effectiveness of guided and unguided low-intensity internet

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Effectiveness of guided and unguided low-intensity internet interventions for adultalcohol misuse: a meta-analysisRiper, H.; Blankers, M.; Hadiwijaya, H.; Cunningham, J.; Clarke, S.; Wiers, R.W.H.J.; Ebert,D.; Cuijpers, P.Published in:PLoS One

DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0099912

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Citation for published version (APA):Riper, H., Blankers, M., Hadiwijaya, H., Cunningham, J., Clarke, S., Wiers, R., ... Cuijpers, P. (2014).Effectiveness of guided and unguided low-intensity internet interventions for adult alcohol misuse: a meta-analysis. PLoS One, 9(6), e99912. [e99912]. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099912

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Effectiveness of Guided and Unguided Low-IntensityInternet Interventions for Adult Alcohol Misuse: A Meta-AnalysisHeleen Riper1,2*, Matthijs Blankers3,4,5, Hana Hadiwijaya1,11, John Cunningham6,7, Stella Clarke8,

Reinout Wiers9, David Ebert2,10, Pim Cuijpers1,2

1 Department of Clinical Psychology and EMGO Institute, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2 Division Health Trainings online, EU innovation Incubator,

Leuphana University, Luneburg, Germany, 3 Arkin Mental Health Care, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 4 Trimbos Institute, Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and

Addiction, Utrecht, The Netherlands, 5 Amsterdam Institute for Addiction Research, Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, the

Netherlands, 6 Centre for Mental Health Research, the Australian National University, Canberra, Australia, 7 Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Canada,

8 NHS Fife, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom, 9 Addiction, Development and Psychopathology (ADAPT) lab, Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam,

Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 10 Division for Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Department for Psychology, Philipp’s University Marburg, Marburg, Germany, 11 TS

Social and Behavioral Sciences, Department of Developmental Psychology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, the Netherlands

Abstract

Background: Alcohol misuse ranks within the top ten health conditions with the highest global burden of disease. Low-intensity, Internet interventions for curbing adult alcohol misuse have been shown effective. Few meta-analyses have beencarried out, however, and they have involved small numbers of studies, lacked indicators of drinking within low riskguidelines, and examined the effectiveness of unguided self-help only. We therefore conducted a more thorough meta-analysis that included both guided and unguided interventions.

Methods: Systematic literature searches were performed up to September 2013. Primary outcome was the mean level ofalcohol consumption and drinking within low risk guidelines for alcohol consumption at post-treatment.

Findings: We selected 16 randomised controlled trials (with 23 comparisons and 5,612 participants) for inclusion. Results,showed a small but significant overall effect size in favour of Internet interventions (g = 0.20, 95% CI: 0.13–0.27, p,.001).Participants in Internet interventions drunk on average 22 grams of ethanol less than controls and were significantly morelikely to be adhering to low-risk drinking guidelines at post-treatment (RD 0.13, 95% CI: 0.09–0.17, p,.001). Subgroupanalyses revealed no significant differences in potential moderators for the outcome of alcohol consumption, althoughthere was a near-significant difference between comparisons with waitlist control and those with assessment-only oralcohol information control conditions (p = .056).

Conclusions: Internet interventions are effective in reducing adult alcohol consumption and inducing alcohol users toadhere to guidelines for low-risk drinking. This effect is small but from a public health point of view this may warrant largescale implementation at low cost of Internet interventions for adult alcohol misuse. Moderator analyses with sufficientpower are, however, needed in order to assess the robustness of these overall results and to assess whether theseinterventions may impact on subgroups with different levels of success.

Citation: Riper H, Blankers M, Hadiwijaya H, Cunningham J, Clarke S, et al. (2014) Effectiveness of Guided and Unguided Low-Intensity Internet Interventions forAdult Alcohol Misuse: A Meta-Analysis. PLoS ONE 9(6): e99912. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0099912

Editor: Robert Stewart, Institute of Psychiatry, United Kingdom

Received March 20, 2014; Accepted May 19, 2014; Published June 17, 2014

Copyright: � 2014 Riper et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permitsunrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: The authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction. All data are included within the paper.

Funding: The authors have no support or funding to report.

Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

* Email: [email protected]

Introduction

The Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 from the World Health

Organization has documented a growing health burden from

Alcohol Use Disorders (AUDs) over the past two decades among

adults in both developed and developing societies [1,2]. The

health burden increases further if the whole spectrum of alcohol

misuse [3] is taken into account, whereby people consume alcohol

in excess of the low-risk drinking guidelines but do not meet AUD

criteria [1,4,5]. They include people who engage in hazardous

alcohol use – and who may thereby develop physical, psychological

and social problems in the short term and alcohol dependency and

serious or fatal illness later on – or harmful alcohol use, meaning that

they are already experiencing such problems [4]. This mounting

health burden is due not just to population growth or ageing, but

also to an absolute increase in alcohol consumption by adults [1,6].

It affects both traditional groups of drinkers and newer groups

such as women [7] and the elderly [8]. The risks of problem

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drinking multiply with every increment in alcohol consumption or

every heavier drinking pattern [9,10]. Estimates reveal that eight

out of ten adults who drink too much alcohol lack professional

help; if they do receive it, that is often at a very late stage in their

drinking career [11]. Studies also show that whilst a high number

of people who misuse alcohol do desire help, they prefer it outside

conventional health care settings [12]. Public health strategies to

curb alcohol misuse therefore have considerable room for

improvement. One particular enhancement could lie in an

expanded availability of brief, low-intensity Internet interventions

for use both in and beyond the primary care sector [13,14].

Conventional (that is, non-Internet) Screening and Brief

Interventions (SBIs) have been evaluated mostly in their delivery

to non–alcohol-dependent, non–treatment-seeking adults whose

alcohol misuse was identified in opportunistic health screening in

primary care. Numerous meta-analyses and systematic reviews

have convincingly shown the clinical effectiveness of SBIs in

reducing alcohol consumption in comparison to non-intervention

controls. The results of all these studies have recently been

synthesised in studies by Jonas and colleagues [15,16], and these in

turn by Moyer in her 2013 update to the United States Preventive

Services Task Force’s earlier recommendation statement on

screening and brief interventions in primary care for alcohol

misuse [3]. Overall, the results show significant effect sizes in the

small to moderate range for low-intensity interventions in

comparison to control conditions in terms of average decreases

in alcohol consumption [3,15,16]. Cost-effectiveness studies, albeit

limited in number, also report promising results [17–19].

Effectiveness studies on the reduction of alcohol consumption

through SBIs provided in other settings such as general hospitals,

emergency departments or work environments have been incon-

clusive [20–23].

Providing Internet self-help interventions both in primary care

and directly to people in the community appears a promising

strategy to overcome the gap between the high number of people

that misuse alcohol and the low number that actually receive or

seek help in primary care [24]. Studies on web-based self-help

interventions for adult problem drinking show that (1) the

interventions are mostly of an unguided nature and are delivered

as stand-alone procedures directly to participants in the commu-

nity, and to a far lesser extent via primary care, clinical or

employment settings [25,26]; (2) they largely reach first-time help

seekers (with rates varying from 80% to 90% [27,28]); (3) people

who misuse alcohol take up these services on a much wider scale

than the available brief, low-intensity face-to-face interventions in

primary care settings [24,29]; and (4) people differ in whether they

desire additional help from professionals [28]. Studies have also

shown such unguided interventions to be effective in reducing

adult alcohol misuse as compared to no-intervention control

conditions. A 2011 meta-analysis by Riper and colleagues [26]

found a small but significant effect size of g = 0.39 (95% CI: 0.23–

0.56) for unguided self-help interventions via the Internet.

Numbers needed to treat (NNT = 5) were comparable to those

for face-to-face brief interventions in primary care settings [30].

Small effect sizes also emerged in meta-analyses on various health

promotion interventions, including alcohol use [31,32]. Few cost-

effectiveness studies are available, but they indicate potential

economic gain from Internet-based interventions for adult alcohol

misuse [33].

The number of eligible randomised controlled trials on web-

based interventions for alcohol misuse was rather limited in these

systematic reviews and meta-analyses. The Riper meta-analysis

[26], for example, identified only 7 eligible randomised controlled

trials. This sharply contrasts with meta-analyses assessing the

clinical and cost-effectiveness of Internet interventions for depres-

sion or anxiety. For example, Richards and Richardson [34] were

able to include 19 RCTs on depression in their 2012 meta-

analysis. For these disorders, overall evidence is accumulating that

guided interventions generally lead to a greater reduction of

depressive or anxiety symptoms than unguided interventions

[34,35] and that guided Internet interventions are as effective as

face to face interventions [36].

