electro forensic engineering an emerging profession

8/2/2019 Electro Forensic Engineering an Emerging Profession

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ELECTRO-FORENSICNGINEEFUNG-ANMERGINGROFESSIONRent? Castenschiold, I? E.

IEEE Life FellowLC R Consulting Engineers, Inc.Post Ofice Box Tw oGreen Village,NJ 07935Abstract-With the increasing number of legal cases

involving application of electrical equipment, forensicengineering is playing a greater role in providing litigationsupport. This paper discusses the qualifications and role ofthe electro-forensicengineer. Safety practices, importanceof codes and standards, and how to minimize accidents andliability are growing concerns with electrical equipmentmanufacturers, systems designers, contractors, and owners.The electro-forensic engineer can make positivecontributions beyond litigation support as explained in thispaper. The need for recommended practices or standlardsfor the electro-forensic engineer to perform in a professionalmanner is also discussed.

INTRODUCTIONDespite code requirements, product approvals, and standard-ization of electrical equipment and systems, electrical acci-dents occur. Such accidents can cause substantial propertydamage and personal injuries. Alleged causes of these acci-dents are serving as bases for expanding litigation. For thesereasons, there is a growing need for qualified electro-forensic

engineers.The National Academy of Forensic Engineers has adoptedthe following definition:

Forensic Engineering is the art and science of pro-fessional practice of those qualqed to serve asengineering exper ts in matters before courts of lawor arbitration proceedings. [l ]In such practice, the forensic engineer will investigate anddetermine, within a reasonable degree of probability, the (causeof the accidents. The forensic engineer has the unique challengeof sitting before the public as an expert witness, when acceptedby the court as having adequate qualifications regarding theparticular accident or matter which is at issue.

ACCEPTINGND /OR EJECTINGNASSIGNMENT

Daniel J. Love, P.EIEEE Life FellowLove Consulting

16300E. Soriano DriveHacienda Heights, CA 91745interest to the electro-forensic engineer, it is equally possiblethat he may not have the level of experience which wouldqualify him in the event that the case becomes a matter forlitigation. Therefore, careful judgment should be used beforeaccepting any assignment. The typical electro-forensic elec-trical engineer will have several years of general experience,with specific expertise in one or more fields, and would be alicensed professional engineer.

The contact may be initiated by an insurance adjuster or byan attorney. Casualty insurance companies have adjusters whoare authorized to have repairs made to the facility or equip-ment in order to restore the work process following an acci-dent. At the same time, the insurance company will developits own understanding as to accident cause. They may realizethat the cause was due to design or operation, and that thecosts for the accident should be subrogated to other parties.For most instances, the first contact with the attorney orinsurance company representative is the most crucial. Theseare knowledgeable people who often want to be further edu-cated on a specific case in order to determine a course of ac-tion. On the other hand, an nsurance adjuster has to determinethe cause, and there may be no litigation resulting if partiescan agree to some settlement.

One should not lose sight of the fact that an attorneyrepresents a client, and will work to the clients best interest,which is why the electro-forensic engineer should provide anunbiased consultation to the attorneys. Many contacts areinitiated through the telephone, and an attorney will describethe incident as best he can. The attorney will then ask if thissounds like a case in which the engineer may possibly be ofassistance. If affmative, the engineer may then be asked abouthis educational, professional, and work experience which wouldsupport the engineers expertise. Following this, a request willbe made to send his Curriculum Vitae (CV) to the attorney,often via FAX, along with his terms and conditions, includingrates for the service. In most cases, the engineer will wantadditional information, such as existing accident reports, be-fore agreeing to serve as an expert.Although assignments may appear to be along the line of

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TYPICALONDITIONSIn personal injury suits, it is common to have medical doc-tors, podiatrists, certified public accountants (CPAs), opera-

tions managers, economic specialists, and other experts, de-pending upon the extent of the case. A typical case for an elec-trical engineer may involve an incident in which a worker isnearly electrocuted. After suitable medical treatment and hos-pitalization, the worker may seek out an attorney to help pressclaims to compensate the worker for his injuries. The attorneywill attempt to have the defendant pay all medical costs,including some from newly contacted specialists who willevaluate how the injuries may limit the workers future, hissex Iife, his mental health, family life, and other activities.After a suitable delay, but within the statute of limitations per-mitted by the state having jurisdiction, the suit will be filedonbehalf of the plaintiff (worker), possibly with specific dam-ages mentioned. The company or its insurance company willprobably seek an outside attorney to represent them, and tomake contact with the plaintiffs attorney in order to deter-mine the worthiness of the suit, and perhaps even learn whatdollar amount is being considered. At this juncture, the casemay settle out of court.

