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Citation: Martindale, RJJ and Collins, D and Abraham, A (2007) Effective talent development: The elite coach perspective in UK sport. JOURNAL OF APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, 19 (2). 187 - 206. ISSN 1041-3200 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200701188944 Link to Leeds Beckett Repository record: http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/369/ Document Version: Article The aim of the Leeds Beckett Repository is to provide open access to our research, as required by funder policies and permitted by publishers and copyright law. The Leeds Beckett repository holds a wide range of publications, each of which has been checked for copyright and the relevant embargo period has been applied by the Research Services team. We operate on a standard take-down policy. If you are the author or publisher of an output and you would like it removed from the repository, please contact us and we will investigate on a case-by-case basis. Each thesis in the repository has been cleared where necessary by the author for third party copyright. If you would like a thesis to be removed from the repository or believe there is an issue with copyright, please contact us on [email protected] and we will investigate on a case-by-case basis.

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Page 1: Effective Talent Development 1 - Leeds Beckett Universityeprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/369/1/Effective Talent Development.pdf · Effective Talent Development 3 Effective Talent Development:

Citation:Martindale, RJJ and Collins, D and Abraham, A (2007) Effective talent development: The elite coachperspective in UK sport. JOURNAL OF APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, 19 (2). 187 - 206. ISSN1041-3200 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200701188944

Link to Leeds Beckett Repository record:http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/369/

Document Version:Article

The aim of the Leeds Beckett Repository is to provide open access to our research, as required byfunder policies and permitted by publishers and copyright law.

The Leeds Beckett repository holds a wide range of publications, each of which has beenchecked for copyright and the relevant embargo period has been applied by the Research Servicesteam.

We operate on a standard take-down policy. If you are the author or publisher of an outputand you would like it removed from the repository, please contact us and we will investigate on acase-by-case basis.

Each thesis in the repository has been cleared where necessary by the author for third partycopyright. If you would like a thesis to be removed from the repository or believe there is an issuewith copyright, please contact us on [email protected] and we will investigate on acase-by-case basis.

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Effective Talent Development 1

Running head: TALENT DEVELOPMENT: ELITE COACH PERSPECTIVE

Effective Talent Development: The Elite Coach Perspective in UK Sport

Russell J.J. Martindale

Napier University, School of Life Sciences, Edinburgh, UK

Dave Collins

UK Athletics, Athletics House, Solihull, UK

Andy Abraham

Bell College, School of Social Studies, Hamilton, UK

Accepted for Publication in the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology on February 28, 2006 Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to:

Russell J.J. Martindale

School of Life Sciences

Napier University

10 Colinton Road

Edinburgh

EH10 5DT

Email: [email protected]

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Abstract

Research to effectively inform the design and conduct of talent development environments

(TDEs) is sparse, especially relating to the goals and systems involved. Accordingly, this

paper provides a detailed picture of effective goals and systems within TDEs in a UK context.

A thorough examination of the goals, nature and systems of 16 coaches with significant

expertise in talent development was carried out across 13 different sports. Inductive and

deductive analysis revealed support for 5 main generic characteristics of effective TDEs: 1)

Long-term aims and methods; 2) Wide-ranging coherent messages and support; 3) Emphasis

on appropriate development not early success; 4) Individualized and ongoing development;

and 5) Integrated, holistic and systematic development. Implications for applied practitioners,

policy makers and researchers are explored.

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Effective Talent Development: The Elite Coach Perspective in UK Sport

Talent identification and development (TID) is currently big business. Undoubtedly,

effective systems will help enhance the quality and sustainability of our elite level teams,

bringing with it large financial rewards and recognition. First class TID systems capable of

delivering highly able and prepared athletes to the senior level are particularly important

against the backdrop of ever-increasing professionalism and standard of world-class

performance in the modern era.

Research has already explored the characteristics and influences of those who succeed

in developing to, and staying at, the top level of international sport. So we have some depth

of knowledge about the characteristics that need to be engendered. For example, work has

been carried out to identify the characteristics of elite level performers (Bloom, 1985; Gould,

Dieffenbach, & Moffett, 2002; Talbot-Honeck & Orlick, 1998), the characteristics of

successful developers (Abbott & Collins, 2004), and the range of influences on the

development of Olympic champions (Gould et al., 2002). However, the higher-order goals

and systems for coaching and talent development environments (TDEs) that optimally

develop these characteristics are less clear. To date, coaching research has mainly focused on

participation promotion in sport (Douge & Hastie, 1993), and perhaps surprisingly, there is

little consideration of effective TDEs, which essentially drive the TID process.

Of course, it is important to remember that there are many more factors involved in the

development of talent than just the direct process of coaching itself (Bloom, 1985; Gould, et

al., 2002). We must recognize and incorporate a whole range of influential factors, some of

which are crucial for influencing young people directly (e.g., parents), and some that have

more over-arching and systematic influence on the whole process, such as our culture and

sporting policies. However, the TDE is certainly the most consistent and immediately

controllable factor in the life of a developing elite and, given the high levels of resource, its

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important and central role is acknowledged by sports, institutes and governments alike.

