504). ELEMENTARYP HYS ICS INTHELYCEUMANDS TOA223 Th eo ph ras tus and S trato ,as h as beens een,bo th rejec ted th eAri s to teli an c o nc epto fth eUnmo ved Mo ver.Th eS to i c sd o no templo yth i sc o nc eptei th er, alth o ugh ,as Hah mwelli llus trates ,th eyarec learlyno tuns ympath eti c to wardc ertai n o f i tsc h arac teri s ti cfeatures .Th eS to i cac ti ve pri nc i ple,li ke th eAri s to te- li an Fi rs t Mo ver, i sa s i nglepri nc i ple,res po ns i blefo r all mo vementand c h ange th at o c c urwi th i nth ec o s mo s .Jus t asth eP ri meMo veri sago d and i tses s enc e i s mi nd ,s o th eS to i c pri nc i plei s c alled OEo sand Xo 6yo s . Th eP ri meMo ver i seternal,bei ngbo th ungenerated and i mperi s h able;s o to o i sth eS to i cac ti ve pri nc i ple.But,no twi th s tand i ngth es eres emblanc es ,th ec o nc epto fanUnmo vedFi rs t Mo veri s utterlyrejec ted byth eS to i c s .S i mpli c i us tells us th atth eS to i cmo ver i si n mo ti o nandS extus th at i t i ss elf-mo ved .4Agai n,wh ereas Ari s to tle'sP ri meMo verexi s ts o uts i d eth ec o s mo s and i mparts mo ti o no nlyi nd i rec tly asano bjec t o flo ve(KLVE!8E61d S pWEVOVMetaph ys i c s A1072b3),th eS to i cac ti vepri nc i plepermeates th ec o s mo s and c aus es mo vementd i rec tly. Bo th o f th es elatterc h arac teri s ti c s h avea s tri ki ngprec ed enti nGreekth o ugh t.P lato 'sWo rld -S o uli sbo thi mmanenti n th e c o s mo s ,s tretc h i ngfro m c entertoperi ph ery (Ti maeus34b-36a),and a s elf-mo ver,c aus i ngmo vementd i rec tly(P h aed rus245cff.).P lato 's Wo rld -S o ulals o d i s plays th o s ec h arac teri s ti c s wh i c h arec o mmo n bo th to th eUnmo ved Mo verand to th eS to i c ac ti vepri nc i ple:i ti s d i vi ne and po s s es s es th ec apac i tyto s erveas aneternals o urc eo fmo vementandps yc h i c ac ti vi ty. Th eS to i c s h ave,asS o lms enh as po i nted o ut,44 pres erved th e two c h arac teri s ti c s o fth eP lato ni c wo rld -s o uld i s c ard ed byAri s to tlewh enh e d evelo ped h i sc o nc epto fa trans c end entunmo ved mo verth at i spureac tuali ty. Th es i mi lari ti es i nd o c tri nebetweenP lato and th eS to i c s h eres ugges tth e pro babi li tyth atZeno wasd i rec tlyi nfluenc ed byP lato .Th eS to i c s h ad ad eep c o nvi c ti o nth at th ec o s mo s wasa large-s c aleli vi ngc reature,and i t waspro bably fo rth i s reas o nth atZeno c h o s eto fo llo wP lato i nth i s res pec trath erth an Ari s to tle,wh o i s o th erwi s es o i nfluenti alas o urc efo rS to i c c o s mo lo gy.Iti spo s s i bleth atevenh ereZeno h as no to verlo o ked P eri pateti c d evelo pments , s i nc e, ass een abo ve, Th eo ph ras tus ,wh enh e to o k i s s ue wi thh i smas ter'sc o nc ept o fth eUnmo ved Mo ver,s h o wed th atAri s to tle's th eo rylo gi c allyentai led th e P lato ni c po s i ti o n.Furth ermo re,th epo s i ti o ns ad o pted bybo th Th eo ph ras tusand S trato wi th regard to th eUnmo ved Mo vermarki nd i vi d uals teps away fro mth ei d eao fa trans c end entmo verand to ward th ato fani mmanento ne, and s oeac h i nh i sway appro ac h es th eS to i cpo s i ti o n.45 Bo thTh eo ph ras tus andS trato , ash asbeen s een,felt d i s s ati s fi edwi thAri s to tle'sth eo ryo fwei gh tand mad emo d i fi c ati o ns o fi t.It wi ll be rec alled th at Ari s to tle d efi ned li gh tnes s andwei gh t asth e pro perti es o f elements wh o s e natural mo ti o nsareupand d o wnres pec ti vely.S i nc ei ti sth enatureo fearth always to mo ve d o wnward s (th ati s ,to ward th ec entero fth ec o s mo s )and th enatureo ffi re alwaysto mo veupward s (to th eperi ph ery),th o s etwo elements areabs o lutely 43Ad vers usmath emati c o s IX.76(S . V.F. 11.311). 