Recently, the numbers of published randomised controlled trials

on Internet-based interventions for alcohol misuse has increased,

including some that evaluate therapist-led self-help interventions

[37,38]. We therefore decided to conduct this meta-analysis. We

investigated the overall effectiveness of alcohol interventions in

comparison to no-intervention controls and, if possible in terms of

alcohol consumption reduction, drinking within the guidelines for

low risk drinking and actual amounts reduced. We then examined

whether certain study characteristics, such as the guided or

unguided design of interventions, affected the primary outcome

measure of alcohol consumption. To the best of our knowledge,

this is the first meta-analysis that includes both guided and

unguided Internet interventions to address problematic alcohol

consumption among adults.

Methods

Identification of StudiesWe conducted literature searches up to September 2013 in the

following bibliographic databases: MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Sci-

ence Citation Index Expanded, Social Sciences Citation Index,

Arts and Humanities Citation Index, CINAHL, PUBMED and

EMBASE, using key words and text words. Words indicating

online interventions (Internet, Web, online, computer, mobile)

were combined with terms indicative of type of treatment (self-

help, brief intervention, treatment, unguided, guided, supported,

low-intensity) and problematic alcohol use (alcohol abuse, alcohol

misuse, problem drinking, hazardous, harmful, dependence,

abstinence). We also re-examined exclusion lists of papers

retrieved for our previous meta-analysis [26] to see if any would

meet the inclusion criteria for the current study. No language

restrictions were applied.

Our initial selection was based on titles and abstracts. If these

yielded insufficient information to assess the eligibility criteria, full-

text articles were retrieved and assessed in terms of our inclusion

criteria. All papers included or excluded at all stages were assessed

by two independent raters (authors HR and HH) (see figure 1).

The same raters assessed the effect sizes and moderator variables

in the included studies. Any disagreement was resolved by

discussion. A protocol does not exist for this meta-analysis; steps

undertaken are described in this method section.

Eligibility CriteriaRandomised controlled trials were included that (1) compared a

web-based intervention with a control group (in an assessment-

only, waitlisted or alcohol information brochure control condi-

tion); (2) included a low-intensity self-help intervention that the

participant could perform on a computer or mobile phone, with or

without guidance from a professional; (3) assessed alcohol drinking

behaviour in terms of quantity consumed as a primary outcome

measure; (4) studied adults aged 18 or older; (5) included alcohol

drinkers who exceeded local guidelines for low-risk drinking (if

lower-risk participants were also included, we retained only the

results of those with alcohol misuse).

Internet Interventions for Adult Alcohol Misuse: A Meta-Analysis


Figure 1. Study inclusion meta-analysis: flow chart.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0099912.g001



Risk-of-bias Assessment and Data ExtractionWe assessed the validity of the included studies on the basis of

four criteria from the risk-of-bias assessment tool developed by the

Cochrane Collaboration [39]. It verifies study attributes in

randomised controlled trials that are potential sources of bias,

including (1) adequacy of allocation sequence generation, (2)

concealment of the allocation to the different conditions, (3)

blinding of assessors and outcomes and (4) handling of incomplete

outcome data using intention-to-treat analyses (this was rated as

positive if intention-to-treat analyses were performed, thus

retaining all randomised participants in the analyses; see table 1).

Authors HH and MB assessed risk of bias as Yes, No or Unclear

using the Cochrane Collaboration tool (see 2.3).

Study CharacteristicsCharacteristics of the analysed studies are described in table 1.

We coded (1) year of study and country of origin; (2) participant

characteristics: alcohol consumption level at baseline, recruitment

setting, target group; (3) intervention characteristics: therapeutic

principles, mode and setting of delivery, guided or unguided self-

help format, number of sessions; and (4) other study characteris-

tics: type of control condition, number of participants in each

comparative condition, primary outcome measure (how consumed

quantities of alcohol were assessed), intention-to-treat (ITT) versus

completers-only (CO) analyses, post-treatment assessments in

months, dropout rate and risk of bias. The brief self-help alcohol

interventions we identified were based on one or more of the

following principles: behavioural self-control [40], motivational

interviewing [41], transtheoretical model of change [42], cogni-

tive-behavioural therapy (CBT, [43]), and personalised normative

feedback (PNF [44]).