Therefore the purpose of this investigation was to examine the goals and systems that

characterize effective TDE.

In fact, guidance is available for this crucial issue within current research. A review by

Martindale, Collins, and Daubney (2005) looking at a broad range of relevant literature,

including both theory and empirical work, yields several likely key characteristics of

effective practice, which emerge consistently across the different sub-disciplines considered

(see Figure 1). Interestingly, when the literature based recommendations are compared with

examples of current practice, many (not all) show a significant disparity. For example, while

it is clear from the literature that talent emerges with the right experience (Bloom, 1985;

Simonton, 1999), many still insist on providing funding and development opportunities to

only a few select youngsters, based on current performance level. As an example, the German

Tennis Federation (DTB, 1992) select children as young as six from mini tournaments and

motor ability tests for development training. Further, while the recognition of the need to

develop fundamental movement skills at a young age is growing (Balyi, 2004; Moore,

Collins, & Burwitz, 1998), there is little evidence to suggest that either sport-specific

pathways or school education systems provide such a service.

The breadth and depth of literature underpinning these characteristics of good practice

supports their use as a structure, which may guide further investigation. As such, prior to the

examination of expert perceptions of effective TDEs, it is worth offering a brief summary of

these points (for a full review see Martindale et al., 2005). First and second, the need for the

promotion of long-term aims and methods and wide ranging coherent messages seems clear

(Bloom, 1985; Gould et al., 2002; Siedentop, 1978). Unfortunately, operationalizing and

implementing these laudable and well-justified aims has proved elusive. In a UK context for

example, it has been highlighted that creating truly coherent long-term aims and methods is

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difficult due to the incoherent structure and strategy behind sport as a whole (Cooke, 1995).

This is apparent in a variety of challenges faced by sports; for example, consider the

following quote: “Elite junior to elite senior is very poor, we have a massive drop out rate and

a large talent pool wasted” (UK Athletics Website, 2003).

Third, appropriate development must be prioritized over the all too common drive for

early “success”, where selection and coaching procedures focus predominantly on winning

(Abbott, Collins, Martindale, & Sowerby, 2002). It is well documented that the vast majority

of those who become extremely successful adults did not start as equally talented young

performers. For this reason a dominant focus on early success and all the coaching,

identification and selection issues that this brings is simply not the most effective (or even

ethical) way of producing senior success. Bloom (1985) highlights this by stating “even in

retrospect, we do not believe that the perfecting of aptitude tests or other predictive

instruments would enable us or other workers in the field to predict high level potential talent

at these early ages.” (p.533). Effective processes appear to highlight the need for the

systematic development of fundamental physical and movement skills, such as catching and

balance (Moore et al., 1998; Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2004) and fundamental attitudes and

mental skills, such as commitment and persistence (Bloom, 1985; Gould, et al., 2002; Talbot-

Honeck & Orlick, 1998). These appear to be the pre-requisites for the development of more

sport-specific skills and continued progress through the transitions associated with achieving

excellence (Bloom, 1985; Van Rossum, 2001).

Fourth, there appears to be a need for individual and ongoing development

opportunities (Abbott & Collins, 2002; Ericsson, Krampe & Tesch-Romer, 1993; Gould et

al., 2002) stemming from the complex dynamic of individuals, their progress and success

(Abbott Button, Pepping, & Collins, 2005; Moore et al., 1998; Simonton, 1999) and the

unpredictable nature of individual development in many aspects, not least physically and

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mentally (Ackland & Blanksby, 1996; Sinclair & Orlick, 1993). Indeed, individual treatment

is vital for effective change in behavior in many aspects of life (Prochaska, DiClemente, &

Norcross, 1992), and factors such as goal setting, review and reinforcement appear to be

important to encourage this change process (Locke & Latham, 1985; Siedentop, 1978).

Finally, effective practice appears to require integrated, holistic and systematic

development, (Burwitz, Moore, & Wilkinson, 1994; Saka, 2003) due to the complex,

dynamic and multilayered nature of development (Abbott et al., 2005; Simonton, 1999).

Some of the methods associated with these five key characteristics are apparent in Figure 1.

Insert Figure 1 About Here

In summary, given the high level of “real world” interest in the identification and

development of talent, and the lack of empirical data that exists for the examination and

guidance of TDEs, the first purpose of this study was to reveal experts’ perceptions of the

goals and systems that are required in order to implement effective TDEs within a British

context (note - these perceptions may or may not typify current practice). Subsequently, the

second purpose of the study was to examine the extent to which expert opinion was

consistent with the model of guidance apparent in the literature (Martindale et al., 2005), with

the aim of providing a more substantial evidence base for the delivery of best practice.

Indeed, if clear and consistent results emerged, guidelines for good practice may be more

usefully developed and disseminated, at least within the context of the investigation (Peshkin,

1993).

Method

Participants

In order to secure an accurate picture of best practice, it was essential to recruit a

representative sample that could justifiably be considered expert. Accordingly, the sample

consisted of 16 elite development coaches from a variety of sports including athletics,

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canoeing, curling, cycling, equestrian, (2) soccer, hockey, judo, netball, (3) rugby, shooting,

swimming, and triathlon. They were identified as expert talent developers through four

criteria.

