elearning for engineering students

A Model for Supporting Electrical Engineering

with e-Learning

Thesis submitted for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

at the University of Leicester

by

Dursun Akaslan

Department of Computer Science

University of Leicester

2014

i

Declaration

I, Dursun Akaslan, hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that it is the

result of work done mainly during the period of registration. To the best of my

knowledge, it contains no material previously published or written by another person

nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other

degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher learning, except where

due acknowledgement has been made in the text. Besides, parts of this submission

appeared in the following conjoint publications (listed chronologically), to each of

which I have made substantial contributions:

1. Akaslan, Dursun and Law, Effie Lai-Chong, Measuring Teachers Readiness for

E-learning in HEIs associated with the Subject of Electricity in Turkey, in

Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference

(EDUCON), Amman, Jordan, 2011.

2. Akaslan, Dursun, Law, Effie Lai-Chong and Taskin, Sezai, Analysing Issues for

Applying E-learning to the Subject of Electricity in Higher Education in Turkey,

in Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Engineering Education

(ICEE), Belfast, Northern Ireland, 2011.

3. Akaslan, Dursun and Law, Effie Lai-Chong, Measuring Student E-learning

Readiness: A Case about the Subject of Electricity in HEIs in Turkey, in

Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Web-based Learning

(ICWL), Hong Kong, China, 2011.

4. Akaslan, Dursun, Law, Effie Lai-Chong and Taskin, Sezai, Analysis of Issues

for Implementing E-learning: The Student Perspective, in Proceedings of the

2012 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON),, Marrakesh,

Morocco, 2012.

5. Akaslan, Dursun and Law, Effie Lai-Chong, Analysing the Relationship

between ICT experience and attitude toward e-learning, in Proceedings of the

2012 European Conference on Technology Enhanced Learning (EC-

TEL),Saarbrcken, Germany, 2012.

ii

Some of the publications given above are also, at the time of writing this thesis, cited

few times in other publications, thesis or proceedings in various languages such as

English, Turkish and Indonesian. Moreover, I published the following paper during my

PhD study.While it is not directly associated with my thesis,it helped me collect

information about HEIs associated with the field of electricity in Turkey.

6. Akaslan, Dursun and Law, Effie Lai-Chong, E-learning in the Science of

Electricity in HEIs in terms of Environment and Energy, in Proceedings of the

2010 Postgraduate Research Student Conference (EMUA),Nottingham, United

Kingdom, 2010.

iii

Dedication

I dedicate to my father, Mahir Akaslan, this thesis that he will never read. In the midst

of my thesis, he passed away due to a heart attack in April of 2011 in Erzurum in

Turkey at the age of 52 while he was driving with my mother. In the last seconds of his

life, he tried to put the handbrake on to make sure that my mother was safe.

There are or will not be enough words that I can use to describe how important my

father is to me and to the rest of my family. My father was a man who nurtured me,

taught me, dressed me, fought for me, held me, shouted at me, kissed me but most

importantly loved me unconditionally and always wanted the best for me. If you get

little benefits from this thesis, please send your thoughts and prayers to my father, by

either reciting Al-Fatihah (the opening) or the Ya-Sin from the Holy Quran.

Al-Fatihah

(The Opening)

In the name of Allah, the Gracious, the Merciful.

All praise belongs to Allah, Lord of all the worlds,

The Gracious, the Merciful,

Master of the Day of Judgment

Thee alone do we worship and Thee alone we implore for help.

Guide us in the right path

The path of those on whom Thou has bestowed Thy blessings, those who have not

incurred Thy displeasure and those who have not gone astray.

iv

Acknowledgements

First of all, I am grateful to the Turkish Government for sponsoring me to complete this

thesis, by covering my tuition fees and compulsory education expenses during my

academic studies in the United Kingdom.

Many thanks also go to the Department of Computer Science at the University of

Leicester, for providing me with a home in which to carry out my postgraduate

studies.Its facilities,especially the rich library, have been extremely valuable, and

without them this study would not have been possible.

I am extremely grateful to my supervisor Dr. Effie L-C Law whose support and

feedback helped me to complete this thesis successfully. She guided me from the

beginning, reading drafts of my chapters and commenting on them, and advising me on

my case studies to ensure that I collected good quality data for use in my analysis and

interpretation. I am also indebted to Prof. Dr. Rick Thomaswhose support and

suggestions helped me enhance the quality of this thesis. Towards the end of my thesis,

I could benefit from Prof. Dr. Thomas years of research and teaching experience.

I am also grateful to the teachers, Assoc. Dr. Sezai Taskin, Dr. Yalcin Ezginci and Dr.

Assoc. Dr. Bayram Akdemir for their involvement in the case study in which students

from their institutions volunteered to take part as well. I owe a considerable debt of

gratitude to the survey participants and interviewees from Turkey and the United

Kingdom.

Many friends and colleagues also deserve many thanks for helping me during the

process of data collection, analysis and writing up of this dissertation. I would like to

acknowledge a debt of gratitude that could never be repaid to my family. My dear wife,

Sariye Akaslan, and my little son, Tunay Akaslan, kept me motivated to get this thesis

finished and without their love, I could not have accomplished my study. Finally, I wish

to thank my parents for their morale support and giving me the strength and courage to

complete this thesis and my brothers and sister for their valuable recommendations and

support throughout this thesis.

v

Abstract

The overall goal of this research work was developing and evaluating a model for

supporting electrical engineering with e-learning. The model development was based on

the survey data collected from representative teachers and students in Turkey whereas

the model evaluation was conducted in the relevant HEIs in Turkey and the United

Kingdom. To develop the model, the study investigated the attitudes of representative

key stakeholders towards e-learning in Turkey by administrating questionnaires and

interviews with teachers and students. Then the responses of the teachers and students

were compared. Based on the results, I proposed a model with a multi-dimensional

approach to e-learning: (1) self-directed learning by studying e-book, (2) self-

assessment by solving e-exercises, (3) teacher-directed learning by attending classroom

sessions as an integral part of the blended learning (4) teacher-assessment by solving e-

exercises, (5) computer-directed learning by playing e-games and (6) computer-

assessment by solving e-exercises.

To evaluate the applicability of the model in different conditions, a case-control study

was conducted to determine whether the model had the intended effect on the

participating students in HEIs in Turkey and the United Kingdom. As the result of the

case-control study, the effects of e-learning, blended learning and traditional learning

were verified. However, there were significant differences among the groups. The

overall scores indicated that e-learning and blended learning was more effective as

compared to the traditional learning. The results of our study indicated that the

knowledge increase in e-learners seemed to be gradual because they tended to study

daily by completing each activity on time. However, the traditional learners did not

have the same pattern because they usually did not read the core text and did not solve

e-exercise regularly before the classroom sessions. The results of pre-placement, post-

placement tests and middle tests also justified these assumptions.

vi

Table of Contents

Declaration ......................................................................................................................... i

Dedication ........................................................................................................................ iii

Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... iv

Abstract ............................................................................................................................. v

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. vi

Abbreviations ................................................................................................................. xiii

Figures ........................................................................................................................... xiv

Tables .............................................................................................................................. xv

Equations ...................................................................................................................... xvii

PART I: FUNDAMENTALS ........................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 3