44P lato 'sTh eo lo gy(Ith ac a,N.Y.:Co rnellUni vers i tyP res s ,1942),pp.179-183. 45S eeH.S i ebec k,"Di eUmbi ld ungd erperi pateti s c h enNaturph i lo s o ph i ei nd i ed erS to i ker," Unters uc h ungenzur P h i lo s o ph i ed er Gri ec h en(Frei burg: J. C. B. Mo h r,1888),p. 225,and E. Grumac h , P h ys i sundAgath o n i n d er Alten S to a (Berli n:Wei d mann,1932),pp.48ff. 224JAMESLONGRIGG h eavyand li gh tres pec ti vely.Waterand ai r,h o wever,arerelati velyh eavyo r li gh t,s i nc ei nreturni ngto th ei rnaturalplac eth eymo veei th erupo rd o wn d epend i ngupo nth ei rs tarti ngpo s i ti o n.Water,th erefo re,i s h eavyrelati ve to ai rand fi re,butli gh trelati veto earth ;wh ereas ai ri s li gh ti nrelati o n to earth and water,buth eavyi nrelati o nto fi re.Th eli gh tth eni s d efi nedas abo d ywh o s enaturei s always to mo veupward s ,and th eh eavyas o ne wh o s enaturei salwaystomo ved o wnward s ,i f th erei sno i nterferenc e. Th eS to i c s ,to o ,felti tnec es s aryto mo d i fyth ed o c tri neo fwei gh t.S to baeuspres erves fo rus anextrac tfro mAri us Di d ymus i nwh i c h welearnth atZenoh eld th at: all partso f th e c o s mo sh ave mo ti o n to wardth e c enter o f th e c o s mo s , andes pec i ally th e partsth at h ave wei gh t. Th eexplanati o n i sth e s ame, bo thfo r th es tati o nary po s i ti o n o f th e c o s mo si n th e i nfi ni te vo i d , andfo r th at o f th e earthi n th e c o s mo s . ...No t every bo d y h aswei gh t; ai r andfi re are wei gh tles s , but th es e als oare s o meh o wd rawnto ward th emi d d leo fth ewh o les ph ereo fth ec o s mo s ,and th ey take up th ei r po s i ti o nto wardth e c i rc umferenc e,s i nc eth ey are naturallyc entri fugal bec aus eo fh avi ngno wei gh t.46 Th i s repo rti s c o nfus ed .Th ec lai mth atac c o rd i ngto Zeno ai rand fi reare naturallyc entri fugali si nc o ns i s tentwi th th ei mmed i atelyprec ed i ngs tatement th atall th eelements ares o meh o wd rawnto ward th ec enter.Th i s c o nfus i o n, h o wever,asFurleyh ass h o wn,47 i seas i ly explai ned :ai r and fi reare c entri fugal relati ve toearth andwater; but th e d o xo graph ers fai led togras p th ei mpo rtant d i s ti nc ti o nth at th eyare c entri fugalo nly i n th epres enc eo fearth and water. Inth efi rs tbo o ko fth eDererum natura, afterargui ngth atth euni vers e i si nfi ni te,Luc reti us c ri ti c i zesfro manEpi c ureans tand po i nta ri val, geo c entri cc o s mo lo gy(1052-1113).Ac c o rd i ngto th eth eo ryund erattac kth euni vers e h as ac enter;o urwo rld i s h eld to geth erbyth ec entri petaltend enc yo fi tsh eavyelements ,wi thth eres ultth ati nth eanti po d es li vi ngc reatures c anwalk h ead -d o wnward s (s uppa) wi th o utfalli ngo ffth eearth ;th es uns h i nes i nturn o no urs i d eo fth eearth and o nth eanti po d es .Fi reand ai rarec entri fugal, wh i c h ac c o unts fo rth etwi nkli ngo fth es tars ,th eno uri s h mento fth es un'sflame,and th eupward gro wth o ftrees .Luc reti us o bjec ts th atth i s c entri fugal tend enc ywo uld res ulti nth ed i s i ntegrati o no fth ec o s mo s ,i nth e"walls o f th ewo rld " flyi ngapart. 