Firstly, the UK Sports Institute (UKSI) recommended the coaches as exemplars of good

practice at developmental and elite levels. At the time of the investigation, the UKSI

Coaching Support Team were focused on the evaluation of high-level coaching nationwide,

as a precursor to the development of structured support for National Governing Bodies. The

audit process completed as a part of this evaluation offered them an informed perspective

across sports. Second and subsequently, this view was confirmed through interviews with

other elite-level coaches and senior coaching directors within each sport, who were

independently (i.e., blind to the UKSI nominations) asked to provide a list of suitable

candidates. In all cases, this input supported the UKSI view. Thirdly, the nominees’ standard

of work and criticality was recognized and rewarded within their sports through their

appointment as mentors, acting as designated role models for effective practice within their

respective sport’s coach development structure. Finally, all participants had a record of

success in the development (from a maximum age of 16) to elite status of athletes in their

respective sport; additionally, and in order to confirm their current status, all were currently

working with elite and/or development athletes. Demographically, 14 of the coaches were

male and two were female; 12 were British, two were Australasian and two were European.

Furthermore, 10 of the coaches worked with males and females, one worked with females

only and five solely with males. All coaches had at least 10 years of coaching experience and

had represented at high levels of performance as athletes themselves.

Design

A qualitative methodology was selected to gain an in-depth understanding of the

experiential knowledge of TD experts. The qualitative process identifies that the “main goal

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is to reduce the amount of data and obtain a unified picture of the phenomena under study”

(Cote, Salmela, Trudel, Baria, & Russell, 1993, p.130). In order to maximize the chances of

gaining a complete picture of the nature of effective TD, a semi-structured interview was

developed, consisting of nine open-ended questions, carefully structured in an attempt to

elicit truly open-ended responses (Patton, 1990). The questions can be seen in Figure 2.

Insert Figure 2 About Here

Pilot interviews were conducted with three international-level coaches (triathlon, rugby,

basketball). Feedback obtained from these interviewees, in addition to critical appraisal by

the investigators, was used to evaluate and refine the interview guide. This evaluation

process, in addition to recommendations from Patton (1990), was also used to help guide the

interviewers away from biasing coaches’ responses by ensuring the use of a neutral, impartial

stance when probing participant responses and also to maximize rapport, comfort, recall and

open responses (cf. Backstrom & Hursch-Ceasar, 1981).

Procedures

After the expert status of the coaches had been identified, they were recruited by

personal contact. After informing them of the nature of the investigation, and providing

assurances of anonymity, all agreed to take part. The main interview questions were sent to

the coaches before the interview in order to allow the coaches to familiarize themselves with

the types of questions that would be asked. All interviews lasted approximately 120 minutes

and were tape recorded for later transcription. In order to ensure a full investigation into their

perceptions of the nature of effective TD, each coach was asked an identical sequence of

questions (as outlined above); however, in order to gain an in-depth and full understanding of

the meaning of all responses, clarification and probing was used as required for each

individual coach (Patton, 1990).

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Data Analysis

Analysis followed the processes outlined in Edwards, Kingston, Hardy, and Gould

(2002) utilizing both inductive and deductive analysis. The initial inductive approach utilized

hierarchical content analysis, as outlined clearly by Cote et al. (1993) through three stages, 1)

coding experience; 2) inductive inference; and 3) similarity processes. Themes and categories

that emerged from the data (Patton, 1990) are represented and supported by quotes in the

results section (Cohn, 1991) and are presented in the Appendix.

The subsequent, deductive analysis used a pre-determined set of themes and categories

to organize the data (Patton, 1990). Specifically, within this study the deductive analysis was

used to assess the extent to which the views gained supported the theoretically and

empirically based model that emerged from the literature (see Figure 1). It was recognized

that there are difficulties in generalizing data from any qualitative research, indeed, “it is

impossible to generalize in a scientific sense at all” (Guba, 1978, p.68), even when a diversity

of participants are covered, in this case, a variety of different sports. However, it is also

important that “the evaluator should do what he can to establish generalizability of his

findings” (Guba, 1978, p.70), and as such, it was deemed useful to examine the extent to

which the findings supported more widely developed TDE criteria, as emerging from the

literature. Perhaps, if consistent support was clearly apparent, the user generalizability of the

emerging factors would be enhanced somewhat, at least in the sense of highlighting the need

to critically consider their value within any TDE (Peshkin, 1993).

Establishing Trustworthiness

Several steps were taken to establish trustworthiness. First, steps were taken to

maximize the levels of open-ended responses (as outlined above), and two researchers carried

out the interviews in order to reduce the personal bias that a single researcher may bring.

Second, a report of the results was sent back to each coach to establish credibility of the

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findings through stakeholder checks (cf. Patton, 1990), from which no one reported any

required changes. Furthermore, two different researchers carried out reliability checks

(Scanlan, Ravizza, & Stein, 1989). This involved raw data quotes being coded into raw data

themes in 10% of the interviews, followed by matching all the second dimensions to their

third dimension themes and matching all the third dimension themes to the general dimension

themes. Finally, the results of the reliability and validity checks were discussed by all four

researchers, which acted to finalize details and the emergence of the appropriate themes.