1.1 Background and Definitions .............................................................................. 3

1.2 Motivation of the thesis ...................................................................................... 5

1.3 Purpose of the thesis........................................................................................... 7

1.3.1 Development ............................................................................................... 9

1.3.2 Evaluation ................................................................................................... 9

1.4 Parameters of the thesis .................................................................................... 10

1.2.1 Reasons for selecting the domain of Electrical Engineering ......................... 10

1.2.2 Reasons for selecting Turkey and the United Kingdom ................................ 11

1.5 Research questions of the thesis ....................................................................... 12

1.6 Structure of the thesis ........................................................................................... 13

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................ 14

2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 14

2.2 Understanding E-learning ..................................................................................... 15

2.3.1 The First Interpretation: On-line Learning & Off-line Learning ................... 16

vii

2.3.2 The Second Interpretation: Asynchronous & Synchronous e-Learning ........ 16

2.3 Learning Theories ................................................................................................. 17

2.4 Theoretical Underpinning ..................................................................................... 19

2.4.1 Blended Learning ........................................................................................... 19

2.4.2 Game-based and Mobile Learning ................................................................. 21

2.4.3 Student- and Teacher-Centred Learning ........................................................ 22

2.4.4Open Learning ................................................................................................ 23

2.4.5 Distance Learning .......................................................................................... 24

2.4.6 Traditional Learning ...................................................................................... 25

2.4.7 Campus Learning ........................................................................................... 25

2.5 The History of e-Learning .................................................................................... 26

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY .................................................................................. 28

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 28

3.2 Research Methods Available in Education and Social Science ............................ 29

3.2.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Research .......................................................... 30

3.2.2 Mixed-Methods Research .............................................................................. 30

3.3 The Research Design Adopted for the Study ........................................................ 31

3.4 Research Methods used for the study ................................................................... 33

3.4.1 Web-based Questionnaire .............................................................................. 34

3.4.2 Semi-structured Interview .............................................................................. 46

3.5 Ethical Issues ........................................................................................................ 47

PART II: DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................................... 49

CHAPTER 4: FACTORS AFFECTING READINESS FOR E-LEARNING ............... 51

4.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 51

4.2 How to Measure Readiness for E-learning ...................................................... 52

4.2.1 Technology .................................................................................................... 54

4.2.2 People ........................................................................................................ 54

viii

4.2.3 Institution ....................................................................................................... 56

4.2.4 Content ........................................................................................................... 56

4.2.5 Acceptance ................................................................................................ 57

4.2.6Training ........................................................................................................... 58

CHAPTER 5: MEASURING TEACHERS E-LEARNING READINESS .................. 60

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 60

5.2 Methods ................................................................................................................ 60

5.2.1 Procedure ....................................................................................................... 60

5.2.2Missing Data ................................................................................................... 61

5.2.3 Research Group .............................................................................................. 62

5.2.4 Items ............................................................................................................... 62

5.4 Results and Discussion ......................................................................................... 64

5.4.1 Initial Findings using Descriptive Statistics .................................................. 64

5.4.2 Comparative Findings using Inferential Statistics ......................................... 71

CHAPTER 6: ANALYSING ISSUES FOR APPLYING E-LEARNING: THE

TEACHER PERSPECTIVE ........................................................................................... 80

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 80

6.2 Methods ................................................................................................................ 80

6.3. Findings ............................................................................................................... 81

6.3.1 What is E-learning? .................................................................................. 81

6.3.2 Issues and E-learning as a Solution .......................................................... 82

6.3.3 How to Implement E-learning .................................................................. 89

CHAPTER 7: MEASURING STUDENTS E-LEARNING READINESS .................. 93

7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 93

7.3Methodology .......................................................................................................... 93

7.3.1 Questionnaire Design ..................................................................................... 93

7.3.2Procedure ........................................................................................................ 94

ix

7.3.4 Items ............................................................................................................... 95

7.3.5 Missing Data .................................................................................................. 95

7.4 Results and Discussion ......................................................................................... 96

8.4.1 Findings in the Factor Technology ........................................................... 100

7.4.2 Findings in the Factor People .................................................................... 101

7.4.3 Findings in the Factor Institution .............................................................. 102

7.4.4 Findings in the Factor Content .................................................................. 102

7.4.5 Findings in the Factor Acceptance and Training .................................... 103

CHAPTER 8: ANALYSING ISSUES FOR APPLYING E-LEARNING: THE

STUDENT PERSPECTIVE ......................................................................................... 104

8.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 104

8.2 Methodology ....................................................................................................... 104

8.2.1 Procedure and Items ..................................................................................... 104

8.2.4 Research Group ............................................................................................ 105

8.3 Findings .............................................................................................................. 107

8.3.1 What is E-learning? ..................................................................................... 108

8.3.2 Current Issues .............................................................................................. 109

8.4.3 How to Implement E-learning ..................................................................... 116

CHAPTER 09: COMPARING THE TEACHER AND STUDENT PERSPECTIVES119

9.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 119

9.2 A Model for Measuring Attitudes towards E-learning ....................................... 119

9.2.1 Attitude towards E-learning ......................................................................... 120

9.2.2 Experience with ICT .................................................................................... 121

9.3 Items .................................................................................................................... 122

9.4 Results ................................................................................................................. 123

9.4.1 Results of the analysis of close-ended items ............................................... 123

9.4.2 Analysis of the open-ended item ................................................................. 126

x

9.5 A Model for Delivering E-learning .................................................................... 131

PART III: EVALUATION ......................................................................................... 134

CHAPTER 10: THE PROCEDURES FOR EVALUATION ...................................... 136

10.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 136

10.2 A Model for Delivering e-Learning .................................................................. 137

10.2.1 Stage 1: Getting Prepared at Home for the Class ...................................... 138

10.2.2Stage 2: Attending Lecture Sessions after Studying at Home .................... 139

10.2.3Stage 3: Playing e-Game after Attending Lecture ...................................... 140

10.3 A Model for Conducting a Case-Control Study ............................................... 141

10.4Selecting and Installing E-learning Platform ..................................................... 143

10.5Developing and Integrating E-learning Materials into the E-learning Platform 143

10.6 Training Students before implementing e-learning .......................................... 148

10.7Research Group .................................................................................................. 148

10.7.1 Sampling Method ....................................................................................... 149

10.7.2 Sampling Size ............................................................................................ 149

10.8Measuring E-learning Readiness ....................................................................... 151

10.9 Assessment Methods ......................................................................................... 152

CHAPTER 11: COMPARING THE E-LEARNING READINESS OF THE

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING STUDENTS IN TURKEY AND THE UK ............. 153

11.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 153

11.2 Research Group ................................................................................................. 153

11.3Initial Findings ................................................................................................... 154

11.4InferentialFindings ............................................................................................. 159

11.4.1Differences between e-Learners in Turkey and the UK ............................. 159

11.4.2 Differences between Blended Learners in Turkey and the UK ................. 160

11.4.3 Differences between Blended and e-Learners in Selcuk University ......... 161

11.4.4 Differences between Blended and e-Learners in Leicester University ...... 162

xi

CHAPTER 12: STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELLING .................................... 164

12.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 164

12.2The First Structural Equation Modelling ........................................................... 164