46S to baeus Ec lo gae ph ys i c ae 1.19,4,p.166,4.W(Ari i Di d ymi Fragmenta ph ys i c a 23,D.G.,p. 459): 7T(XVT(XTOx pEpTOi )K6Jp.O1trTITO 1RE(OV TOUKOURpOUTqV(o p(xV'EXELV, p&XLAJTat 8ET& p6tpo s'EXOVTU.TbTOV8'c X LTLOVELVOLL KOLL Tq'TOi )KOUpOVpOVr$~V &i TECp KEV_ KOttTqyS , Tr(XD0c c rX'rpi (i 'tVTQ) K6o JjL(...o vT6(xVTWI8E a(OP UP &P po q 'E)ELV,&XX' &,(xpi L E'LV(XL &i pcKut TrUp.TELVEC(TOOM EKOLLT(ti )T&WWIO&rTL TOTTS OXVqqM+UpCUqTOi )K6(Jo FE(OV,VfE(XTTV Trpo qTqVTrEpV4EpEUXVo )TO1)TrOLEi OOc L;r1aELy(xp(X'V64OLTc xTc )T'E'LV(XL 610TO Rq8EVOq ETEXELV P &pOVS . 47S ee D.J. Furley,"Luc reti us and th eS to i c s ,"Bulleti n o fth e Ins ti tute o f Clai s i c al S tud i es , 1966, 13:13-33,es p.p.20,wh ereth eevi d enc efo rCh rys i ppus 'vi ew(P lutarc h De S to i c arum repugnanti i s42and 44;S .V.F.11.550) i sals od i s c us s ed . ELEMENTARYP HYS ICS INTHELYCEUMANDS TOA225 Iti s wi d elyac c epted th atth ec o s mo lo gyund erattac kh erei s th ato fth e S to i c s ,48and i tmus tbead mi tted th ataffi ni ti es wi th th eS to baeus ac c o unt s eemto s uppo rtth i s c o ntenti o n-namely,earth and waterarec entri petal, ai rand fi rearec entri fugal,and th ec o s mo s i s s tablebec aus ei ti s i nequal balanc eallro und .But,as Furleypers uas i velyargues ,Zeno 's th eo rys eemsto c o ntai nth eans werto th i s Epi c ureanpo lemi c i nth ath ec o ntend s th atall th eelements -i nc lud i ngai rand fi re-ares o meh o wd rawnto th ec enter.He d o es no ts ayth atth eelements fi reand ai rareli gh t,butrath erth atth ey h aveno wei gh t,and bei ngwei gh tles s th eyo c c upyth eperi ph eralregi o ns o f th es ph eri c alc o s mo s ,bec aus eth eelements th atd o h avewei gh to c c upyth e mi d d le.Th eyd o no t,h o wever,flyo ffi nto o uters pac e,bec aus eth eyareo nly c entri fugalrelati veto earth and water;o nc ebeyo nd th es ph eres o fth es e elements ,th ei rc entri petaltend enc yth enmani fes ts i ts elf. If th i s po lemi c i nDe rerum natura Ii sno tai med at th eS to i c s , and i fFurley i s c o rrec ti nh i s c lai mth atth eS to i c s 'th eo rywas d evi s ed to ens ureth ati t wasno tvulnerableto s uc h a c h arge,wh o th eni sund erattac k? Furleyh i ms elf s ugges ts th atAri s to tlemaybeth etarget.Heremi nd s us th atth elatter pro po und ed ageo c entri c c o s mo lo gywh erei nearth and waterarec entri petal, ai r and fi re c entri fugal.Ho wever,asFurley i squi c k toac kno wled ge,Ari s to tle'swo rld i s bo und ed byth efi fth element,and th es h ells o faeth erpreventedfi refro mri s i ngbeyo nd i ts pro pers ph ere.Th us Luc reti us 'po lemi c -th ati f ai r and fi re werec entri fugalth eywo uld d i s pers eat large-wo uld bepo i ntles s . Agai n,Luc reti us attac ks th eth eo ryth atth es tars and th es unarefed by th ec alo r, wh i c h ri s es fro mth emi d d leo fth euni vers eand wh i c h i s s o meh o w als ores po ns i blefo rth eupward gro wth o fplants .Ari s to tle,h o wever,ri d i c ulesth efo rmerbeli efi n th eMeteo ro lo gi c a(354b32-355a32). Th es eapparentd i ffi c ulti es d o no td i s s uad eFurleyfro