Meta-analysesWe first calculated a mean alcohol consumption effect size for

each comparison between an alcohol intervention and a control

group. Effect sizes were calculated by subtracting the average post-

test score of the alcohol self-help group from the average score of

the comparison group and dividing the result by the pooled

standard deviations of the two groups. This effect size is known as

Cohen’s d. As the effect size d is subject to small-sample bias, it can

be adjusted by using a scaling factor, which is multiplied by d to

arrive at Hedges’s bias-corrected effect size g, so that g = d (12[3/

4(n1+n0]29). An effect size of 0.50 indicates that the mean of the

experimental group is half a standard deviation larger than the

mean of the control group. Effect sizes of approximately 0.80 can

be considered large, 0.5 as moderate, and 0.2 small [45].

Participant adherence to low-risk alcohol guidelines (by either

abstaining or not exceeding recommended limits) was assessed in

terms of percentages (yes/no).

If means and standard deviations were not reported, we

contacted the study authors to obtain these and/or we used the

procedures of the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software (CMA,

version 2.2.021) to calculate the effect size using continuous or

dichotomous outcomes. In the event these were not available

either, we used other statistics (such a t- or p-value). Where

possible, data from intention-to-treat analyses were used; com-

pleters-only data were used if the former were unavailable. If more

than one alcohol consumption outcome measure was reported in a

single study, we averaged the effect sizes from those measures to

produce a single summary effect size for use in the meta-analysis,

statistically adjusting those calculations to account for variance

introduced by the multiple measures [46].

We calculated the mean effect sizes using a random effects

model. This assumes that the included studies were drawn from

‘populations’ of studies that systematically differed from one

another (heterogeneity). As a test of homogeneity of effect sizes, we

calculated the I2 statistic, an indicator of heterogeneity in

percentages. A value of 0% indicates no observed heterogeneity,

and larger values show increasing heterogeneity, with 25% as low,

50% as moderate and 75% as high [47]. As the I2 statistic is known

to be imprecise [48], we calculated the 95% confidence interval

using the non-central chi-squared-based approach within the

heterogi module in Stata [49]. We also estimated numbers needed

to treat (NNTs) [50].

Subgroup analyses. In consideration of the literature, ten

subgroups analyses were carried out using the mixed effects model,

whereby studies within subgroups are pooled with the random

effects model (see table 2). Tests for significant differences between

subgroups are then performed with the fixed effects model. For

continuous variables, we used bivariate meta-regression analyses to

test whether there was a significant relationship between each

variable and the alcohol effect size, as indicated by a Z-value and

an associated p-value.

Power CalculationsWe calculated both beforehand and afterwards how many

studies would be needed to ensure sufficient statistical power to

identify relevant effects as we expected a small to moderate effect

size [26,51]. The power calculations were carried out according to

the procedures described by Borenstein and colleagues [46].

Beforehand we hoped to find enough studies to enable identifi-

cation of a small effect size of d = 0.40 based on the random effects

model. The power calculations indicated that this would require at

least ten studies with a mean sample size of 70 participants per

condition. That conservatively assumes a medium level of

between-study variance (t2), a statistical power of .80 and a

significance level of a,.05.

Publication BiasTo detect possible publication bias, we visually examined the

funnel plots of the primary outcome measures for symmetry. We

conducted Egger’s linear regression test of the intercept to quantify

the bias captured by the funnel plot and test whether it was

significant [52]. Duval and Tweedie trim-and-fill procedure was

performed to further verify whether the pooled effect size estimate

was unbiased [53]. These procedures were all performed with

CMA.

Results

Selection and Inclusion of StudiesA flowchart depicting our study selection procedure is shown in

figure 1. In reporting the results we followed the guidelines of the

PRISMA statement (see Checklist S1) [54].

Characteristics of Included StudiesTable 1 summarises the selected characteristics of the 16 studies

(containing 23 comparisons) included in the meta-analysis. The

studies assessed a total of 5,612 participants (3,268 in experimental

and 2,344 in control conditions) and thus provided sufficient

statistical power to detect a small effect size (see section 2.6).