12.3 The Second Structural Equation Modelling ...................................................... 171

CHAPTER 13: EVALUATING E-LEARNING .......................................................... 178

13.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 178

13.2Results and Discussion ...................................................................................... 178

13.2.1 Measuring Students Knowledge at the Beginning of the Courses ........... 178

13.2.2Measuring Students Knowledge in the Middle of the Courses ................. 186

13.2.3Measuring Students Knowledge at the End of the Courses ...................... 190

CHAPTER 14: CONCLUSION ................................................................................... 197

14.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 197

14.2 Research Questions ........................................................................................... 197

14.2.1 Answer to Research Question 1 ................................................................. 197




14.2.5 Answer to Research Question 5 ................................................................ 200

14.3 Limitations ........................................................................................................ 201

14.3.1 Invitation of participants ............................................................................ 201

14.3.2 Limited timeframe for the participant availability ..................................... 202

14.3.3 The generalizability of results .................................................................... 202

14.4 Contributions .................................................................................................... 203

14.4.1 Finding Issues and Suggesting Solutions ................................................... 203

14.4.2 Identifying Factors Affecting Individuals Readiness for e-Learning ....... 204

14.5 Future Work ...................................................................................................... 205

14.5.1 Measuring Readiness for E-learning .......................................................... 205

xii

14.5.2 E-learning Materials .................................................................................. 205

14.5.3 Digital Educational Games ........................................................................ 206

References ..................................................................................................................... 207

Appendix I: Teacher Questionnaire .............................................................................. 219

Appendix II: Student Questionnaire ............................................................................. 225

xiii

Abbreviations

ICT Information and Communications Technology

e-Learning Electronic Learning

HEI(s) Higher Education Institution(s)

VLE Virtual Learning Environment(s)

TAM Technology Acceptance Model

OER Open Education Resources

SEM Structural Equation Modelling

xiv

Figures

Figure 1:Purpose of the study ........................................................................................... 8

Figure 2: The Conversational Framework ...................................................................... 18

Figure 3: Research Design adopted for the Study .......................................................... 32

Figure 4: An Assessment Model for Measuring Readiness for E-learning .................... 45

Figure 5: Ten factors of the concept readiness for e-learning ....................................... 53

Figure 6: Factors for Measuring Students Readiness for E-learning ............................ 58

Figure 7: Step-by-step for Implementing E-learning ...................................................... 90

Figure 8: Primary Issues in the respective HEIs ........................................................... 109

Figure 9: A Model for Measuring Attitudes for E-learning .......................................... 121

Figure. 10. A Model for the usage of different ICT for E-learning .............................. 121

Figure 11: A web-based approach for delivering e-learning ........................................ 133

Figure 12: A Model for Blended Learning ................................................................... 137

Figure 13: A Model for Case-Control Study ................................................................ 142

Figure 14: 16the Slide of the Presentations for Chapter 6 ............................................ 145

Figure 15: The Development of E-learning Materials .................................................. 146

Figure 16: Learning Outcomes of the Chapter 2 .......................................................... 147

Figure 17: Diagram representing a measurement model for the four-factor solution .. 169

Figure 18: The Input Path Diagram for a Structural Equation Modelling .................... 170

Figure 19: Diagram representing a measurement model for the six-factor solution .... 176

Figure 20: The Input Path Diagram for a Structural Equation Modelling .................... 177

Figure 21: A Circuit Design ......................................................................................... 190

Figure 22: Getting the Item (e.g. Star) .......................................................................... 192

Figure 23: Getting the Knowledge after the Item ......................................................... 193

xv

Tables

Table 1: HEIs associated with the Subject of Electricity in Turkey in 2010 .................. 35

Table 2: HEIs associated with the Subject of Electricity in Turkey ............................... 36

Table 3: Subgroups of the respective HEIs in Turkey .................................................... 36

Table 4: Working Status of teaching staff in the respective HEIs in Turkey ................. 37

Table 5: Qualitative research questions included in the Interview Schedule ................. 46

Table 6: Overall Summary of Missing Values ............................................................... 62

Table 7: List of Items of the Teacher E-readiness Survey .............................................. 63

Table 8:Statisticsof all the items in the study ................................................................. 65

Table 9:The overall mean score of the participants responses for each factor .............. 66

Table 10: Statistics for the items for Gender Differences .............................................. 74

Table 11: Results of University Financial Mode Differences ........................................ 77

Table 12: List of item identifier, content and number of participants (N) ...................... 81

Table 13:The frequencies and percentage of research groups ........................................ 95

Table 14: Overall Summary of Missing Values ............................................................. 96

Table 15: List of Items of the Student E-readiness Survey Part I................................ 97

Table 16: List of Items of the Student E-readiness Survey Part II .............................. 98

Table 17: Scores of all the items in the study ................................................................. 99

Table 18: The overall mean score of the participants responses for each factor ......... 100

Table 19: List of item identifier, content and number of participants .......................... 106

Table 20: Characteristics of Participants ...................................................................... 107

Table 21: Items of individual experiences with ICT and attitudes towards e-learning 122

Table 22:Statistics for the Items related to each factor ................................................. 123

Table 23. The mean score of the participants with various experience ........................ 125

Table 24. The relationship between e-learning and ICT .............................................. 126

Table 25. The relationship views and attitudes towards e-learning .............................. 128

Table 26: Book Chapters .............................................................................................. 145

Table 27: The number of participants in Turkey and the UK ....................................... 150

Table 28: The number of participants in Leicester and Selcuk University .................. 151

Table 29: Number, Mean and Standard Deviation of Items ......................................... 154

Table 30: Statistics for the items related to all factors .................................................. 156

Table 31: Statistics for each sub-factor of the factor traditional skills ......................... 158

Table 32: Statistics of e-Learners for factors in e-learning readiness ........................... 159

xvi

Table 33: Statistics of e-Learners for each factor ......................................................... 160

Table 34: Statistics of Selcuk University for Blended and Electronic Learners .......... 162

Table 35: Statistics of Leicester University for Blended and Electronic Learners ....... 163

Table 36: Statistics for the Suitability of the data ......................................................... 165

Table 37: Identifying the Number of Factors ............................................................... 166

Table 38: Pattern Matrix for PCA with Oblimum Rotation of 14-Factor Solution ...... 167

Table 39: Statistics for the Suitability of the data ......................................................... 171

Table 40: Identifying the Number of Factors ............................................................... 172

Table 41: Pattern Matrix for PCA with Oblimum Rotation of 14-Factor Solution ...... 173

Table 42: Structure Matrix for PCA with Oblimum Rotation of 14-Factor Solution ... 174

Table 43: Sample Questions for Topic 5 ( Multi-dimensional Arrays) ........................ 180

Table 44: The Results of Pre-Placement Test for Turkey and United Kingdom ......... 182

Table 45: The Results of Pre-Placement Test for Selcuk and Leicester University .... 184

Table 46: The result of the Quiz for Turkey and United Kingdom ............................. 187

Table 47: The rate of increment or decrement on students learning .......................... 188

Table 48: Post-Placement Tests for Turkey and United Kingdom .............................. 195

Table 49: The rate of increment or decrement on students learning .......................... 196

xvii

Equations

Equation 1: Start Equation for the Sample Size ............................................................. 40

Equation 2: End Equation for the Teacher and Student Sample Size ............................. 41

1

PART I:

FUNDAMENTALS

Fundamentals of Thesis with the Background,

Purpose and Research Questions

2

Part I starts this thesis off with the fundamentals of the thesis,

spanning Chapters 1,2 and 3.