mbeli evi ngth atth e c o s mo lo gyund erattac ki s Ari s to teli anrath erth anS to i c .Hepo i nts o utth at th efi fth elementwas no talways afeatureo fAri s to tle's c o s mo lo gy;ato ne ti me h es eems toh ave o perated wi tha fo ur-elementth eo ry.S uppo rti s -d eri ved(perh aps unwi s ely)fro mBi gno ne's th es i sth at Epi c urus ' ph i lo s o ph ywasfo rmedi no ppo s i ti o nto Ari s to tle's exo teri c wo rks ,parti c ularlyth eP ro tepti c us and De ph i lo s o ph i a, rath erth antoh i stec h ni c altreati s es . Itmaybeagreed th atth erei s s uffi c i entlys tro ngevi d enc eto s h o wth at pri o r toh i si ntro d uc ti o no f a fi fthelementAri s to tle o perated wi thth e trad i ti o nal fo ur.49And Furley's c lai mth atth eth eo ryo fth eno uri s h mento fth es un and s tars byth ec alo r wh i c h ri s es fro mth emi d d leo fth euni vers emaybe Ari s to teli ani s pers uas i ve.As Furleypo i nts o ut,Ari s to tlec ertai nlybeli evedi nexh alati o ns fro mth eearth and c ertai nlyats o meti meh eld th eo pi ni o n th atth es uni sno uri s h ed bymo i s ture;i f(as s eems li kely)h eh eld fo rati me th atth eh eavenlybo d i es arefi ery,h emaywellh avebeli eved th atth eyare 48S ee, e.g.,Luc rec e Dererum natura, ed .A.Erno utand L.Ro bi n(P ari s : S o c i eted 'ed i ti o n"LesBellesLettres ," 1925-1928);Luc reti us ,De rerum natura, ed .H. A. J. Munro (Cambri d ge:Cambri d ge Uni vers i tyP res s ,1899),Ti ti Luc retiCarl Dererum natura, ed .Cyri lBai ley(Oxfo rd :Clarend o n P res s ,1947),adlo c . 49 S ee S o lms en,Ari s to tle's S ys tem, pp.299ff. 226JAMESLONGRIGG no uri s h ed bywarm,mo i s texh alati o ns .P rec i s elyth i s vi ewi s putfo rward by Balbus ,Ci c ero 's S to i c s po kes manatDenatura d eo rum 2.43,and th ereare go o d reas o ns fo rbeli evi ngth atAri s to tlei s i ts s o urc e.50ButFurley's vali ant attempt,pers uas i veas i ti s ,i s no tc o nvi nc i ng.Ith ard lys eems li kelyth atth e Epi c ureans wo uld take s uc h pai ns toattac k an alread ys upers ed ed c o s mo lo gy. Anyvi c to ry i n th at c as e wo uld be a h o llo wo ne! Furley's i ns ti nc tmayneverth eles s bes o und :th erei s go o d evi d enc efo r beli evi ngth atth ereweretwoperi o d s wh enth efo ur-elementth eo rywas h eldi nth eLyc eum-befo reand afterAri s to tle's i ntro d uc ti o no fth efi fth element. Is i tno tth enps yc h o lo gi c allyles s li kelyth atth eEpi c ureans wo uld s eto ut to o ppo s eth eearli er,s upers ed ed s ys temrath erth anth elaterd evelo pment o fth efo ur-elementth eo ry,wh i c h repres ented th emo s tup-to -d ateP eri pateti cth i nki ngo nc o s mo lo gy? Furth ermo re,i nth eth eo ryund erattac kbyLuc reti us th eno uri s h ment o fth es un's flamei nth es ky,th etwi nkli ngo fth es tars ,and pres umablyth e gro wth o fbranc h es and leaves upo ntrees areallexplai ned as c o ns equenc eso f th e upwardmo ti o n o f fi re. It i sno tewo rth yth at very s i mi lar beli efsc o nc erni ng th eh eavenlybo d i es areh eld by Th eo ph ras tus .51Th eth eo ryo fplantgro wth , to o ,i s attri buted to Emped o c les byAri s to tle52and mus ts urelyh avebeen kno wnto Th eo ph ras tus .