When it is apparent that the case can not be negotiated at anearly stage, each attorney will contact experts, such as anelectro-forensic engineer. How to proceed depends uponwhether the expert is worlung for the plaintiff or the defen-dant. In either case, the expert is expected to provide anunbiased service.The expert for the defendant will review the accident scene

or structure, but may be requested to not prepare a report.The reason for limited writing by the defendants expert is thatall notes, files, and pertinent references are to be shown to theplaintiffs attorney at some point, at which time they will becopied for study. Engineers, in general, have natural tenden-cies to postulate the many possibilities associated with anyproblem, and may inadvertently postulate possibilities whichwould support the plaintiffs suit, even if later the engineerdecided that such a happening was inappropriate or evenimpossible. However, forensic engineers must give credenceto probable cause, rather than possible causes. Otherwise,the opposing attorney may eagerly investigate such possibili-ties, and use some similar wording to later deflate the qualifi-cations of the expert.

The plaintiff will seek written reports to explain the acci-dent cause, possibly after a verbal discussion with the plaintiffsattorney. The report for the plaintiff may be the keystone inthe approach taken by the plaintiffs attorney and should be

supported by appropriate tests, and even by other experts.Notes, files, and pertinent references of the plaintiffs expertare also available to the defendants attorney and expert.As discussed above, there are formal rules in place, such as

civil codes (which could vary between states or even countieswithin the same state), which govern how the litigation canproceed, with time being a factor in the initiation of the suitand other actions. Many suits develop because state laws gen-erally limit an injured worker to medical costs, loss of wages,and specific damages related to the accidenthcident. Often aworker may receive only workmans compensation or disabil-ity pay, and the worker feels that more is deserved. Even thoughstate laws limit the compensation to an injured worker, attor-neys will often seek to justify why these limitations should bewaived, and the plaintiff be compensated more extensively.WHERE o START

The first step in most investigations s for the electro-forensicengineer to review relevant documentation regarding theincident. Such information should be provided by the attor-ney or insurance company and may include all or some of thefollowing: 1.Accident reports2. Discovery material3. Transcripts of depositions4.Related correspondence and photographs5. Legal filings6. Reports by other experts

A preliminary review of such documentation enables theengineer to verify whether he can indeed be of service. If forany reasons, he feels that he is not qualified or can not be ofservice, he should promptly advise the attorney. Some reasonsfor declining the assignment could be a conflict of interest,disagreement with the alleged cause of the accident, indicationsthat the plaintiff is simply initiating a frivolous suit, or thereappears to be insufficient evidence to determine the cause ofaccident. On the other hand, if the electro-forensic engineerfeels he can be of service, then a final agreement on rates,terms and conditions, tainer or depositshould be established.

Amore detailed review of such documentation will enhancethe engineers ability to further discuss the investigation withhisclient, make a meaningful inspection of the site and/or elec-trical equipment, and be able to effectively interview otherparties.After reviewing the documentation there should be a meetingwith the attorney, preferably with the plaintiff or defenserepresentative. This is then usually followed by an inspection

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of the site where the accident occurred as well as any electri-cal equipment that may have either been damaged or was as-sociated with the cause of the alleged accident.SITENSPECTION

To properly inspect the site of the accident, it is importantthat the electro-forensic engineer have good product and ap-plication knowledge of the equipment involved, anunderstanding of applicable codes and standards, and be ableto observe and record pertinent information needed to deter-mine the cause of the accident. The amount of test andrecording equipment needed for an inspection varies depend-ing upon the nature of the accident, as well as the surroundingcircumstances under which the accident occurred. Typical ofsome of the equipment used by the authors include:1. 35mm cameras with color film2. 8 mm video camera3. Ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter4.Non-destructive high voltage dielectric tester5. Tape measure and Micrometer6 .Ground detecting analyzer7. Magnifying glass and flashlight8. Mechanical tools as may be required