It begins with the definition of the term e-learning, providing a list of

rationales behind this thesis, a detailed explanation of the purpose of

the thesis, and the research questions in the thesis. It also presents a

discussion of why two countries, Turkey and the United Kingdom,

and the domain of Electrical Engineering were chosen for the study.

It provides a literature review on e-learning, providing various

interpretations on e-learning, examining learning theories and

providing a list of types of learning. Additionally, it concludes with a

research design, describing procedures, collecting, analysing,

interpreting and reporting the survey data.

IN THIS PART

Chapter 01

Introduction

Chapter 02

Literature Review

Chapter 03

Methodology

3

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and Definitions

Information and communications technology (ICT) or shortly technology has important

implications for education in addition to their widespread impact on contemporary

society and economies(Martn-Rodrguez, et al., 2014). The impact of ICT can be

vividly seen on several aspects of todays education. For instance, Steffens (2008)

highlights that the use of ICT in the classroom has had some influence on how we think

about the roles of teachers and students. According to Laurillard (2007), the impact of

ICT creates a new kind of medium for the discovery, articulation and dissemination of

knowledge and therefore affect the knowledge learned and skills developed within a

culture or society. Because this new kind of medium brings two disciplines of

technology and education together, the number of studies aiming to find out how to

bring these two fields together is ever increasing. However, the key idea in bringing

technology and education together is to take advantages of technology in learning the

knowledge and in developing skills.

On the other hand, many ambiguous terms are used to name the integration of

technology into education. Therefore, terminology is also another detail that differs.

Some authors such as (Steffens, 2008), (Laurillard, 2008)and (Rodrguez, et al.,

2012)refer to the term technology-enhanced learning (TEL) when technology is used to

support teaching and learning. Additionally, Kirkwood and Price (2014) state that the

term TEL is increasingly being used in the UK, Europe and other parts of the world in

order to refer to the application of ICT to teaching and learning. Moreover, Guri-

Rosenblit and Gros (2011) notes that TEL subsumes the older term e-learning because

the term e-learning is used with with a confusing variety of meanings. Hovever, like the

term e-learning, Kirkwood and Price (2014)also adds that there are no explicit

statements about what TEL actually means due to the use of the word enhanced in the

term TEL. On the other hand, the terms technology-enhanced learning and e-learning

are used interchangeably. The Higher Education Academy (HEA) and the Joint

Information Systems Committee (JISCS) used the terms e-learning and technology-

enhanced learning together interchangeably in their recent reports.

4

For instance, the expressions such as e-learning, also known as technology-enhanced

learning and technology-enhanced learning, also known as e-learning appeared in

the recent report of the HEA. Similarly, the expression e-learning=enhanced learning

was also used in publications of the JISC. In addition, there are explicit statements

about what e-learning and technology-enhanced learning mean in those reports.

According to the recent report of HEA, e-learning is concerned with computer

technologies to support learning, whether that learning is local or remote (HEA, 2014).

To note here, the word local is used to refer to the use of computer technologies on

campus and the word remote to the use of those at home or in the workplace. On the

other hand, the JISC defines e-learning as learning supported and facilitated through the

use of ICT (JISC, 2004).

The JISC also notes that the technology used to facilitate and support learning may

involve the use of some specific hardware (e.g. computers, interactive whiteboards,

digital cameras & mobile phones) and software (e.g.assistive software, email,

discussion boards, video conferencing, virtual learning environments & learning activity

management systems). Hovewer, devices such as smartphones and tablets are also

becoming popular devices. In sum, the term technology-enhanced learning tend to be

admitted as a generic term for the use of technologyto support education. Hovever, the

term e-learning is used as a more specific term. Especially, the use of the Internet is the

key part of e-learning. Therefore, in the thesis, I use the term electronic learning or

shortly the word e-learning to work out the optimal technologies for the educational

problems and to consider the opinions of teachers and students in this research study.

Especially, the use of the word electronic is important for the ideas about education

and technology that are discussed and implemented in the thesis because I believe that it

carries the components of collaboration across disciplines of technology and education

in the context of my thesis.

5

1.2 Motivation of the thesis

The role of technology in learning especially e-learning has been high-profile topics in

academic and practitioner publications for some years. Additionally, a number of

organizations are charged with supporting education and research through the

innovative use of ICT such as JISC in the United Kingdom. For instance, one of the

eight core themes of JISC work is that of e-learning (Anderson, 2008). Moreover, there

are many motivations behind the integration of technology into education by

organizations and individuals in the realm of e-learning. These motivations can be

exemplified as pedagogical considerations, the drive for innovation, meeting the needs

of students and maintaining a competitive profile (Weller, 2004). Laurillard also adds

that concerns about how to use new technologies to support education is also another

motivation behind the use of technological opportunities in education(Laurillard, 2008).

Therefore, the development of e-learning products and the provision of e-learning

opportunities is one of the most rapidly expanding areas in education and training

especially at the level of higher education around the world according to (Attwell,

2006)and (Yucel, 2006). Therefore, the number of studies aiming to find out how to

implement e-learning in HEIs is ever increasing due to its potential benefits and claimed

drawbacks. Different benefits claimed for e-learning can be identified. Tangible

benefits of e-learning can be listed based on the final report of the Higher Education

Academy (HEA), Association for Learning Technology (ALT),the Joint Information

Systems Committee (JISC) and the works of authors who actively carry out research in

e-learning as follows(Ferrell, et al., 2007),(Mackeogh & Fox, 2009), (Yamamoto &

Aydn, 2009):

timely as it gives reduction in time associated with marking and development of

subsequent activities.

cost effective as it provides significant reduction in delivery cost and e-assessment

because automated marking takes seconds rather than hours in addition to

immediate savings in printing costs.

achievement as it offers increased opportunities in terms of student retention and

actively involvement in learning.

consistent as everyone gets the same standard content;

6

easy to track as it facilitates registration, monitoring of learning progress, testing

and record-keeping;

empowering as it allows learners to regulate their learning pace;

interactivity as students are part of learning by practicing, analysing data and

performing task;

economy as it saves expenses such as transportation, accommodation,

complementary materials and commuting between home and university;

flexibility as there is no need for a tutor to be available throughout the entire

process;

productivity as it can be adjusted and tailored to the needs of organizations and

individuals;

However, despite the benefits of e-learning, some researchers such as(Chapnick,

2000)(Anderson, 2002) and (Bean, 2003)propose that e-learning should be implemented

very carefully due to its potential drawbacks. Potential drawbacks of e-learning are also

claimed by (Pollard & Hillage, 2001)(Bean, 2003)(Trinidad & Pearson, 2004) and

(Aydin & Tasci, 2005)as follows:

costly as conducting e-learning without careful planning most likely ends with cost

overruns;

technology dependent as it needs access to appropriate hardware and software;

unsuitability as it is not suitable for some soft skills development relying on

interpersonal contact and as it require high levels of self-discipline and self-

motivation;

incompatibility as it sometimes not compatible with other systems and material;

expensive as the cost of developing content and providing the essential

infrastructure is high;

dependency as it still dependent on human support such as management support and

the use of the software.