Deductive Model and Theory Examination

In accordance with procedures used by Edwards et al. (2002), based on the transcripts

and the understanding gained from the process of the qualitative analysis, two of the

researchers deductively analyzed the data in direct consideration of the five key

characteristics of effective TD practice that emerge from current theory and empirical

research (see Figure 1). The data from the 16 coaches was individually analyzed, and the

researchers assessed the extent to which they provided no support, some support or support

for the model (see Table 1). “No support” was defined as no evidence of the importance of

the theme; “Some support” was defined as evidence supporting the importance of the theme

and use of less than 50% of methods, and finally; “Support” was defined as evidence

supporting the importance of theme and over 50% of methods.

Results

The themes and general dimensions that emerged from the inductive hierarchical

content analysis are inherent in this section (Cohn, 1991) and are presented in the Appendix.

Quotes are used to enable the reader to gain a better appreciation of the context in which the

themes emerge from the data.

Clarity and Consistency of Philosophy, Objectives and Methodology

Coherent long-term aims and methods.

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It was clear from the data that long-term aims must be consistently prioritized

throughout the development system in order to prepare explicitly for senior success. In fact,

in many cases junior performance levels appeared quite unrelated to those at the senior stage;

a factor which participants recognised through their respective system:

“I’m a successful ‘age group’ coach, I’ve won all my ‘sport’ games”. Well, great. And

the best thing to do is just to sweep it all away and say no, we’ll leave our selection

later…what we’re really wanting to do is select from our senior club sides, and junior

internationals; by junior I mean under 21.

A lot of former world junior champions don’t stay in the sport. They don’t make it or

they stay in the sport but they don’t seem to go on to greater things. There are

exceptions of course but again looking at the Aussie model, we think they tend to push

them too hard too soon and basically burn them out. There are other reasons so we try

not to take a softly softly approach but we try to take a more long-term approach to

keep them in the sport longer.

A systematic process designed to progress athletes step by step was highlighted, where

pressure to win at each stage was detrimental to long-term development. For example, those

with potential can be missed and deprived of opportunities due to a lack of current

performance standard, together with coaching aims and methods which lack long-term

developmental focus:

I watched the trials last year for the under 13s. They picked the particular mode of

players it wasn’t close to what I would have picked. And I have international

experience...I’m not saying I would disagree with them in terms of getting the result

that year, but I would have disagreed with it in terms of long-term development.

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The most important principle is that anything that I teach them has to work when they

play senior international ‘team sport’…what you do is you furnish them with the

techniques and the decision-making powers to be able to survive for the next level up.

We sent some under-17’s to Australia …they were sent there not as a team at all, they

were just sent there as a bunch of players who went there to have an experience. Now

that’s just totally unheard of in the England stuff, so there’s some massive changes

[needed] within ‘sport’.

Finally, it was appreciated that not everyone can make it to the top; in line with this a

strong educational ethos was also prevalent. This is highlighted by the following quotes:

When dealing with a young person you are laying the foundation both physically and

mentally for them to take on the world for the rest of their life.

We look to produce a senior international player if they have the ability. If not, the aim

and objective is to get them to be competent enough that they can join a club, the senior

part of a club, and enjoy the ‘sport’ for the rest of their life, And that’s just as worthy an

aim.

Clear expectations and links to the senior level.

For a long-term agenda to be successful, it was reported that those involved in the

development process need clear expectations and understanding of the dynamic nature of TD.

For example, age group squad selection is not an automatic ticket to senior status, athletes

may move in and out of squads and late developers have opportunity to become successful:

We need to be very direct and say that we do not want to be selecting players, I don’t

mind them being identified and given training but it shouldn’t be a situation where

other people can’t come into that group as they become good enough. But getting

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people into that group late, they’re entering a very threatening environment to people

already established and the psychological handling of that needs to be spot on.

There’s an acceptance that, well I hope there is now, there wasn’t before, but my belief

about squads is that about half of them will carry on next year. About a quarter to a

third will drop out for whatever reason, and then there’s another group that have just

come in that are just starting the process…and some players will go from the third

squad straight up to the top squad, and that’s happened. And it’s being able to

recognise when they’re ready.

The fact that they get in the nationally identified program, it starts to become like, “I’ve

got in this now, and I’m just going to keep stepping up until I get to the national side.”

And that’s why that way that you set them up becomes very, very important, that

everybody knows that you will only be in here as long as you’re improving and the

opportunity’s there. And some day you might drop out of it, you could come back into

it, and it’s very fluid. If it’s set up like that it’s very good.

Furthermore, this openness was seen to provide realistic expectations, standards and

goals for all involved, including direction and attitude for long-term development. However,

this message must be reinforced, through for example appropriate coach reward systems:

You’ll not stop that [praise for winning age group competitions], but the thing to do is

to make sure that either that the system doesn’t exist which is the first thing I would

advise, but if you insist on the system being in place, then what you have to do is you

have to track some of the players through and give praise to those county managers

who actually produce the junior players.