Like a detective, the electro-forensic engineer must gatherenough information from the scene of the incident, sohe canreconstruct the scene in his own mind at some later period. Hemay not always get all the information on his first visit, andmay need more than one visit. Information such as serial andmodel numbers, nameplate ratings, and device settings shouldbe recorded. Photographing everything that my be relevant tothe accident is essential. The engineer should search foranything that appears abnormal, record appropiriatemeasurements (physical and electrical), and perform tests whenfeasible. If he has the opportunity during the site inspection,he should interview others who may be familiar with the acci-dent.Having a theory on how the incident occurred may be easyto develop for some cases, but extremely difficult for others.At any rate the engineer should!utreach a definitive conclusionuntil he has digested his notes, read depositions of others (ifavailable), reviewed all accident reports and applicable codesand standards. If a fatality is involved, the case can become

even more complex. The electro-forensicengineer must remainindependent when analyzing the material gathered.CODESND STANDARDS

Codes and standards play an important role in forensicengineering and more so for the electrical engineer than for

mechanical, civil or chemical engineers. This is in part due to

Laboratories (UL), Institute of Electrical and ElectronicEngineers (IEEE), Occupational Safety and Health Adminis-tration (OSHA), Canadian Standards Association (CSA), andthe International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). It isimportant that the electro-forensic engineer be aware of thesestandards and be able to make proper interpretations as maybe necessary for his particular investigation. Some electricalstandards have requirements that are mandatory whereas otherelectrical standards will have recommended requirements.Mandatory requirements are considered as minimal and oftenit is necessary to resort to recommended standards for safe andproper design.

National Electrical Code - The National Electrical Code(NEC) is the standard most often used by the electro-forensicengineers. It is sponsored and published by the National FireProtection Association. Article 90, Section 90-l(a) states Thepurpose of this Code is the practical safeguarding of personsand property from hazardsarising from the use of electricity[2]

It should be noted that the National Electrical Code is a legaldocument only to the extent that it is adopted by some entityhaving the authority to issue or promulgate laws, ordinances,regulations, administrative orders, or similar instruments asindicated on the inside of the front cover of the Code. Unlikemany other laws, rules and regulations adopted by governmentalbodies that are prepared primarily by legislators, regulatoryagencies, or by legal departments, the National Electrical Codeis essentially a technical document prepared by individualswhose expertise lies in the realm of electrical construction,design, inspection, engineering, or technology. It does nothave the formalized working of more legal documents. Sinceit is neither a design nor engineering methodology textbook, itdoes not contain, except in a few instances, the highly special-ized engineering analysis, standardization, and performancecriteria that may be found in other electrical standards (e.g.,ANSI, IEEE, NEMA, IEC, et al.) or engineering texts.Code interpretation may be seized upon as supporting a claimin a legal action. In an effort to sustain or define a lawsuit,counsel will often attempt to show that somewhere, someinterpreting authority made a decision that was favorable to

technical basis, or be unique, but it may have an impact on anon-technical ury or court; It may be more a matter of presen-tation than of substance.

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By necessity, parts of the Code are not too specific. Byevolution in succeeding issues, much of the wording andorganization of a section of the Code has been altered so that itis confusing to the reader of a later edition. Excerpts from theCode, without considering other related sections can bemisconstrued. This all plays into the hands of attorneys andothers, unless they are property guided or challenged by theelectro-forensic engineer. [3]

Vulnerability to product liability can not be avoided by sim-ply providing electrical products listed by UnderwritersLaboratories. Similarly, vulnerability to system liability cannot be avoided just by simply providing electrical systems inaccordance with the National Electrical Code. For example,some safety switches include insulation to prevent accidentalcontact with live line terminals (whereas others do not) eventhough this is neither a UL nor Code requirement. By includingsuch a safety feature in the specifications, the designer canminimize accidental injury and expensive litigation. The de-signer can also design greater safety into the system byincluding equipment that is beyond that required by the Code.For example, article 700 of the Code does not require the useof bypass switches in conjunction with transfer switches as isoften necessary to assure safe maintenance and testing ofemergency power systems. Here the lack of maintenance andtesting of a transfer switch can lead to equipment failure andthus no power to critical loads, or injury to electrical staff at-tempting to maintain live equipment.