(Th efac tth atth i s th eo ryi sals o i mpli c i ti nNi c o lauso fDamas c us 'treati s eDeplanti s IIs ugges ts th ati twas ad o pted wi th i nth e Lyc eum. 53)No rmus tweo verlo o kth etrad i ti o no fEpi c urus 'anti path yto wardTh eo ph ras tus .54Buth avi ngd i s c ard ed th efi fth element,wh i c h prevented th e c entri fugalfi refro mri s i ngbeyo nd i ts pro pers ph ere,Th eo ph ras tus wo uldc ertai nlyh avebeenvulnerableto th ec h argeth ath i s beli efi nth ec entri fugal natureo fth eli gh telementwo uld th enentai lth ed i s i ntegrati o no fth ec o s mo s . Ind eed ,o ne wo nd ers wh eth er Th eo ph ras tus 'mo d i fi c ati o ns o f h i smas ter'sth eo ry o fwei gh twas no tanattemptto meets uc h a d i ffi c ulty-anattemptd o o medto fai lure,h o wever,fo ralth o ugh h emanaged to i nves tai rwi th ac entri petal nature,h ewas unablefo ravari etyo freas o ns to d i s pens ewi th th ec o nc ept o fa c entri fugalfi re. Atanyrate,i tmaybes i gni fi c antth atS trato i s prepared to go th ewh o le h o gand mai ntai nth atall th eelements arec entri petal.Th evi ewth atallth e elements h avewei gh tand c o ns equentlymo ved o wnward s ,buts o memo ve upward s bec aus eth eyare"s queezed o ut"byth o s eth atareh eavi er,i s o ne 50W. W.Jaeger,Ari s to tle: Fund amentalso fth e Hi s to ry o fHi s Develo pment (Oxfo rd :Clarend o n P res s ,1934),pp.148 ff.,and L. Ed els tei n,"Ci c eroDe Natura Deo rum II," S tud iItali anid i Fi lo lo gi a Clas s i c a, 1934,11:131-183. 5`Ai ti us 2.20.3(D.G.,p.348;Fr.33Wi mmer;s eeS tei nmetz,p.165):0Eo Epc urTo q~V To Ls4)UMKKo LS yEypwp EVKITUpL(OVT(OV Tvv(XOpo 0P o 0EvL vp.v(tK)Tqqbyp&q&MvaO-vL&nEws , Uvv(Xc po 0L6VTo v8ETOV "XLo v. 52 S eeDe ani ma 415b28(D.-K.31 A70). "Fo rNi c o laus 'bo tani c alwo rks eemyarti c le"Ni c o laus o fDamas c us ,"Di c ti o nary o fS c i enti fi cBi o graph y, Vo l.X (NewYo rk: S c ri bner's ,1974),pp.11 1-1 12. "S eeDi o genes Lai rti us 10.120and P lutarc h No npo s s e 1095c .Fo r th etrad i ti o nth ath ewro te apo lemi c altreati s eenti tled "Agai ns tTh eo ph ras tus "i natleas ttwo bo o ks ,s eeP lutarc h Ad vers usCo lo tern11Oc(H.Us en-er, Epi c urea [Lei pzi g,1887],Fr. 30). ELEMENTARYP HYS ICS INTHELYCEUM ANDS TOA227 th at S tratos h areswi thth e Epi c ureans . 55 Th i sbeli efh asrec ently beend es c ri bedas"th e o nlypo i nto fany s ubs tanc eo nwh i c h S tratoand th eAto mi s ts agree. "56 Do es th ei ragreementrepres ents h eerc o i nc i d enc eo rh as S trato takenaleaf o uto fth eato mi s ts 'bo o kto meetth i s d i ffi c ulty?Wh enwerec allth atth e S to i c s s ubs c ri beto es s enti allyth es amed o c tri ne,s i nc eth eyto o attri butea d o wnward (i nth ei rc as e,c entri petal)tend enc yto all th eelements butregardai r and fi reas c entri fugali nth epres enc eo fearth and water,to beli eveth at th i s th eo rywas o ri gi nated i nd epend entlyi nth eLyc eumand S to aas wellasmai ntai ned c o ntempo raneo us lyi nth eGard ens eems to s tretc h th elo ngarm o fc o i nc i d enc eto o far. Ano th ermo d i fi c ati o no fAri s to tle's elementth eo rybyth eS to i c s i s th ei r as c ri pti o no fo ppo s i tes to th eelements .Unli keAri s to tlewh o as c ri bed bi nary c o mbi nati o ns o f o ppo s i tes toth e elements ,th e S to i c sc h arac teri zedeac helement by o ne bas i cquali ty: fi re i sh o t,ai r c o ld , water wet, andearthd ry. Unfo rtunately, o uro nlyfullevi d enc efo rth i s d o c tri nei s Di o genes Laerti us .57Ho wever,th e