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Importance of education, integration and use of outside influences.

The data suggest that it is important to educate a variety of people to ensure that every

influence is coherent. This included many people such as parents, coaches, peer groups, other

role models, teachers, schools and society as a whole.

We need to ensure that the other people who are working with them are providing

what’s required, which is difficult. Kids are at school and they’re not getting either the

‘sport’ training or the values or the home environment’s no good.

The biggest single problem I have as development coach is the kids have three or four

different people talking to them about their game and as a result it leads to a lot of

confusion. They become more skilful at doing the right thing for a coach that’s stood in

front of them than actually improving. And that is because the whole system is

disjointed, split between school and club, split between international, divisional county

club and school. A player could play conceivably at every one of those levels.

One of the things that is very obvious in looking at young players is that 90% of the

time the ones that make it through have got good solid advice at home. Because

whether we like it or not, as coaches we see them for four or five hours a week, the

parents see them every evening.

Once again it’s the education that we’ve got through to the teachers, to the parents and

we need to get it through to the coaches and the youngsters.

They took the coaches out of the club system and in taking the coaches out of the club

system it meant as a regional coach you did a one-off development session with a

player. But when it came to the weekend, that work wasn’t then reinforced.

Finding systematic ways of influencing and utilizing as many people as possible was

also considered important, and participants offered a variety of methods including formal

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education days, informal contact, large education initiatives, practical coaching education,

websites, booklets, use of peers and role models, positive involvement of influential people

(e.g., parents), and integration of coach practice and support staff to allow cross over of

information and ideas. This is supported below:

When they went to play the game again I brought him over and said, “I’m going to get

your dad on the Sunday to do a count of how many times you get on the ball, and we’re

going to keep a score, your dad’s going to start tonight. He’s going to see in this game

how many touches you get.” And he was fine, he was much better.

We are always discussing our players, right the way down to the elevens and twelves

and when we go to a game, or when we go somewhere away, what we do, or we sit in

the office. Because we all take teams you see. I take the under-14 team, X takes the

under-16s team and the under-15s, and Y takes the under-12s and we’ve got players

who take teams as well. So we all take teams, we all know the other kids as well.

You need to educate the parents, you need to get them in and you need to talk to them

about the sort of factors where they’re gonna raise in their heads…have a quiet

informal chat on the side of the pitch. And parents can then hint to their kids about

what you’re looking for and that just helps the process.

For me, the best way to do it is the way I came through the system, which is good

schools, good PE teachers, letting you have a go at a lot of sports and giving you the

opportunity to go where you need to go to progress, be it a club or whatever, but it all

starts with the schools.

I think the advantage of the school over the club situation and producing young players

is that they come across other very experienced and talented staff who teach them all

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sorts of other qualities…talented people who will teach them all a number of things

about life and living, take them on trips, do this, do that.

Systems Facilitating Promotion of Player Development

Individual programs.

A simple, but key and oft stated concept was the need for individualized development.

This is important throughout the process, from needs analysis to development programs. Due

to the individualized nature of development, every individual had their own personal formula

for success and personal requirements in terms of the skills and experiences that ultimately

will be most useful. This is highlighted below.

Challenge them in a way which suits them, because I think it becomes very individual

you know. I think it’s where team sports break down entirely. The team is pushed far

too much and the individual isn’t, that you need to get the best out of people.

You really judge each athlete on their individual merits, you know their stage of

development. You know the rest recovery needs of one will be probably a lot different

from another one. So a lot of one-to-one attention is needed.

You’ve got to treat them all individually, that’s how we had to get every single player

here as an individual program. There are no group programs.

Ownership, autonomy, and self-motivation.

Participants reported that developing athletes needed to take, and be able to take, an

increasing amount of responsibility for their own development and performance as they grow

as athletes and people. This was thought to be necessary in order to reach the levels of

commitment, learning and hard work required for eventual high-level performance. Skills

such as self-awareness, self-motivation, autonomy of learning and self-responsibility were

identified as crucial. The participants offered examples of ways in which this could be done

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including: allowing an appropriate level of ownership over goals and reviewing processes,

delegating responsibility for life and athletic development, letting athletes make mistakes and

helping them to learn to develop from them, not giving too much feedback too much of the

time, promoting self-awareness through questioning and appropriate feedback systems, and

systematic education of the whys and hows of development and performance. All participants

endorsed that this takes time and patience:

I’d challenge the athlete to find their way of doing what I know they’ve got to do. So,

that’s part of the challenging culture. It’s not good either, giving too much away, but

more and more, the athlete will take responsibility of his or her own actions the better.

That’s the best way to learn.

Ownership and self-awareness, I just feel players who are directed all the time lack self-

awareness and don’t develop, you know, become robotic, whereas if he can get an

understanding the way to design drills, the why you do them, to have a clear model of

the skills that they’re trying to work on…if you can get that sort understanding then

you’ve got players who can self-coach and they can go out any time and do the drills.

