einführung computerlinguistik pragmatikhs/teach/13w/intro/pdf/11pragm.flat.pdf · pragmatik:...
TRANSCRIPT
Einführung Computerlinguistik
Pragmatik
Hinrich Schütze & Robert Zangenfeind
Centrum für Informations- und Sprachverarbeitung, LMU München
2013-12-09
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Take-away
Pragmatics: Introduction
Grice: conversation as cooperation
Speech acts, performative verbs – language is not just aboutmaking factual statements about the world
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Overview
1 Pragmatics
2 Grice
3 Speech acts
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Outline
1 Pragmatics
2 Grice
3 Speech acts
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Teilgebiete der Linguistik
Phonetik und Phonologie
Morphologie
Syntax
Semantik
Pragmatik
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Pragmatics
Study of how people do things with language
Study of how a speaker chooses language in social interactionand how this affects others
Pragmatics: “What was your intention when you said X? Whydid you say it?” Semantics: “What is the literal meaning ofX?”
From Greek “pragma” ‘deed, action’
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Pragmatics: More general definition
Pragmatics = study of meaning in context
Linguistic context
Situational context
Social context
Pragmatics: “the study of a linguistic expression X in aparticular context” Semantics: “the meaning of X inabstraction from particular situations, speakers or hearers”
Context is often action-related (“pragma-related”), but notalways
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Deixis
Klassische Bedeutungskomponente, die nur im Kontext derAeußerung untersucht / beschrieben werden kann
Definition: Deixis = Zeige- und Hinweisfunktion sprachlicherAusdrücke in einem gegebenen Kontext
deiktische/indexikalische Ausdrücke, die Bedeutung/Referenzerst im Rahmen der konkreten Situation erhalten:
ich, du, er, . . . ,mein, dein, sein, . . . ,hier, dort, da drüben, . . . ,jetzt, heute, morgen, nächstes Jahr, . . .
Diese Ausdruecke erfordern zur Bedeutungsbestimmung dieräumliche und zeitliche Bestimmung von Sprecher,Angesprochenem und beschriebenen Situationen(Gegenstände, Ereignisse etc.)
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Pragmatik in der Semiotik
Sprachliches Zeichen gekennzeichnet durch drei Dimensionen(Charles William Morris):
Semantik (Bezug zur Bedeutung)Syntaktik/Syntax (Bezug zu anderen sprachlichen Zeichen)Pragmatik (Bezug zu Zeichenbenutzern)
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Semantics: Propositional content
The propositional content of a sentence is itscontext-independent meaning.
E.g., the following sentences all have the same propositionalcontent:
Du räumst dein Zimmer auf. (Aussagesatz)Räumst du dein Zimmer auf? (Fragesatz)Räum dein Zimmer auf! (Aufforderungssatz)
In contrast to semantics, pragmatics studies meaning thatgoes beyond propositional content . . .
. . . meaning that is context-dependent, intended (but notexplicitly expressed), invited inferences, “speech act meaning”(questions, orders, promises etc)
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Präsupposition
Vergleiche
Karl weiß nicht, dass Rom die Hauptstadt von Italien ist.Präsupposition: “Rom ist die Hauptstadt von Italien”Karl weiß nicht, ob Rom die Hauptstadt von Italien ist. keinePräsupposition!
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Präsupposition
Sinn-Komponente, die der Hörer für wahr halten muss, damitder Satz für ihn einen Sinn ergibt
auch bei Verneinung des Satzes bleibt die Präsuppositionerhalten
“Karl weiß nicht, dass Rom die Hauptstadt von Italien ist”und “Karl weiß, dass Rom die Hauptstadt von Italien ist”haben die gleiche Praesupposition.
die Präsupposition kann nicht verneint werden
“Karl weiß nicht, dass seine Mannschaft verloren hat, aber siehat gar nicht verloren”
Der Satz wird “infelicitous”, wenn die Präsupposition falschist.
“Karl weiß nicht, dass Neapel die Hauptstadt von Italien ist”
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Pragmatik: “nur”
(i) nur Hans hat dieses Buch gelesen(ii) Hans hat nur dieses Buch gelesen(iii) Hans hat dieses Buch nur gelesen
Was ist die Bedeutung? Was hat das zu tun mit Pragmatik?
(i) niemand anderes hat dieses Buch gelesen(ii) Hans hat kein anderes Buch gelesen(iii) Hans hat nichts anderes mit diesem Buch getan
Skopus = Wirkungsbereich (eines Quantors, eines Adverbs)
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Pragmatik: “obwohl”
Hans geht ins Kino, obwohl er krank ist
Was ist die Bedeutung? Was hat das zu tun mit Pragmatik?
Hans geht ins Kino, er ist krank, es besteht ein Widerspruchzwischen Ins-Kino-Gehen und Kranksein
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Pragmatik: “ganze”
die Reparatur hat ganze zwei Minuten gedauert
Was ist die Bedeutung? Was hat das zu tun mit Pragmatik?
die Reparatur hat zwei Minuten gedauert, eine Dauer von zweiMinuten ist kurz fuer diese Art von Reparatur
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Pragmatik: “sogar”
sogar Hans schwieg
Was ist die Bedeutung? Was hat das zu tun mit Pragmatik?
Hans schwieg, andere schwiegen, es waere zu erwartengewesen, dass Hans nicht schweigen wuerde
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Outline
1 Pragmatics
2 Grice
3 Speech acts
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Paul Grice
speaker meaning = sentence meaning + what is implicated
what is implicated: based on the assumption that theparticipants in a conversation are cooperating
Conversation is cooperative behavior and proceeds by rules ofcooperative conduct.
→ cooperative principle
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Cooperative Principle
Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at thestage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction ofthe talk exchange in which you are engaged.