In five studies, sample inclusion was based on self-reported

alcohol consumption, using cut-off points indicative of alcohol use

exceeding low-risk guidelines, with differing levels for men and

women. Five other studies applied the Alcohol Use Identification

Test (AUDIT [55]) or the Fast Alcohol Screening Test (FAST

[56]). Two studies applied both AUDIT and alcohol consumption

cut-off points; one selected on the basis of GGT (gamma-glutamyl



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transpeptidase) testing. Two of the sixteen studies [57,58] included

anyone interested in participating; for these studies, we confined

our analysis to subgroups belonging to the at-risk drinking

population.

Seven studies applied a single-focus therapeutic strategy, which

in six cases was personalised normative feedback (PNF) and in one

case a generic health education approach. The other nine studies

used combined treatment approaches consisting of motivational

interviewing (MI), personalised normative feedback (PNF), cogni-

tive-behavioural therapy (CBT) and/or behavioural self-control

and change principles. The control groups represented assessment-

only (n = 6), waitlisted (n = 3) or alcohol information brochure

conditions (n = 7). The outcome assessments to indicate alcohol

consumption were expressed in terms of mean standard drinks per

drinking day, total numbers of standard drinks in the previous

week, mean standard drinks per drinking occasion or amounts of

alcohol in grams.

The risk of bias varied among the studies (table 1), with 14

studies reporting adequate sequence generation, 6 reporting

allocation to conditions by an independent party, 15 reporting

blinding of outcome assessors or using self-report outcomes only,

and 10 using intention-to-treat analyses. Dropout rates varied

from 0% to 42%.

Meta-analysisThe effect of low-intensity Internet-based alcohol interventions

to reduce alcohol consumption in comparison to controls was

small but significant at post-test (g = 0.20, random effects model,

95% CI: 0.13–0.27, p,.001, NNT = 8.93). Results are shown in

figure 2 (from high to low study effect sizes) and table 2.

Heterogeneity was low but with a moderate confidence interval

(I2 = 27, 95% CI: 0–56). A post-hoc power calculation showed that

our set of studies had sufficient statistical power (0.99) on the basis

of the random effects model (with a low level of between-study

variance, t2 = .001, and a significance level of a ,.05).

Seven studies [37,57–62] compared more than one group

receiving differing types of Internet-based brief treatment with a

single control group, so that our analysis included multiple

comparisons from these studies. The fact that the comparisons

were not independent of one another could have artificially

reduced the heterogeneity of the analysed studies, thereby

affecting the pooled effect size. To test this, we carried out

sensitivity analyses that included only one effect size per study. As

table 2 shows, removal of the comparisons with the highest effect

sizes had almost no influence on the pooled effect size nor did

removing the comparisons with the lowest effect sizes. Removal of

the one guided intervention comparison with the highest effect size

(in Blankers [37]) did not influence the observed effect size either,

nor did removal of that with the lowest effect size [62].

Mean Alcohol Consumption Reduction and Drinkingwithin Low Risk Guidelines

On average, the intervention participants were drinking 2,2

alcohol consumptions (22 grams of ethanol) less per week at post-

treatment than controls (n = 14; 95% CI: 0.87–3.46, p = .001,

I2 = 0, p,.001; mean difference). Post-test differences [37,61,63–

65]) revealed that intervention participants were significantly more

likely than controls to have reduced their alcohol consumption to

within the low-risk guidelines as compared to controls (n = 6; RD

0.13, 95% CI: 0.09–0.17, p,.001, I2 = 0, non-significant).

Subgroup AnalysesSubgroup analyses revealed no significant differences between

study characteristics and effect sizes for alcohol consumption (see

table 2). The differences between types of control conditions

bordered on significance (p = .056). We found a higher effect size

for decreased alcohol consumption for studies applying a waitlist

control condition (g = 0.48) than those applying an alcohol

brochure condition (g = 0.20) or an assessment-only condition

(g = 0.15).