fac tth atth eS to i c s frequentlyus ed th enames o felements and quali ti esi nterc h angeablyi sgo o d evi d enc eth at th ey i d enti fi ed eac helementwi tha s i ngle quali ty.58Th i s s c h emei s patentlyth atpro po und ed o ri gi nallybyP h i li s ti o n o fLo c ri 59 and exempli fi es yetano th eri ns tanc eo fth eh i gh lyi nfluenti alro le played by"S i c i li an" med i c i nei nth ed evelo pmento fGreekph i lo s o ph y.But i ts h o uld beno ted th atano ld erc o ntempo raryo fZeno ,wh o als o wo rkedat Ath ens ,th emed i c almanDi o c les o fCarys tus ,almo s tc ertai nlyad o pted th e P h i li s ti o ni c d i s tri buti o no fquali ti es toelements . 6 Th eextremelyc lo s eaffi ni ti es i nd o c tri nebetweenP h i li s ti o n,and Di o c leswerepo i nted o utatth everybegi nni ngo fth i s c enturybyMaxWellman.6" 55Fo rth i s Epi c ureanbeli efs eeLuc reti us Dererum natura II.184ff.Itgo es bac kulti mately to Leuc i ppus and Demo c ri tus ;c f.Aeti us 1.4.2(D.-K.67A24)and S i mpli c i us Ind ec aelo569.5 and 712.27(D.-K.68A61).Fo rS trato 's th eo rys eeFrs .50-53Weh rli ,wh ereh i s namei s c lo s ely li nked wi thth at o fEpi c urus . 56H. B. Go tts c h alk,"S tratoo fLamps ac us ,"Di c ti o nary o f S c i enti fi cBi o graph y (fo rth c o mi ng). 57V1L,137 (S .V.F.11.580):r&tb8TrTrapQ TTOLXEo Lt ELVtLpOUvTi i pi tTOLOVO,ui av,T-qvvAXqv. LVxtL7 6 VovWri p76 Oep116v, 76'b8up76 vyp6v,76vTe&epU764nvpo 6vKati Tvyi v76 kp6v. S ee,to o ,P lutarc h DeS to i c o rum repugnantti i s 43.1053fand Depri mofri gi d o 9.948d and 17.952c(S .V.F.11.429);Galeri Des i mpli c i ummned i c amento remtemperanenti set fac ultati bus11.20XI.5110K. (S .V.F.11.431);S en-ec a Quaes ti o nesnaturales2.10.4and Epi s tulae 31.5;ClementP ro trepti c ms 1,5,1 and Ci c ero De natura Deo rum II, 26. 58Galen rec o gni zes th i s ; s eeDe plac i ti sHi ppo c rati set P lato nai s V 3(160),p. 421 M. (S . V.F. 11.841) and De meth o d o med end i1,2 (X. 1 5K.)(S . V.F. 11.41 1). 59Ato nymusLo nd i nens i sXX,25(Wellman-n, Di eFragnt1nted er S i keli s c h en Arzte, Fr. 4): (LLXTTC(OV 8'OLET7tLK8'LbEV0OVETT(XlVXL fjXS , ro r'E(TTLVs K8 (TTOLXELV, 7T)pOS ,&Epo S ,U&8tOS ,tT)S . ELVtL8bEK(tL&K6tTTOUbuVc pi ELS ,TO7VpLV'i s Vp6S T6OEppOV,TO71bE &E[)OST6 pi XpOV, TO71bE1i 8Ts76vypo V,T7s bE YqS76 t'qp6v. '5')Galen pres erves th ei nfo rmati o n(Demeth o d omed entd iX.462K.;Wellmann,"Di o kles ,"Di e Fragmente d erS i keli s c h ent Arzte,Fr.7):EO(7TLpEvo UVKati ZLOKXEL...Kt (TXE86v 'ri CuTO7SEUMOKLp.uT&TO7S taTpOLS ,WS ITWEp nOVyKLt7T70V4)LXo 6(TOfVT70s &pUT7o Ts ,qaQi i 7Tb6o tarepi (JEsOTOi Ja75 -KOEpp.o6Kat4i vXP OiKaL t'%pOV KOtli YpO1OV0LCS OJJ. CKEKpCU0aLTtTEAXXa(tui )o twaV7a CUJxOtaTtKOtT& T70V 4(P (V 0VK71KLTo tand IIEpi HUP 6-s Kat'As po s i s gi venas th eti tleo fo ne o fDi o c les ' wo rks(Wellmann,p.70,n.1). 61Wellmann,pp.65ff.and 81ff.S ee,to o ,W. W. Jaeger,"DasP neumai mLykei o n,"Hermes , 1913,48:51,n.1, and S c ri pta mi no ra, Vo l.I, p.79,n.1. 