The National Fire Protection Association also produces manyother publications that are helpful to the electro-forensicengineer. For examples, NFPA 907M is an excellent manualfor determination of electrical fires causes. NFPA Standard921 Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations is another goodreference and provides an excellent guide for photographingthe scene of an incident, and not necessarily a fire-relatedincident. [4][5]

IEEE Standards - The IEEE Color Book Series has becomemore significant as a standard reference in electro-forensicengineering. These standards provide recommended practicesthat go beyond the minimal requirements of the National Elec-trical Code,NEMA, andUL tandards. In that a good percent-age of electrical accidents occur in industrial and commercialfacilities, the most used IEEE Color Books by electro-forensicengineers are:1. Red Book - IEEE Recommended practice for ElectricPower Distribution for Industrial Plants[6]2. Gray Book - IEEE Recommended Practice for ElectricPower Systems in Commercial Buildingsl713. Brown Book - IEEE Recommended Practice for PowerSystem Analysis[8]4.Buff Book - IEEE Recommended Practice for Protectionand Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Sys-tems [9]

Fig. 1 IEEEBuff Book and National Electrical Code used asEvidence inCourt.

Figure 1is a photograph of the Buff Book and NationalElectrical Code that were recently accepted by the court asevidence. The Buff Book helped convince the jury that thecause of the accident was an inadvertent ground fault betweena terminal of a switch and its grounded enclosure.Another important IEEE standard is the National ElectricalSafety Code which includes rules for practical safeguarding ofpersons during the installation, operation, and maintenance ofelectric supply lines and asswiated equipment. Unfortunatelythere are many electrical injuries and fatalities involving util-ity lines, which are resulting in an increasing amount oflitigation. o]

Very important are the ANSUIEEE Standards for circuitbreakers, transformers, surge protective devices. An economi-cal approach to obtaining these standards is to procure them ina collection format. For instance, the IEEE StandardsCollection for the 1993 Edition of American National Stan-dard Institute C37 and its Supplement contain standards oncircuit breakers, switchgear, substations, and fuses. Thisincludes 1,000pages of standards, some in final form, some indraft form, but extremely valuable in information content. Thedisadvantage is that the collection may not have the most currentstandards,so it is well to specify to the IEEE order departmentwhen a specific revision of a standard is needed. 111

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Other Standards - There are a number of other importantelectrical standards to be considered, such as those publishedby Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).Of growing significance are OSHA standards such as 29CFR.1910 SubpartS - Electrical. This subpart addresses electrical

safety requirements that are necessary for practical safeguard-ing of employees in their work places and is divided into fourmajor divisions as follows:1.Design safety standards for electrical systems2. Safety-related work practices3. Safety requirements or special equipment4. Definitions

OSHA requirements do not conflict with the National Elec-trical Code but do go well beyond in its scope of safetyrequirements.[ 121

NEMA has many standards on electrical products and sys-tems. Their product standards have often served as the basisfor UL safety standards. Both NEMA and UL standards areoften formulated on a consensus basis and shouldbeconsideredas minimal requirements. To be UL isted, a device is, sub-jected to a series of performance tests and a detailed reportwith photographs is prepared. Through discovery, an electro-forensic engineer may be able to obtain copies of such reports.The counterpart to Underwriters Laboratories in Canada is theCanadian Standards Association (CSA).The International Electrotechnical Commission has promul-gated electrical standards for many years. To date their stan-dards have not been a significant factor in litigation within the

United States. However, there are indications that this maychange in the future. In any event the electro-forensic en&neershould be aware of IEC standards, particularly f he has foreignclients.

Regardless of what standard is being used inan investigation,it is extremely important that the correct issue be used. Theissue or date of adoption should be applicable at the time ofinstallation of the electrical equipment and/or the date that theaccident occurred.EXCERPTSROMELECTEDASES