Follow-up AssessmentsNo significant differences in effect remained at follow-up (6 to

12 months after baseline) between the six unguided interventions

(8 comparisons) and control groups (g = 0.06, 95% CI: 20.14–

0.25, p = .567, random effects model) for which such follow-up

assessments were available. No follow-up assessments were

available for the guided interventions.

Figure 2. Results of meta-analysis: forest plot.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0099912.g002



Regression AnalysesMeta-regression analyses with Hedges’s g as the dependent

variable uncovered no significant associations between effect size

and either the number of alcohol intervention sessions (b= 2

0.0001, 95% CI: 20.004–0.003, p = .938) or the risk of bias

(b= 0.068, 95% CI: 20.15–0.01, p = .089) in the studies assessed.

Publication BiasThere was evidence of publication bias in terms of Duval and

Tweedie’s trim-and-fill method. After adjustment for missing

studies, the effect size for decreased alcohol consumption

diminished from g = 0.20 to g = 0.14 (95% CI: 0.06–0.22; trimmed

studies n = 8, random effects model). Egger’s test indicated an

asymmetric funnel plot (p = .028, two-tailed).

Discussion

This meta-analysis showed a small but significant overall effect

size (g = 0.20) in favour of low-intensity Internet-based self-help

interventions to curb alcohol misuse over control conditions. At

post-treatment, intervention participants were consuming an

average of 22 grams of alcohol less per week than controls. The

reduction appears lower than those found in analyses of face-to-

face brief interventions in primary care. The latter include a

Cochrane Collaboration systematic review of 29 primary care

trials [30], which reported a significantly reduced weekly

consumption of 38 grams at one-year follow-up (see also the

study by Jonas and colleagues [15]). In our study, Internet

intervention participants were 13% more likely than controls to

stay within the guidelines after treatment (n = 6). This is in line

with the study of Jonas and colleagues [15] who showed that those

receiving primary care alcohol interventions were 11% more likely

to do so when compared with controls.

The overall effect size in this meta-analysis is lower than, the

effect size found in our previous study that focused solely on

unguided e-interventions (7 studies, g = 0.39) [26]. Some explana-

tions for this may lie in the three-times-higher number of

comparisons involved in the current analysis and the fact that

studies with null findings were now included [60,66]. The current

overall effect also compares with meta-analyses of face-to-face

primary care samples [3,30,67,68] and of non-clinical samples

performing postal self-help interventions based on bibliotherapy

[69–71]. These studies all showed significant small to moderate

effect sizes for curbing alcohol misuse. We found no significant

differences between experimental and control conditions for those

studies that assessed follow-up outcomes up to twelve months.

Such a decay of intervention effects is not uncommon; larger effect

sizes are generally found at the earliest follow-ups [15,68]. Some

studies of brief interventions for problem drinking have nonethe-

less reported positive influences on alcohol reduction up to four

years later [67] and on mortality [72].

Subgroup AnalysesResults of the subgroup analyses did not reveal any significant

differences between experimental and control conditions. All these

results need to be interpreted with caution, as the number of

studies included in the subgroup analyses was low. This means that

there where either no real differences between these conditions or

that real difference may have gone undetected. The variation in

types of control predictors was of borderline significance (p = .056)

in terms of effect. A moderate effect size was found for studies

using waitlist control conditions, while those with assessment-only

or alcohol brochure control showed small ones. Other studies have

similarly reported higher effect sizes for intervention studies that

used waitlisted groups as comparators [73]. One explanation could

be that waitlisted participants tend to delay behavioural change

because they anticipate professional help in the near future; that

could cause overestimation of the intervention effect.

We did not find a significantly greater effect size for guided

(g = 0.23) than for unguided (g = 0.20) alcohol interventions, even

though such significant differences in benefit have been over-

whelmingly established for web-based treatment of depression and

anxiety [34,74]. Our lack of significant effect might be due to the

fact that many participants in web-based alcohol interventions are

first-time help seekers; they may hence derive health gains from

their first formal attempt at behavioural change, whether

unguided or guided. Alternatively, a real difference may have

gone undetected as a consequence of the low number of guided

interventions in our analysis (5 comparisons. Only the Blankers

and colleagues [37], and the Doumas and Hannah [57] studies

provided direct comparisons between guided and unguided

interventions. Both showed a small, but non significant, difference

in effect in terms of alcohol consumption reduction in favour of

guided interventions. These non-significant results are probably

due to lack of power in both studies as well.