228JAMESLONGRIGG Bo th o fth es ed o c to rs ,fo rexample,h o ld th atth eh earti s th es eato fth e i ntelli genc e,bo th beli evei nth ec o nc epto fi nnateh eat,wh i c h h as i ts s o urc e i nth eh eart,bo th beli eveth atres pi rati o ntakes plac eno to nlyth ro ugh th e no s eand mo uth butals o th ro ugh th epo res i nth es ki n,and bo th beli eve th at th epurpo s eo fres pi rati o ni sto c o o lth ei nnateh eat.Iti sh i gh lypro bable th atDi o c les als o beli eved th ataps yc h i c pneuma i sc o nti nuallygi veno fffro m th eblo o d und erth eac ti o no fth ei nnateh eatand th enc i rc ulates wi th th e blo o d th ro ugh o utth ewh o lebo d y.62 Wellman,wh enpo i nti ngo utth es eparallels i nd o c tri nebetweenP h i li s ti o n and Di o c les ,wasund erth e mi s takeni mpres s i o nth at bo th menwerec o ntempo - rari eso fP lato 'searli eryears ,and h eputth emi n th efi rs tth i rd o fth efo urthc entury.But Jaeger h as c o nvi nc i nglyd emo ns trated th atDi o c les was i nfac t a yo ungerc o ntempo raryo f Ari s to tle andwasi n c lo s e c o ntac t wi thth e P eri pateti cs c h o o l. 63Th i s bei ngs o , wh enwe fi nd th at th eS to i c s , i n ad d i ti o ntos ubs c ri bi ng toth eP h i li s ti o ni c d i s tri buti o no fquali ti estoelements ,als os ubs c ri bed fi rmly- i nd eed ,as i ttrans pi res ,to o fi rmly-to th ebeli efth atth eh earti s th es eat o f th e h egemo ni ko n(go verni ngpri nc i ple) 64 andals omai ntai n, asDi o c lespro bably h ad ,th atth eps yc h i c pneuma i s anexh alati o ngi veno ffbyth eblo o d ,65i t i s veryh ard no tto c o nc lud eth atth efo und ero fth eS to i c s c h o o lh as been d i rec tlyi nfluenc ed by h i so ld erc o ntempo raryat Ath ens ,Di o c les . 62 S ee Wellmann,p. 78 ands .v. "Di o kles ," P auly-Wi s s o wa,Realenc yc lo pad i ed er c las s i s c h enAltertumns - wi s s ens c h aft, Vo l.I(1903),pp.802-812,p.804;F.Ri i s c h e,Blut,Leben und S eele (P ad erbo rn: F. S c h o ni ngh ,1930), p.161; G. Verbeke,L'vo luti o nd e la d o c tri ne d u pneuma (P ari s : D; d eBro uwer; Lo uvai n: Ins ti tut s uperi eurd e ph i lo s o ph i e,1945),p.13; and ,mo rec auti o us ly,S o lms en,"Cleanth eso r P o s i d o ni us ?" p.19, n. 64.S o lms eni sri gh ttobe c auti o us .Certai nly we c anno tpo s i ti velyas c ri be th i s d o c tri neto Di o c les .Yetac lo s es urveyo fth eevi d enc es ugges ts th ati ti s extremelyli kely th at h ed i d i n fac t s ubs c ri betoth i sbeli ef. 63S ee Jaeger, Di o klesvo n Karys to s ;"Verges s eneFragmented esP eri pateti kersDi o klesvo n Karys to s . Nebs tzwei Anh angenzurCh ro no lo gi ed erd o gmati s c h enArztes c h ule,"Abh and lung d er P reus s . Akad . d erWi s s ens c h aft. Jah rg. P h i l.h i s t. Kl.,1938(No .3):1-46;and "Di o c les o fCarys tus "(th e two arti c les arerepri nted i nS c ri pta mi no ra, Vo l.II,pp.185-241and pp.243-265).Inh i s bo o k Jaegerargues pers uas i velyth atDi o c les d i ed after300B.C.and befo re288/7B.C.(p.119).In th e latter arti c le, publi s h eds li gh tly later th an th e bo o k, h e go esevenfurth er andtri es(uns uc c es s fully) to pro veth atDi o c les li ved fro m340to 260B.C.Onth i s laterd ati ngs eeLud wi gEd els tei n'srevi ewo fJaeger's bo o ki nAmeri c an Jo urnal o f P h i lo lo gy, 1940,61:483-489,repri nted i nAnc i ent Med i c i ne, ed .Ows ei Temki nand C.Li li anTemki n(Balti mo re:Jo h ns Ho pki ns P res s ,1967),pp. 145-152.Rec ently,h o wever,F.Kud li enh as argued fo ranearli erd ate,mai ntai ni ngth atDi o c leswas ano ld er c o ntempo raryo fAri s to tle,buth eh as no ts uc c es s fullyc o untered allo fJaeger'sarguments fo rth ei nfluenc eo fAri s to tleupo nDi o c les (s ee"P ro blemeumDi o kles vo nKarys to s ," S ud h o ffsArc h i vfurGes c h i c h te d erMNfed i zi nund Naturwi s s ens c h aften, 1963,47:456-464[repri ntedi nAnti keMed i zi n,ed .H.Flas h ar,Darms tad t:Wi s s ens c h aftli c h eBuc h ges ells c h aft,1971,pp. 192-201]). 