7

Nevertheless, many of the potential drawbacks might be minimized with careful

planning as creating implementation standards to deal with incapability of organizations

and providing training for individuals to overcome their lack of requisite skills.

However, the main rationale behind those researchers warnings is mainly associated

with the fact that e-learning may not have the same effect for every individual,

institution, organization or country. In sum, it is important to integrate e-learning into

education carefully in order to take advantages of technology in learning the knowledge

and in developing skills. As a result, many institutions and individuals embrace e-

learning for delivering education as it potentially offers different benefits.

1.3 Purpose of the thesis

There are no clear methodologies and ways of thinking to bring the disciplines of

technology and education as they mutually challenge each other according to

(Laurillard, 2007). In addition, Chartlon et al.higlight that technology in education adds

another dimension to creating knowledge products captured in learning designs and

lesson plans because teachers need to know when, how and what technology to apply,

and to understand the impact of taking such a challange due to the availabilty of a

variety of tools in technology(Chartlon, et al., 2012).Therefore, it is important to

understand what technology offers and what education needs to develop clear

methodologies and ways of thinking to bring these two research fields.It is also noted

that education has problems and technology has solutions looking for

problems(Laurillard, 2008). For instance, broadband technology is a solution for

students at a distance from the university campus because it allows those students to

have similar access to resources, multimedia and fast downloads as students using

terminals on campus(Mason & Rennie, 2004).However, it is also argued that the

solutions especially new technologies offer are solutions to problems that education

does not have(Laurillard, 2008). It is therefore important to make sure these two-

research fields technology and education fit and this complementarity fuels clear

methodologies to bring together technology and education to take advantages of

technology in learning the knowledge and in developing skills.

8

In this regard, it is crucial to analyse the educational problems and use this analysis to

identify the solutions from what technology offers because integrating technology in

education is not only a technical matter (Rodrguez, et al., 2012).Moreover, it is

important to work out the optimal technologies for the educational problems and to

consider the educational enterprise from the point of view of teachers and students

because they are at the centre of the educational problems. Additionally, it is important

to note here that teachers attempting to integrate technology into their teaching also face

a variety of challenges in todays classrooms (Cowan, 2008). Such challenges are not

only associated with the use of technology but they also related to the identification of

many factors such as pedagogical approaches and beliefs, teacher confidence, attitudes,,

and skills relating to ICT, school ICT infrastructure, supervision and technical support,

involvement and leadership of school principals and time spent by teachers on meetings,

training, exercises and lesson planning (Rodrguez, et al., 2012). Mor and Winters

summarize that the integration of technology into education is a challenge because it

addresses many issues ranging from learning theory to software engineering(Mor &

Winters, 2007).In the light of the foregoing arguments, the purpose of this study is two-

fold as illustrated in Figure 1namely development and evaluation.

Evaulatingthe Model for

Supporting Electrical

Engineering

Developing a Model for

Supporting Electrical

Engineering

Figure 1:Purpose of the study

9

1.3.1 Development

First, I aim to develop a model for supporting electrical engineering with e-learning. To

achieve this, I aim to carry out studies to find out how to bring technology and

education in order to support electrical engineering with e-learning. The model

development is based on the survey data collected from representative teachers and

students in Turkey. To develop the model, I aim to investigate the attitudes of

representative key stakeholders towards e-learning by administrating questionnaires and

interviews with teachers and students in higher education institutions (HEI) associated

with the subject of electricity in Turkey. In this way, I believe that I can analyse the

educational problems in the domain of electrical engineering from the point of view of

teachers and students and then use this analyse to identify the solutions from what e-

learning may offer.

1.3.2 Evaluation

Second, I aim to evaluate the model to find out whether it works in higher education

institutions in Turkey by addressing the needs of the domain of electrical engineering.

To evaluate the model, I aim to conduct a case-control study with students to find out

whether the model has had the intended effect on participating students in HEI

associated with the domain of electrical engineering in Turkey. Additionally, I aim to

evaluate the applicability of the model in the United Kingdom in addition to Turkey to

find out whether the model works in a different situation. Moreover, I would like

highlight that I decided to implement e-learning in Turkey and the United Kingdom

given the resources and time available. Due largely to the use of different languages in

HEIs in other countries, it is not possible to survey the attitudes of students and teachers

towards e-learning within the limited time of this PhD study. In this way, I could focus

on the quality of research. By developing and evaluating such a model, I could evaluate

whether and to what extent the actual benefits of e-learning would be applicable in the

domain of electrical engineering.

10

1.4 Parameters of the thesis

1.2.1 Reasons for selecting the domain of Electrical Engineering

The field of electrical engineering was chosen for the study as existing literature clearly

points out that the related knowledge and skills are important to almost every aspect of

human lives and any research to enhance education in the field is worthwhile(Prasad,

2009). For example, the field of electrical engineering play a crucial role in both

developing and developed countries as it enhances productivity throughout the economy

if those countries want to compete successfully in dissemination of rapid economic and

technological change (Middleton, et al., 1991). In this regard, electrical engineering is

quite common in target and other countries and the students of this field fairly find their

first job with ease because students gain a wide scope of knowledge during their studies

such as control, communication and energy. Moreover, students can work in most of

countries because the laws of electrical engineering are universal. Additionally, students

from this field graduate with high computer skills as they face with computer problems

every day.

Furthermore, rapid changes in electrical and electrical engineering comparing with other

subjects are observed and there are various modules in this field that students have to

achieve. It is therefore valuable to introduce e-learning into HEIs associated with the

subject of electricity in order to stimulate innovations. Moreover, the support and

resources needed for running courses in electrical engineering are also quite different

from those for other disciplines, because both theory and practice play an important role

in electrical engineering. For instance, throughout this research study, I found that

teachers and students in this field have concerns about how e-learning might help to

enhance education in electrical engineering because the field aims to increase the

practical skills of students. However, the majority of models proposed address the needs

of organizations and HEIs that do not involve practices such as lab experiments.

Moreover, I examined the annual statistics of the Higher Education Council in Turkey

to find out about studies with keywords such as e-learning, online learning or electronic

learning in their titles or subtitles. It indicates that the first thesis about e-learning was

published in 2002 and then 96 more theses followed until 2013.

11

However, only three of them were in the context of electrical engineering in Turkey,

though none of them were about development and evaluation of an e-learning model in

the context of e-learning. However, there is a need to carry out more research on e-

learning in this domain to bring new innovations in this field and help this field to deal

with the new advancements in electrical engineering.

1.2.2 Reasons for selecting Turkey and the United Kingdom

The second goal of this research study is to evaluate the model in order to find out

whether it works by addressing the needs of the domain of electrical engineering in

Turkey. To meet this aim, I planned to evaluate the e-learning model in HEIs associated

with the subject of electricity based on the empirical studies in Turkey. In addition to

Turkey, I also aimed to evaluate the applicability of the final model in a different

situation namely in the United Kingdom. These two countries were chosen for the

implementation of the empirical studies of this project because they exemplified

different conditions for e-learning such as the instructional language, infrastructures and

general attitudes towards educational technologies; the related variables were evaluated

with the tools developed such as surveys and e-courses.