Often there is difficulty in sensing when and how a signifi-cant contribution can be made. If a case is simple, there is apossibility that no expert would be used as either a consultantor as an expert. Each case can have some twist that requiresan engineer to discern what really happened, with time be-comes a big factor-fEst there may be a long time gap be-tween the accident and when the consultant becomes involved,

and secondly there canbea time constraint in which to completehis analysis, adding pressure for developing a theory on whathas happened.One case concerned a defective attic furnace, in which theemphasis had been placed on determining whether the motorcapacitor had failed, thus starting a fire; or had the furnaceburned due to some external cause. Only after months was theinformation given to the expert that the occupants had guestsin the area in which the furnace operated. While the focus hadbeen on the electrical failure, it was obvious that if the capacitorhad failed during operation ere would have been smoke gen-erated and circulated in the heating system. Since no smokehad been observed, and the furnace fan had been working, thepossibility that another cause should be considered became aprobability. This illustrated how an expert must not only analyzethe suggested failure cause, but should try to look at the bigpicture, and examine what other cause there could be.Another case concerned how confused the user and otherscan become when exposed to 480 V arcing faults. The arcingfault on the system had been attributed to lack of protection bythe GFI. The question was further expanded to determiningwhether the GFI was even in the circuit at the time of the fault.In this case, a regulatory agency representative noted that theGFI was not connected, and the contractor defined the 480 VGFI as being sensitive to 5 milliamperes. As the case devel-oped, it became necessary to educate the attorney on the dif-ference between a GFI (actually a GFCI for Ground Fault Cir-cuit Interrupter) which is applied to 120/240V circuits, and aGFP (Ground Fault Protection) system which is applied to480 V systems and above. Once this hurdle was overcome,

there was agreement that on 480 V systems, the function ofthe GFP was primarily to protect equipment and thus couldnot protect a person to the same degree as the GFCI does on120V circuits. Despite even these differences in operation andmagnitude, the case was determined by how fast an arcingfault could develop into a destructive mode. To assist the ex-planation, the court permitted the use of a video of arcing faults,one of which showed an arc in 120V control wiring, then on a480 V bus, and finally how ordinary clothing reacted to an arcwhich flashed in a fraction of a second. Even though techni-cal agreement had been reached that the primary function ofthe GFP was not personnel protection, showing the videotapeto the court proved that the GFP system could not operate fastenough to limit the effects of an electric arc, whether phase toground or phase to phase.

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Fig. 2 Damaged CircuitBreaker Panelboard

A third case involves a residential fire resulting from aflashover within a circuit breaker panelboard. A repairman wasattempting to reset a 2 pole 40 ampere waffer type circuitbreaker feeding power to a 240 volt air condition condensingunit when he heard a loud noise from the circuit breakerpanelboard (service entrance) and noted sustained arcing.Figure 2 shows the extent of the damage to the panelboard. Atfirst appearance of the charred panelboard, it seemed that itwould be rather difficult to determine the exact cause of thefire. However, after careful examination, he manufacturer andcatalog number of the 40 ampere breaker was determined. Thenby obtaining and nspecting similar gray marketbreakers, itwas determined that this particular 40 ampere breaker did nothave proper insulation between poles, thus causing a 240 voltline-to-line flashover. The insulating barrier between poles wasa thin molded phenolic plastic plate. Phenolic material haspoor arc resistance and is combustible. The electro-forensicengineer presented his findings inadetailed engineering report.

When the report came to the attention of the circuit breakermanufacturer, the case was promptly settied out of court. Themanufacturer is no longer in the circuit breaker business.In many cases, the results of calculations for fault duty and

equipment and /or device ratings provide good clues as to whatdirection to take. There are instances where a utility hasincreased the fault duty on service to a customer, or where theprotective device had been initially applied to interrupt faultduty beyond its rating. Utilities will provide available faultcurrent magnitude if asked, but not too hastily, particularly ifthey are aware that litigation may be involved. The engineershould follow simple rules as he would in designing a distribu-tion system. For instance, a 2500 KVA transformer will de-liver 3,000A load current on a 3 phase 480V system, with afault current possibly up to 50,000or 60,000A. If this werelied, thebserved, and old ciengineer can be almo has beenapplied to interrupt a fault current beyond its rating. This wouldbe me for certain classes of fuses, as well. The importantconsideration is for the electro-forensic engineer to applycommon sense when seeking the cause of a failure.