64S eeF.S o lms en,"GreekP h i lo s o ph yand th eDi s c o veryo fth eNerves ,"Mus eum Helveti c um, 1961,18:195,and Klei ne S c h ri ften, Vo l.I,p.580,wh o po i nts o utth atevenafteri th ad been d emo ns trated by d i s s ec ti o nth atth e brai nmus tbeth es eat o fth eh egemo ni ko nCh rys i ppus s o ugh t d o gged lyto d efend th es c h o o ld o gmaby anappealto P raxago ras ,a s c i enti fi c auth o ri tyo fabo ut h alfa c enturyearli er(s eeS .V.F.11.897). 65S ee GalenDe plac i ti sHi ppo c rati set P lato ni s11,8 (V.283K.,S . V.F.1.140): EL8E'E'ETrOLTo KXE&VOELKOti Xpi o (CTrTrKOtX ZJVWVLTpE4Uc TQOXt 64LfTOS4Yrc TQVTLTqV qVJUXV, OVb(JOV8' WbTfi SV)1tXP XELVTO1TVE1J.,. GalenDe us u parti um VI,17 (III,496K.,S .V.F.11.781): ELEMENTARYP HYS ICS INTHELYCEUM ANDS TOA229 IV We h ave s een th at Ari s to tle'syo ungerc o ntempo rari es i n th e Lyc eumattac ked , mo d i fi ed ,andeven rejec tedc ertai n i mpo rtantas pec tso f Ari s to teli anc o s mo lo gy, no tablyth e d o c tri neo fth efi fth element,th ec o nc epto fth eUnmo ved Mo ver, and ,wi th i nth efo ur-elementth eo ryi ts elf,Ari s to tle's th eo ryo fwei gh tandparti c ularlyh i s attri buti o no fo ppo s i tes to elements .Th eS to i c s ,to o ,rejec tedth efi fth element,and i nd o i ngs o th ey,li keTh eo ph ras tus ,explo i ted th e d i s ti nc ti o nbetweenth etwo fo rms o ffi re-th ec reati veand s us tai ni ngfi reo f th e aeth er andth e d es truc ti vefi re o f earth ly experi enc e.Li ke bo thTh eo ph ras tusandS trato , th ey reverted toth e trad i ti o nal beli efth at th e nature o fth e h eavenly bo d i es i sfi ery.Th eyrejec ted th ec o nc epto fth eUnmo ved Mo ver and ad o ptedapo s i ti o nwh i c h bears c ertai nmarked affi ni ti es to th eres pec ti ves tand po i ntso fTh eo ph ras tus and S trato .Th eS to i c s als o mo d i fi ed Ari s to tle's th eo ryo f wei gh t,and ,po s s i blys eeki ngto meetth es ameEpi c ureanpo lemi c ,th ey,li ke S trato , mai ntai ned th at all th e elements are c entri petal.Th eyrejec ted Ari s to tle'ss c h emati c attri buti o no fbi naryc o mbi nati o ns o fo ppo s i tes to th eelements . Evi d entlyunwi lli ngto ad o ptath eo ryo felements bas i c allyi nc o ns i s tentwi thc o ntempo rarybi o lo gy,th ey,li keTh eo ph ras tus and Di o c les ,mai ntai ned th at th eelementai r i sc h arac teri zed by c o ld nes s rath erth anh eat. Letmec lo s ebypo s i ngth eques ti o n:c ani tbepurely ac c i d entalth atth es e parallelsexi s tbetweenth emo d i fi c ati o ns and c h anges o fAri s to tle's c o s mo lo gy i ntro d uc ed wi th i nth eLyc eumi ts elfand th o s emad eby th eS to i c s ? OV8E-yp01)8'OUTOSbX6o 'OS &8-6VtTOS ,(0S &V(0QV[U(JTS TLS ,eL-yE &TCV,01[FWTOS Xp' prTOm TO P JVXLKOVITVEi V[U. and GalenInHi ppo c rati sepi d emi o rum li brum s exturmc o mmentari usqui nque (XVIIB264K.,S .V.F. 11.782): O(OL yp L VXOLOVTL vxvTrVEIt,8lTvJEvE('aXL Xe'yo vO(1tV TTVEK TE -ySIVS Vp.LWJEW' TO71 OAL'pAXTOSKAL TO7) K(XT(XT1.V ELITTVOTVC\KOp.S VOV8L(T-TSTpaXEtas &fTTptf) EkX'TO70)O(v vL(XTOS(&4po q).