You’ve got to take responsibility yourself to develop the skills or whatever it is that you

haven’t quite got hold of. So I think the tendency to, definitely you can too much with

people, you know, take them to the water too many times.

As a coach you often get asked and you are very willing to give advice because you

have been through that whole thing yourself as a person most likely. Also you have

had other athletes that have gone through. Now again, like in all coaching, it is very

dangerous to point out too many of the pitfalls that you might know yourself through

your own experience because that to me pre-empts the learning curve.

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Explain to you why they made the decision and then you say to them well what were

your other options? Why that possibly, that one could have been a better option? And

they’ve gotta understand why because if they understand why they will then try and

change their habit. So that is an important stage.

Ongoing review and goal setting.

The data highlighted that a systematic process of goal setting, developing and

reviewing was crucial in order to promote change and to monitor and help an athlete through

their unpredictable development. When these processes are effective, they provide integrated

direction and purpose, feedback and opportunities for the development of intrinsic motivation

and ownership. This ongoing review and goal setting process was seen as both formal and

informal, and from team to individual, ranging from end-of-season reviews through to

fortnightly meetings to “a word after training,” as implied by the quotes below:

We sit down, we have one to ones, we identify what key skills, key positional

requirements, mental skills, together with the player, we determine from that rating

what we’ve got to work on most, we help design activities. We then re-measure them

see if they have improved a bit, it’s just a continuous process of identifying what’s

needed and then delivering it.

You’ve got an ongoing process of planning, looking ahead, reviewing, monitoring,

planning, reviewing, and it goes on all the time then I think we’re continually adjusting

to the demands being made on the player.

We do one on ones with players to look at the game as we feel it’s needed or as they

feel its needed, so I won’t meet every week but every three weeks, I would say, I’ll

have met with every player either within a mini unit or individually to look at the game,

look at what they need to improve, particularly if they are not being selected.

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Importance of informal player coach interactions and set up.

The role of this regular and informal communication was a particularly important

feature. The informal nature of many interactions was not seen as a replacement of formal

meetings, but as a vital extra. The relaxed nature of these meetings more often than not

resulted in sharing of important information and a building of trust, factors seen by

participants as key for effective development. The following quote reinforces this:

Ring them occasionally, sit down and have a beer, have a coffee, particularly with two

or three of the more senior players in the side. Have a check, you know how you think

things are going; this and that and the other. And then you run into others at various

other times and places and that’s an opportunity to have a quiet word with them more.

And obviously you stop people pre- and post- training, pre- post- match times. I believe

to be honest with you that rather than a lot of formal situations that informal is best …

That’s what makes the whole team stick together, that communication….It’s just a chat

and it’s a non-threatening environment. They’ll tell you loads of things. Then you can

get to know the players that bit better and know what makes them tick.

Balance.

The participants emphasized that creating balance in the athletes’ lives was extremely

important for sustaining successful progression. Particularly, developing an athlete’s ability

to relieve stress resulting from life and/or sport and develop effective mental and physical

recovery plans would help prevent burnout. Furthermore, encouraging a balance of outside

activities could also help athletes to see themselves from a more rounded perspective, and

prepare them for the outside world:

I think certainly at a younger age, if you looked at some of the academy models around,

particularly in football, something like Ajax they work really hard on the values, on the

balanced lifestyle, the values and develop character.

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I think they’re (education/work/leaving home, etc.) part of the challenge as well. I

mean X went to university, went home because he had to do the Commonwealth Games

to do and various other things like that. So the competition structure didn’t sort of

endorse the university situation. But no, I think generally speaking those are the little

challenges around and its part of growing up.

You might have to defocus them, to teach them how to relax, to teach them how to not

over-train, to get them into the mental stage where they are not overdoing it.

De-emphasize age group success.

It was highlighted that de-emphasizing age group success was a crucial concept for

influential people to understand and implement within any TDE. For a variety of reasons it

was seen as extremely difficult to identify those who will eventually reach the top, and

without a change in emphasis on age group “success,” problems would continue to exist in

selection, coaching and funding opportunities, aims and subsequent experiences:

You can be player of the year at 13 or 14 years of age, you can be a star. And then at

16, 17 years of age you can’t get a game on your team, because the boys have just

overtaken you.

There’s two players here that missed out on representative teams when younger, late

developers, they are now first teamers.

The other thing I would say is advice to the governing body to keep large numbers of

kids involved, I would get rid of County ‘team sport’ juniors. I would do some

divisional ‘team sport’ at the age of under 16 but not until that stage, because all it does

is it turns people off the sport, it’s far too selective. Eleven get picked in the County,

where there are actually 50 or 60 that could one day be great players.

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Now, invariably, the people who get picked at the bottom end of junior sport in the UK

are those that have been coached earlier, started the game earlier, have got a head start,

and they’re not being rated with a future. They’re being rated with a present.

It’s important to keep a look on players in general…I think it’s very important at

developmental level that don’t write off the ones that aren’t there yet when they’re 16

because you will find in 12 months things will change dramatically.

Role models.