ENGINEERINGND SAFETYRENDSDespite some tort reform, there is an increasing amount oflitigation involving electrical accidents. Thus the demand forqualified electro-forensic engineers is on the increase.Unfortunately, there are a number of hired guns participat-ing in frivolous suits that have pursued this demand. However,fortunately more qualified experts are emerging because ofhigher court requirements and the efforts of organizations such

as the National Academy of Forensic Engineers. Most quali-fied forensic engineers are registered professional engineers,ethical, independent, and unbiased in the application ofengineeringprinciple within the jurisprudence system.Yet morehas to be done in establishing guidelines or procedural stan-dards for forensic engineers to follow when investigating elec-trical accidents. The authors recommend that the main SafetyCommittee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society or oneof the IAS safety subcommittees take the initiative in estab-lishing such guidelines. Perhaps this emerging professionshould also be further addressed in the IEEE Color Book Se-nes, such as in the forthcoming IEEE Yellow Book.The electro-forensic engineer has both the opportunity andthe obligation to utilize his findings to improve safety for oth-ers. This can be done in a number of ways. For example, bybeing aware of certain accident(s), he can often make propos-

als to improve safety requirements of the National Electrical

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Code, or make recommendations to Underwriters Laboratoriesto improve their safety standard for a particular electrical prod-uct. He can also publish research articles that will assist otherforensic engineers or provide recommendations to reduce.elec-trical accidents. A good example of this is the late Ralph H.Lees excellent paper The Other Electrical Hazard: Electri-cal Arc Blast Burns.[13]

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E101The IEEE Color Book Series contains recommended prac-tices that go above minimum requirements, and are excellentpublications for promoting safety. Here too, electro-forensicengineers can make contributions by serving on Color Bookcommittees. It should be noted that the first principle stated inthe IEEE Buff Book is Safety has priority over servicecontinuity, equipment damage or economics ....... ngineersengaged in the design and operation of electrical system pro-tection should familiarize themselves with the most recentOSHA regulations and all other applicable codes andregulations relating to human safety. This often means going

beyond minimum code requirements to assure adequate safety.

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REFERENCES ~ 4 1E11

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M. M. Spector, National Academy of ForensicFacilities, Vol. 1, No. 3, August 1987National Electrical Code, NFPA 70, National FireProtection Association, Quincy, MAID. L. Goldberg, R. Castenschiold, The Designer ofIndustrial and Commercial Power Systems and CodeInterpretations, IEEE Transactions IndustryApplications, Vol. 29, No. 5 , Sept/Oct 1993Manual for Determination of Electrical Fire Causes,NFPA-907M, National Fire Protection Association,Quincy, MA (Withdrawnas ndividual document in 1995,elements included in NFPA-921)Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations, NFppL-921%NationalFire Protection Association, Quincy, MA (1995issue now includes elements of A-907M)EE E Recommended Practice for Electric PowerDistribution for Industrial Plants (RedBook), ANSUIEEEStandard 141-1993, Institute of Electrical andElectronics Engineers, New York, NYIEEE Recommended Practice for Electric PowerSystems in Commercial Buildings (Gray Book), ANSI/IEEE Standard 241-1990, Institute of Electsical andElectronics Engineers, New York, NYIEEE Recommended Practice for Power SystemsAnalysis (Brown Book), ANSUIEEE Standard 339-1990,Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, NewYork, NY

Engineers, Journal of Performance of Constructed ~151

EE E Recommended Practice for Protection andCoordination of Industrial and Commercial PowerSystems (Buff Book), ANSUIEEE Standard 242-1986,Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, NewYork, NYNational Electrical Safety Code, ,ANSUIEEE C2-1993,Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, NewYork, NYAmerican National Standard Institute Standard forCircuit Breakers (American National Standard InstituteC37) Transformers (American National StandardInstitute C57) ,Surge Protective Devices (AmericanNational Standard Institute C62) , nstitute of Electricaland Electronics Engineers, New York, NYCode of Federal Regulations, OSHA Standard 29 CFR1910 Subpart S-Electrical, U.S. Department of labor,Washington, DCR. H. Lee, The Other Electrical Hazard- lectricalArc Blast Bums, IEEE Conference Record IndustryApplications Society Annual meeting, No. IAS 81 : 19A,Oct. 1981K. R. Foster, D. E. Bernstein, P. W. Huber, Phantomentific Inference and the Law, The MITR. L. Doughty, R. A. Epperly, R. A. Jones, MaintainingSafe Electrical Work Practices in a CompetitiveEnvironment, E E ransactions Industry Applications,Vol;. 28, No. 1, Jan/Feb 1992

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electro forensic engineering an emerging profession

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