By evaluating the model in Turkey and then in the United Kingdom, I aimed to contrast

those countries in terms of a developed and developing country. Due largely to the use

of different languages in HEIs in other countries , it is not possible to survey the

attitudes of students and teachers towards e-learning within the limited time of this PhD

study. Therefore, I planned to investigate the attitudes of different stakeholders

especially teachers and learners towards e-learning in electrical engineering in Turkey.

After the appearance of the final model, I decided to implement e-learning in Turkey

and the United Kingdom given the resources and time available. In this way, I could

focus on the quality of research. By developing and evaluating such a model, I could

evaluate whether and to what extent the actual benefits of e-learning would be

applicable in the domain of electrical engineering.

12

1.5 Research questions of the thesis

This thesis aimed to analyse the educational problems in the domain of electrical

engineering and use this analyse to identify the solutions from what e-learning offers

from the point of view of teachers and students and then evaluate the final model in

Turkey and the United Kingdom to examine whether it works. To achieve this aim, the

research question has important status. Several writers in research methods such

as(Flick, 1998), (Mason, 2002)and (Creswell, et al., 2003)and (Cohen, et al.,

2007)emphasized the importance of research questions. The research question is viewed

as the critical part of research process because it helps the researcher link his (or her)

literature review to the kinds of data that will be collected (Bryman, 2007). Therefore, I

seek answers to several questions based on the systematic literature review and

discussions among me and my supervisors.

What factors put a barrier into the readiness of teachers and learners towards e-

learning in higher education institutions (HEI) associated with the subject of

electricity in Turkey?

What criteria should be used to select an e-learning platform before embarking

on e-learning in the domain of electrical engineering?

How should e-learning materials should be developed to support electrical

engineering in terms of the point of view of teachers and students in higher

education institutions associated with the subject of electricity in Turkey?

How should students be trained in order to get them ready for e-learning in the

domain of electrical engineering?

Is there any significant difference between e-learning, blended learning and

traditional learning in the domain of electrical engineering in Turkey and the

United Kingdom?

13

1.6 Structure of the thesis

This thesis is organized in three parts, including 14 chapters. Part I, Fundamentals,

begins with Chapter 1, discussing the purpose of the thesis and provides information

about the background of the thesis. It continues with Chapter 2 providing a literature

review on e-learning and concludes with Chapter 3 with explanations of procedures for

collecting, analysing, interpreting and reporting data.

Based on the purpose of the thesis, I divided the rest of the thesis in two parts:

development and evaluation. Part II starts with Chapter 4, Developing an e-Learning

Model, the largest section of the thesis. Chapter 4 reports the analyses of the factors that

might affect the readiness of organizations or individuals and describes a conceptual

framework for measuring different stakeholders in HEIs, especially those associated

with the subject of electricity. Chapter 5, 6, 7 and 8 report the analyses of the survey

data in Turkey. Chapter 9 presents the development of a model for delivering e-

learning by comparing the perspectives of students and teachers in Turkey.

Chapter 10 opens Part III, Evaluating the E-learning Model, with a chapter that

provides procedures for evaluating the model for e-learning based on the empirical

studies in Turkey and the UK. Chapter 11 and 12 report the measurement concerning

the readiness of students in Turkey and the UK and develop various structural equation

models. Chapter 13 describes a case-study conducted to assess the pedagogical value of

e-learning using a web-based, campus-based and mix mode of these approaches. It

concludes with Chapter 14, summarizing the key points of the thesis and answering the

research questions.

14

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

e-Learning as a research field is interdisciplinary because it brings together two reseach

fields, technology and education Therefore, it is highly important to develop clear

methodologies and ways of thinking that define the disciplines of technology and

education. To develop clear methodologies and ways of thinking, the focus has to be

pedagogy as Laurillard pointed(Laurillard, 2007). She notes that we have to focus on

what the pedagogy requires rather than what technology offers because technology

offers a range of different ways of engaging learners in development of the knowledge

and skills. In addition, theories of learning are there to guide our approach to providing

what pedagogy needs.

Therefore, it is important to focus on the learners and teachers to find out what they

need because they are in the act of learning. In this way, we can develop clear methods

and activites of learning through e-learning. Therefore, I believe that I have to carry out

a literature review about e-learning to find out what it offers in terms of technology.

That is to say, I aim to understand the use of the word electronic in the term electronic

learning. Second, as theories of learning are there to guide our approach to providing

clear methods and activites of learning, I will examine learning theories. Finally, I will

include a discusssion on wider range of concepts including blended learning, game-

based learning and flipped classrom because I believe they could be a theoretical

underpinning for the ideas about the use of e-learning that I discuss and implement in

the thesis.

15

2.2 Understanding E-learning

The term e-learning stands for electronic learning and usually used to refer to any use of

technology (e.g. computers) to learn (Donnelly, et al., 2012). However, there are many

ways to define the term e-learning because there are a variety of related terms that are

used interchangeably because of the word electronic in the term. The JISC defines e-

learning as learning supported and facilitated through the use of ICT (JISC, 2004). That

is to say, the word electronic in the term e-learning in considered as ICT in the report of

JISC. Hovever, JISCS also limits the use of ICT to specific hardware and software.

The word software is used to refer to the use of applications namelyassistive

software, email, discussion boards, video conferencing, virtual learning environments &

learning activity management systems and the word hardware to the use of tools

namely computers, interactive whiteboards, digital cameras & mobile phones. In a

simalr way, e-learning is defined in the report of the Higher Education Academy as

computer technologies to support learning, whether that learning is local or remote

(HEA, 2014). That is to say, the word electronic stands for computer technologies in the

report HEA.

As seen, as technology, the word electronic in the term e-learning offers a range of

different ways of engaging learners in development of the knowledge and skills such as

computer, mobile phone, interactive white boards, digital cameras, email, video

conferencing, etc. Therefore, the term e-learning is considered as really just an umbrella

term because it comprises all forms of electronically supported learning. Therefore,

many terms such as e-learning, open, distance, online learning and so on are used

interchangeably, though they have important differences. I believe that it is useful to

interpret different technologies as the synonym of e-learning such as online learning and

offline learning.

16

2.3.1 The First Interpretation: On-line Learning & Off-line Learning

The term online learning is commonly used as the synonym of e-learning, though it

does not represent the whole characteristics of e-learning. The word online is

frequently used to describe products, services, or information that can be bought or used

on the Internet. Moore et al. questioned whether e-learning and online learning are the

same(Moore, et al., 2010). They found that there are differences between the two terms

and those differences also vary from continent to continent in terms of their usage.

Oblinger & Oblinger distinguished online learning from e-learning and described online

learning as wholly online learning(Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005). According to Oblinger

et al (ibid), some other authors (e.g. (Benson, 2002; Carliner, 2004; Conrad,

2002)described online learning as access to learning experiences via the use of some

technologies.