Participants reported that peer group pressure could have significant positive or

negative influence on a young athlete. However, systematic utilization of role models was

highly beneficial and the management of potentially negative situations is key. Positive

examples included; mixing different close age groups at school or in the club environment,

bringing in or exposing younger athletes to already successful elite athletes and or coaches,

using video, targeting influential peers and utilizing them, reading biographies or through

mixed age or performance group meetings. The data suggested that this area is often not used

to its fullest capacity and that is a large and exciting but currently missed opportunity:

What we’ve done here at school which long time ago is double up the year groups so

we have the under 13s and under 14s work together as under 14 A and B. Therefore

you have two years of 14s - one when you’re learning and one when you’re the boss!

And that obviously helps the younger players on hugely at each stage. And also then

gives them some leadership experience as well. And then they’re more, you know,

cock of the school so to speak, you know. And that’s the way it should be.

I would say my job is more as a motivator as well. To explain to kids there is a pathway

to the job, there is a structure, I don't hide the fact that you've got to work hard, you've

got some great role-models there, and we'd be delighted to have you guys pushing the

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people that we have in the institute here and it's not impossible. And give them some

real-life examples of people who have already done that.

University is the death nail to most players. They go, even sports universities such as

Loughborough, and drink themselves into the ground. Two years later they are no

better. They are fat, they are unfit and they will never then make the step.

That’s the way to disseminate knowledge and it has some meaning because they can

see then that real people have issues and problems, things that need to be resolved and

they have solutions to them. And they want to hear it from them because they’re not

listening necessarily to myself or other coaches. But they will respect and listen to their

peers and people they would want to compete with.

A player has just retired from international ‘sport’ and he’s 27-28, he’s a gold medallist

and the Germans consider him to be their best player ever technically. And this guy’s

performance - the English guy playing with them - has gone up another two steps. He is

twice the player he was two or three years ago. That’s not to do with my coaching,

that’s to do with him having a very good role model.

Complexity and integration.

It was consistently reported that there are a wide range of factors that need to be

considered in any TDE, ranging from an organizational level to decisions made by the

coaches themselves based on individual athletes with individual circumstances. As the data

have shown, under the surface there are many factors that interact and affect each other

significantly, and consequently the process and decisions taken are highly systematic,

integrated and interdisciplinary. However, the participants stated that while the complexity of

the process needs to be acknowledged, the end result and process needs to be kept simple to

be effective and practical, as highlighted by the quotes below:

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There are an awful lot of factors involved, which, if you like, we need to take the

synoptic view to the players’ development. Taking ideas in loads of different places

and then simple advice from thereon in. I wouldn’t say it’s rocket science. I wouldn’t

say that you need to make it very, very difficult and intellectual.

They don’t integrate their thinking and therefore their actions are not integrated either.

Now, that’s not a criticism necessarily of them as people. I think it’s more of a system,

the system of production of them.

It is complex and you have to be very systematic in the way you set things up. For

example, by Wednesday we need to have individual reviews and unit reviews, a full de-

brief of the game we've just played, and a look ahead at the next team. They've got

individual responsibility to look for body language and things in the opposition team,

what they can attack, what they can exploit, what they can expect…to achieve it you

can't just be willy-nilly, you have to look at times and resources.

Not only is it important to be physically stronger, but I think psychologically it is a

massive help. When you are physically stronger you are holding people off, you get to

the ball alot quicker and your confidence growths so psychologically you improve as a

player…and if you are confident you’ll be relaxed, if you’re relaxed you’ll play better

etc. and it all goes hand in hand, there’s nothing works without the other part.

Importance of Ongoing TID and Opportunities

Athlete development is individualized and unpredictable.

It was clear from the data that development within and between individuals is

individualized and unpredictable. Hence, performance standards are often a poor measure of

potential and this needs to be accounted for in any TDE.

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Sometimes it could be how their body grows in the wrong way. It could be outside

interests, they could lose their belief in themselves. How many times have you seen in

different sports young people coming along and they have the world scene for 18

months and they’re gone, you never hear of them again. Sometimes they might be gone

a number of years, then suddenly come back.

What you get is at the younger end, we’re going to select him for the first year rugby

team at stand off cause he’s six feet six. And he’s going to catch the ball and score tries

for us. Or he’s a big lad, sometimes a lot of time is invested in these so-called big lads

in the first two or three years of their game playing career. Then all of a sudden other

folk bypass them. And it’s the wee dirt guy that’s just been dogging in his training and

all the rest of it and he’s started to grow and become more physically mature. So I think

people have to be careful.

It all depends on how they develop and I've seen some young people who were

extremely talented as 12/13 year olds but by the time they have got to 18/19 they have

lost their talent.

I have seen people who have developed and then stood still for 2 or 3 years and then

suddenly things have kicked in and they’ve developed again. If we were capable of

identifying that and bottling it, we would be winning everything. You can’t, it is just

how things go and develop and who knows what is going to happen.

Producing teams that haven’t got enough power to actually play against the

international sides, and yet they’ve got people that they’ve dropped out of the sport

earlier because they thought they were uncoordinated or whatever, but they haven’t

given them the chance to grow. There’s been some horrendous cases of that, where

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someone who’s grown to 6ft 2 or whatever isn’t going to look the same as a 5ft 2

person under the same conditions at 14 years of age.