“Making as is required” has four aspects, the Gricean maxims:
Maxim of qualityMaxim of quantityMaxim of relevanceMaxim of manner
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Maxim of quality / Tell the truth
Do not say what you believe to be false
Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence
Example: “Did you eat the last piece of pizza?” – “No, Ididn’t.” (assume this is a lie)
In this case the maxim is violated.
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Maxim of quality / Tell the truth (2)
Example: “This restaurant has one of the best Chinese menusin town.” – “And I’m Queen Marie of Romania.”
Implicature: X = “The restaurant is really bad.”
“I’m Queen Marie of Romania.” does not contain / entail Xand it does not presuppose X. X is an implicature that isjustified by the maxim of quality.
In this case the maxim is flouted.
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Maxim of quantity / Say just as much as necessary
Make your contribution as informative as is required for thecurrent purpose of the exchange
Do not make the contribution more informative than isrequired
Example: “Did you finish your homework” – “I finished myalgebra” – “Well, get busy and finish your English, too”
Implicature: X = “I didn’t do my English”
“I finished my algebra” does not contain / entail X and itdoes not presuppose X. X is an implicature that is justified bythe maxim of quantity.
In this case the maxim is flouted.
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Maxim of relevance / Stick to the point
Make your contributions relevant
Example: “Dear colleague, Dr. Jones has asked me to write aletter on his behalf. Let me say that Dr. Jones is unfailinglypolite, is neatly dressed at all times and is always on time forhis classes. Sincerely – Prof. H.P. Smith.”
Implicature: X = “Dr. Jones has none of the skills required forthe job”
The letter does not contain / entail / presuppose X. X is animplicature justified by the maxim of relevance.
In this case the maxim is flouted.
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Maxim of manner / Be clear
Avoid obscurity
Avoid ambiguity
Be brief
Be orderly
Example: “I went to the supermarket and bought sugar”
Implicature: X = “I bought sugar at the supermarket afterhaving arrived there” (not before going to the supermarket,not at the convenience store next to the supermarket)
The utterance does not contain / entail / presuppose X. X isan implicature justified by the maxim of manner, specifically“be orderly”.
In this case the maxim is observed.
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Jokes are often based on Gricean violations
I came home last night, and there’s a car in the dining room. I saidto my husband: “How did you get the car in the dining room?” Hesaid: “It was easy. I made a left turn when I came out of thekitchen.”
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Generalized conversational implicatures
Based on the cooperative principle (= the four maxims)
Do not depend on the context of the conversation.
Cancelable/defeasible
Examples:
A car ran over John’s foot. (implicature: not John’s car, notthe speaker’s car)A car ran over John’s foot – actually, it was my own car.I’ve completed some of the required courses. (implicature: notall)I’ve completed some of the required courses, actually I’vecompleted all of them. (implicature canceled)
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Conventional implicatures
Not based on the cooperative principle (= the four maxims)
They are conventions of lexicon or grammar.
Do not depend on the context of the conversation.
Not cancelable/defeasible
Examples:
Donovan is poor but happy. (implicature: contrast)
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Exercise
Devise an answer to “What time is it?” that flouts or violatesthe maxim of quality (truth).
Devise an answer to “What time is it?” that flouts or violatesthe maxim of quantity.
Devise an answer to “What time is it?” that flouts or violatesthe maxim of relevance.
Devise an answer to “What time is it?” that flouts or violatesthe maxim of manner (be clear).
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Outline
1 Pragmatics
2 Grice
3 Speech acts
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Speech acts
Example sentences: “Can you tell me the time?” “Can youopen the window?”
Locutionary act: the act of uttering the words / the sentence
Illocutionary act: the act the utterance is intended to perform(question, assertion, exclamation). Doing something by sayingsomething
Perlocutionary act: the rhetorical act intended by the speakerin performing the illocutionary act (getting the hearer to tellthe speaker what time it is, conveying to the hearer that thespeaker is hot)
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Illocutionary speech acts: Performative verbs
assertives = speech acts that commit a speaker to the truthof the expressed proposition. Example: “I believe in God theFather almighty, creator of heaven and earth. I believe inJesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord.”
directives = speech acts that are to cause the hearer to take aparticular action, e.g. requests, commands and advice.Example: “I beg you to leave now.”
commissives = speech acts that commit a speaker to somefuture action, e.g. promises and oaths. Example: “I promisethat I will pay you back the principal plus 5% interest.”
expressives = speech acts that express the speaker’s attitudesand emotions towards the proposition, e.g. congratulations,excuses and thanks. Example: “I apologize for being late.”
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Illocutionary speech acts: Performative verbs (2)
declarations = speech acts that change the reality in accordwith the proposition of the declaration, e.g. baptisms,pronouncing someone guilty or pronouncing someone husbandand wife. “I pronounce you man and wife”
(from Wikipedia)
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Exercise
Locutionary act: the act of uttering the words / the sentence
Illocutionary act: the act the utterance is intended to perform(question, assertion, exclamation). Doing something by sayingsomething
Perlocutionary act: the rhetorical act intended by the speakerin performing the illocutionary act (getting the hearer to tellthe speaker what time it is, conveying to the hearer that thespeaker is hot)
What are the locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionaryreferred to in the following sentences? “In Paris, deputy mayorAnne Hidalgo promised to create a Nelson Mandela street inthe French capital. In the West Bank, Mahmoud Abbas, thePalestinian Authority president declared a day of mourningand ordered all Palestinian flags to be flown at half mast.”
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Take-away
Pragmatics: Introduction
Grice: conversation as cooperation
Speech acts, performative verbs – language is not just aboutmaking factual statements about the world
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