2.3.2 The Second Interpretation: Asynchronous & Synchronous e-Learning

The term asynchronous and synchronous e-learning are also commonly used to

differentiate some characteristics of e-learning. The word asynchronous is used to

describe something that is not happening or done at the same time or speed opposite

to the word synchronous. Hrastinski (2008) noted that e-learning mainly relied on

asynchronous means for teaching and learning but the recent improvements in

technology have led to the growth of synchronous e-learning(Hrastinski, 2008). The

term synchronous e-learning is defined as synchronous learning that takes place live and

real-time. However, it differs from synchronous learning such as lectures, product

demonstrations and other knowledge dispersal activities because synchronous e-

learning takes place through electronic means (Hyder, et al., 2007). Besides, Lado

(2008) pointed out that synchronous e-learning, which takes place live, can help

students overcoming geographical barriers(Lado, 2008). According to both Lado (ibid)

and Hyder et al. (2007), I interpret the term synchronous e-learning as learning that

takes places live through electronic means but it is independent of space. Technologies

used for asynchronous e-learning are usually categorized as instant messaging, live

webcasting, audio and video conferencing (Hyder, et al., 2007).

17

However, it should be noted that examples given above do not imply that synchronous

e-learning takes place only via the Internet. Radio and TV programmes that take place

live and real-time have also been successful means of synchronous learning. Besides,

synchronous e-learning might also happen in the classroom through the use of

whiteboard and slides. However, there is also a need to clarify the term asynchronous e-

learning in order to differentiate it from synchronous e-learning. The term asynchronous

e-learning is defined as learning that happens independent of time and space (Lado,

2008). It is distinguished from synchronous e-learning because students access

intermittently on demand rather than continuously (Hyder, et al., 2007). A discussion

forum can be a good example of asynchronous e-learning. For example, a student can

post a message and another student or teacher can comment on the posting hours or

days later. Other examples for asynchronous e-learning might be listed as documents

and web pages, e-mail, podcasting, DVDs and CDs, recorded events and so on.

2.3 Learning Theories

e-Learning is about the use of technology to support learning especially with the use of

the Internet. Therefore, learning through technology play an important role in creating

an effective and adaptable learning environment when referring to e-learning. As I

mentioned above, terms such as e-learning, online learning and so on are used

interchangeably, though they have important differences. However, the word learning

is the most important factor shared by all of them and central to each of them (Race,

2005). Therefore, it is important to understand theories of learning as they are there to

guideour approach to providing what learners and teachers need. Theories of learning

involve the several aspects of the learning process. For instance, Diana Laurillard and

her colleagues examined learning theories in deatail to find out about the aspects of

learning process such as the relationship between teacher and learner, and between

theory and practice as illustrated inFigure 2.In the framework, the teacher is represented

in dialogue with a learner and each learner in dialogue with other learners. The

framework also characterizes the learning process as a serious of activities by teachers

and learners, cycling between theory and practice and theory, between teacher and each

learner and between and among learners.

18

Figure 2: The Conversational Framework

MellOw, et al.(2011) describe the conversational framework in terms of learning

theoris: first, a didactic form of teaching and learning appears when a teacher presents

ideas and the learner asks questions(MellOw, et al., 2011). The second theory in the

framework isthe social constructivism that learners needsto discuss, debate and

negotiate ideas. On the othear hand, learning through collaboration occurs when

learners work in partnership to share the outputs of thear practice. Hovever, to actualize

constructionism, learners need to use their ideas to achieve a goal in a practice

environment. As mentioned above, theories of learning indicate the several different

aspects of the learning process. However, MellOw, et al. (2011) point out that the

education community knows about learning theories but they does not always apply this

knowledge. For instance, the didactic form of teaching and learning is still considered as

the dominant pedagogy for engineering education despite the large body of education

research advocates other approaches (Mills & F.Treagust., 2003). In addition, Weller

(2004) notes that transferring teaching approach from one medium to another is not

effective(Weller, 2004). For instance, there are a variety of pedagogical reasons about

the ineffectiveness of the standard lecture hall like an online teaching hall. For these

reasons, many educators find themselves adapting their approach. Therefore, it is

important to apply learning theories in practice.

19

2.4 Theoretical Underpinning

There are no clear methodologies and ways of thinking to bring the disciplines of

technology and education (Laurillard, 2007). However, there are some theoretical

underpinning for the ideas about learning and teaching technology. For example, game-

based learning is suggested for purely for motivational reasons but there is a literature

of game-based learning that draws theories such as situated learning; constructivism;

social constructivism and scaffolding. Similarly, much literature about online learning

also includes conversational approaches to learning.

2.4.1 Blended Learning

It is important for higher education to find effective and flexible delivery models to

provide all students with more convenient access to quality learning experiences rather

than using the traditional learning alone (George-Walker & Keeffe, 2010). On the other

hand, blended learning has been proposed one important solution to address both

student learning and higher education organisational needs (Macdonald, 2008). The

most common understanding from the term blended learning still seems to be that

blended learning mixes different deliver modes, especially online and face-to-face

teaching. However, the use of the term blended learning is growing and this growing

causes the term to lose all its meaning (Mason, 2005; Hofmann, 2006; Torrisi-Steele &

Drew, 2013).

According to Mason (2005),the term blended learning is amorphous term because it can

be theoretically applied to almost any learning situation because the word blended in

blended learning can be anything such as the technologies, teaching methods, the

learning experiences of the students or the location of the learning events. For instance,

Mason and Rennie (2004) note that broadband technology allows students at a distance

from the university campus to have similar access to resources. multimedia and fast

downloads as students using terminals on campus. As the definitions and the

understandings of the term blending learning are many, a literature search by Torrisi-

Steele & Drew (2013) was undertaken using Thomas Reuters Web of Knowledge

citation database in order to gain better understanding of academics design and

implementation of blended learning.

20

Key findings from this literature search points that the case and student focus studies

about blending learning are undeniably useful and necessary. However, Torrisi-Steele &

Drew (2013) also note that professional development and support are needed to

formulate the appropriate strategies to facilitate academics effective implementation of

blending learning, especially in the integration of technology and transformation of

practice. However, blended learning in practice involves the use of ICT to traditional

learning and hence mixes different delivery modes (Verkroost, et al., 2008). Therefore,

researchers should search for the most appropriate combination of blended learning in

higher education (George-Walker & Keeffe, 2010). Nowadays, a number of different

modes of blended learning appear in higher education such as flipped classroom.

Flipped classroom (also called flipped teaching) is known as a form of blended learning

in which students start learning at home and then continue in class with teachers and

with other students.

Hughes (2007) highlights that the flipped classroom is a pedagogical concept and

method that replaces the standard lecture-in-class format because students have

opportunities to review, discuss, and explore course content with the teacher and other

students in class. Hughes also notes that there are many ways that a classroom can be

flipped. However, the most common way to apply the flipped classroom approach is to

encourage students to view the recorded lectures or read course materials outside of

class and then meet to engage in problem solving, discussion, and practical application

exercises with their instructor and other students inside of class. However, students in

traditional approaches do not have such opportunities because the teacher plays the role

of information conveyor, while the students assume a receiver role with primary

responsibilities of listening and note-taking(Zappe, et al., 2009). However, it is also

important to note here that the instructor may apply various teaching styles in higher

education but time constraints limit their teaching style to the traditional lecture format

(Lage, et al., 2000). However, the flipped classroom approach can encourage students

learning in both outside- and inside of class. Strategies for flipping classroom outside of

class and inside of class may vary.