In contrast with our previous analysis from 2011 [26], we now

found no significant differences in alcohol reduction between

single-session interventions and more extended ones. Although the

literature is somewhat inconclusive [75], it provides some

confirmation for our current findings [30,68,76].

Web-based interventions may offer considerable promise for

reducing alcohol misuse by women. We found no difference in

alcohol consumption outcomes between all-male and mixed-

gender samples, whereas several studies on face-to-face alcohol

interventions in primary care had reported that men were more

likely to benefit than women [30,67]. In the case of Internet-based

interventions for alcohol misuse, however, female uptake appears

equally as high as male uptake [28,77] and have been seen to have

similar impacts on female and on male drinking, or possibly even

greater influence on females, as suggested by Riper and colleagues

(2008, [78]).

No difference in effect sizes emerged between studies that used

cut-off points in alcohol consumption as study inclusion criteria

and those that applied stricter measurements such as AUDIT [55].

AUDIT scores among the latter were high (averaging around 20,

indicating a potentially high risk of alcohol dependence amongst

participants. Internet interventions might thus well be effective for

a broad spectrum of people who misuse alcohol. Just as in many

trials of brief alcohol interventions and routine practice studies

[18,79], the studies in our analysis did not conduct diagnostic

interviews to assess for alcohol dependence. This lack of actual

diagnoses also hampers any attempt to use the available data to

test the common view that self-help interventions are particularly

suited to people with less serious alcohol problems, but less

appropriate for those with alcohol dependence [3,80].

Several limitations underlie our meta-analysis that may have

affected our overall results. First, as indicated the number of

studies included in the subgroup analyses was low. The resulting

insufficient statistical power may call into question our outcomes

whereby no significant difference between a number of conditions

could be observed. Second, some included studies had substantial

dropout rates (above 30%; see table 1). High study (and treatment)

dropout rates are a common phenomenon in both online and

offline self-help interventions for alcohol misuse and in Internet

interventions in general [81,82]. Third, the impact of online self-

help in reducing alcohol consumption may have been underesti-

mated here because control group drinking was also assessed; such

assessment alone possibly motivates controls to reduce their



consumption [83,84]. Last but not least, we were not able to

evaluate possible negative side-effects of Internet-based interven-

tions for problem drinking, as the studies lack reports on such

effects.

Clinical ImplicationsThe results of this study support the use of guided and unguided

Internet-based self-help interventions for curbing alcohol misuse in

various settings (primary health care, work environments and the

community). Although the overall effect size for these interventions

was small, the public health impact could be substantial if large

numbers of people who misuse alcohol were to take part in these

interventions. Decreasing alcohol consumption as well as absti-

nence and adherence to low-risk guidelines are health benefits in

their own right and potential predictors of longer-term mainte-

nance of decreased alcohol consumption [85]. A modelling study

by Smit and colleagues [86] has suggested that if online

interventions were to partially replace conventional face-to-face

brief alcohol interventions, that could sustain comparable levels of

population health at lower costs.

Future ResearchFuture studies should try to assess which type (s) of alcohol

misuse populations could benefit most from brief online alcohol

interventions. More studies with longer-term follow-up periods

(over 12 months) are needed, too, to assess the maintenance of

intervention effects over time in terms of reduced consumption

and other health outcomes. Studies focusing on the effects of

guided self-help interventions in curbing alcohol misuse, in direct

comparison with unguided interventions, could shed light on

whether the former produce better outcomes and, if so, at what

costs. It is also important to investigate whether combining low-

intensity Internet interventions with brief face-to-face interventions

(blending of channels) would increase the effectiveness of

interventions to curb alcohol misuse.

Conclusion

Internet interventions are capable of reaching out effectively to

the large group of people who engage in alcohol misuse. From a

public health perspective, this justifies an upscaling of such

interventions in routine practice as well as in a wide range of

community settings.

Supporting Information

Checklist S1 PRISMA checklist.

(DOC)

Author Contributions

Conceived and designed the experiments: HR HH PC. Performed the

experiments: HR HH MB. Analyzed the data: HR HH MB PC.

Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: HR PC. Contributed to

the writing of the manuscript: HR MB HH JC SC DE RW PC.

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