21

Hughes (2007) suggests that moving the lecture out of the classroom may involve

selecting course content, deciding the organization of content, choosing multimedia to

deliver content, creating materials and making the materials available to students.

Moreover, strategies for in-class may involve answering students questions at the

beginning of class, facilitating individual or group activities and summarizing key

points. For instance, Zappe et al (2009) used iTunesU to post video-records of lecture

material with supplemental content to allow greater time for in-class problem solving

and increase the opportunity for increased teacher-student interaction. However, it is

highly important to note that there is no single model for the flipped classroom

approach because the term is used to describe almost any class structure that provides

strategies for learning outside and inside of class. As short video lectures are widely

used for students views at home, broadband technology plays an important role in the

flipped classroom approach. Hence, the focus should be on models for supporting

learning with e-learning.

2.4.2 Game-based and Mobile Learning

Game-based learning is a new concept. However, Liu, et al. (2014) note that there is

little agreement as to the definitions of a game because many terms such as games,

computer games and video games are used interchangeably. Digital games are initially

designed for the mass market as a form of entertainment with few educational

connections. As gaming has grown in popularity and become a defining characteristics

of young learning, digital games have also gained increasing interest from educators and

researchers (Sadera, et al., 2014). Researchers such as Schunk (1991) and Zimmerman

(2000) question whether the characteristics of games (e.g. carefully crafted storylines,

the quality of design, and dynamic and immediate feedback) might be leveraged to

support learning. Moreover, some researchers such as Abrams (2009), Gerber and

Price (2011), Squire (2011), Steinkuehler, et al. (2011) have identified that game-based

learning can be used to enhance student learning in class-related activities.

22

For instance, Holmes (2011) suggests that appropriately designed computer games may

play a useful role in helping some struggling readers at home due to the fun and

motivational characteristics of computer games. In addition, mobile-learning is also

becoming a popular concept in education(Mifsud, 2014). Mobile learning is defined by

Traxler (2009) as learning that allows students to access course resources and materials

from anywhere using mobile devices(Traxler, 2009). Devices such as smart phones and

tablets are becoming the main tools of mobile learning because people can gain learning

support or obtain a great amount data of knowledge from mobile devices connected to

the Internet (Hsu & Chen, 2010). Our life is already surrounded by mobile learning.

For example, it is common to read a document on a smart phone while drinking a cup of

coffee in a Starbucks coffee. However, there are some concerns about the combination

of mobile devices with learning. Hoppe, et al. (2003) highlight that mobile devices

should be adapted to the learning needs. For instance, platforms such as Moodle support

smartphones, tablets and computers at the same time. However, it is also important to

investigate the opinions of teachers and students as they are at the centre of learning in

adapting or designing mobile technology to the learning needs.

2.4.3 Student- and Teacher-Centred Learning

The term student-centred learning is used simply to express a system of providing

education and training which has the student at its heart as opposed to teacher-centred

learning (Brandes & Ginnis, 1991). However, it seems that there is a considerable

confusion about what student-centred learning actually is and lack of agreement about

its definition. Many terms such as flexible learning, experiential learning and self-

directed learning have been linked with student-centred learning (ONeill & McMahon,

2005). Lea, et al. (2003) noted that the confusion about its definition arise from a range

of potential definitions because different researchers and practitioners emphasize

different aspects of learning and teaching process. Burnard (1999) interpreted the

concept of student-centred learning as the fact that the student does not only have the

opportunity to choose what to study but they might also choose how and why

something interesting to study. From the interpretations of Burnard, ONeill &

McMahon (2005) emphasized that the concept of choice in learning is precondition for

student-centred learning.

23

Similarly, students in open learning are also considered as ones having choice in their

learning (Race, 1994). There is also another term that I need to clarify, namely distance

learning in addition to open learning. For the similar reasons, distance learning has also

been credited to provide study opportunities for those who cannot or do not want to take

part in campus learning (Holmberg, 1995). On the other hand, teacher-centred learning

is also important concept in education. Brandes & Ginnis (1991) said that many

teachers find the teacher-centred learning safe, natural, comfortable and appropriate

because the student acts as a participator. On the other hand, students have the full

responsibility for their own learning and evaluating the results in the student-centred

learning because the teacher acts only as a facilitator.

2.4.4Open Learning

Open learning allows the learner to choose how to learn, when to learn, where to learn

and even what to learn as far as possible within the constraints of any education and

training provision because the learners learn in their own ways, at their own pace, in

their own place and at their own time (Race, 1994; Paine, 1989). However, open

learning with some limitations might also appear within traditional learning. Race

(1994) exemplified the use of open learning in a crowded lecture room. For example,

the teacher might ask the class to spend a few minutes reading some hands-out in order

to answer some questions, studying in their own ways and at their own pace. Race

(1994) highlighted that learning brings more choices to open learners namely: pace,

taking as long as is needed to complete a chunk of studying; place, choosing where to

learn (e.g. home, library, workplace); time, choosing when to do learning; processes,

choosing how to learn. Besides, Race (ibid) pointed out that open learners should have

the responsibility to make a sensible choice. Besides, Race (2005) added that the term

distance learning is usually applied to open learning that takes place at a distance. On

the other hand, Rumble (1989) argued that the use of the terms open learning and

distance learning in practice is frequently misleading and noted many contiguous and

distance learning systems are open in their practices.

24

2.4.5 Distance Learning

The term distance learning is considered as learning that takes place at a distance and is

characterized by a clear separation in space or/and time of the majority of teaching and

learning activities(Barbara, 1993; Keegan, 1996; Race, 2005).However, there is no

universal agreement about the characteristics of distance learning because its use varies

in practice. The popularity and use of distance learning have grown as more advanced

technology has become available. For example, although the first phase of distance

education is based on the ingenious idea for delivering instruction to a potentially

limitless audience: correspondence courses by mail in the mid-1800s, distance learning

were supported carefully with constructed texts and audio and video materials

(Matthews, 1999). After some advances in technology, distance education was also

supplemented with conventional broadcast radio and television. Williams, et al.(1999)

highlighted the development of distance education in three levels.

Level 1 considers the learners as passive because they have no opportunity for the

learner to interact with the instructor in real time. For instance, a distance learner may

send a message to his instructor but he may receive responses after a lengthy delay due

to mailing. Moreover, this level consists of only printed material, audio- and videotapes

and radio transmissions. In level 2, distance learners have the ability to transmit

messages simultaneously and receive immediate feedback because of new technologies.

This level consists of two-way audio tele-training, electronic mail, computer-mediated

conferencing and so on. The third level consists of virtual environments and hybrid

networks and hence is considered highly interactive. In this level, according to the

elements of the course being taught, there can be more than one primary mode of

delivery. This third level of distance learning is frequently named e-learning.

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2.4.6 Traditional Learning

Traditional learning is simply defined as learning from people such as lecturers,

instructors and tutors (Race, 2005). McInnerney & Roberts (2009) note that traditional

learning cannot be easily characterized because it comes in a variety of forms. However,

they highlighted that the most common thing in traditional learning is that it comes with

the idea of the sage on the stage, with information provide

elearning for engineering students

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