Flexible, open and ongoing development opportunities.

The unpredictability of the development process needs to be supported systematically

with flexible, open and ongoing opportunities to as many youngsters as possible.

They (clubs) need 12s, 14s, 16s, 18s yeah. And you need as many teams within each of

those brackets as possible. So you play for the under 12 fourth eleven. And that is the

system that has been running in Holland and Germany for years and should have been

running here.

At the younger group you’re giving the widest possible group experiences, and just let

them get on with it. Observe them while they’re having those experiences, and then

gradually over a couple of years you’ll start to pick out who the ones are that are going

to step forward. Now, they’re the ones that you need to pick up.

Skills that must be promoted in development environments.

The data showed that a wide variety of skills are needed for development. These

included some more generic skills, such as fundamental movements, decision-making, life

and mental skills. These were important as they provided a basis on which more sport-

specific development could take place. Importantly, skills needed to be developed in an

integrated manner to be successful. For example, technical skills must be learnt in

conjunction with decision making in order to encourage transfer to a game situation. This

process needed to be systematic but at the same time allow for natural ability to shine

through. The variety of factors was necessary to promote effective performance and also

effective progression, development and life management. The quotes below highlight this:

Every skill you can imagine is applied.

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It’s just one of the skills along with conditioning, along with technical skills, along with

technical awareness. But it’s given scant regard in most outfits whereas I think there’s

a belief where you’ve either got it or you haven’t mentally instead of an understanding

that mental skills can be trained like physical skills. We’ve introduced programs here

such as centering or mindfulness, visualization and goal setting.

You can get someone with a really awful attitude, but the way I look at that is, that’s

changeable. You can’t change your genetics, but you could change somebody’s

attitude.

But when the pressure really comes on there’s always returning to rote under pressure

which is why it’s important to start the psychological stuff fairly young. But I’m not

sure that that psychological stuff needs to be “lie on my couch” stuff, it’s more practical

psychology.

He’s got to be able to run nicely. In other words, it’s pleasing to the eye, smooth,

balanced, able to change direction nicely, smoothly.

If it’s 6-10 year olds the main aims would be to give fundamental movement skills.

Many people say that we need the best coach in the establishment is the head coach.

But I disagree. For me, for me the quality of coaching I need this very low level. And

I’d look at very good coaches for coaching the youngsters and bringing them through

this process. Because if you get that process right, the end process is going to be very

easy. If you don’t get that right then the end process can be very difficult.

Basically what I was trying to do is to make them being athletes, so it means not ‘sport’

but athletes first - running, swimming, introduction on bike, gym work – but only

introduction at some point. And my first concern was co-ordination skill first.

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I think with the environment, using the right coaches, and the very solid work through

the respect, the discipline, the passion about what is being done, a good technique etc,

so that a person that comes into your sport can see a way forward. They can see that if

they are good at that then the next stage is this and the next stage is that. There is

adequate technique coaching taking care of them as persons and as athletes through

each of these stages but without making them all into soldiers where they are all

marching up and down. That to me is a very fine balance, it's the same as developing

talent and bringing technique in without losing the talent. It is having a

structure/strategic plan in a regimented way so that you are bringing things forward but

still allowing for that individuality.

Results of the Deductive Analysis

As the table highlights, substantial support for the literature-based model of TDEs

resulted from the deductive analysis (see Table 1). However, we feel it is useful as a brief

summary to highlight that while no entirely new concepts emerged from the analyses, the

coach data did support the need to expand two key aspects of the model. First, the key

method concerned with “providing forums for open and honest communication patterns”

would need to be expanded to emphasize the importance of incorporating both formal and

informal coach-athlete interactions. Second, the key method “provide regular individual goal

setting and review processes” would also need to be further expanded to emphasize the

importance of providing individualized programs. (For a more detailed view of the features of

the literature-based model see Martindale et al., 2005).

Insert Table 1 About Here

Discussion

The results section is, by decision, very detailed, and we feel that the inherent messages

ring loud and clear. Before considering some of the many implications however, it is

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important to highlight the limitations inherent in the study, which must be considered against

the comparatively clear results which emerge.

For example, a small number of coaches were involved (N =16) and, perhaps to be

expected as with any attempt to summarize and condense findings, not all coaches promoted

each of the generic factors in exactly the same way or to the same extent. Additionally,

agreement between participants was, quite understandably, “clouded” by the sport-specific

context in which they worked. Thirdly, other important groups, such as athletes and parents

were not included in this work. Such a triangulation of information would be extremely

useful, indeed some of which is currently being undertaken in an attempt to strengthen our

understanding of the requirements of effective TDEs. Finally, we recognize that the issue of

generalization is important, as in any qualitative investigation.

In support of the data however, the nature of both participants and analysis must be

considered. Firstly, the selection criteria so carefully applied obviously limit the sample size.

Thus, the group is drawn from a comparatively small subset of coaches but, in the current

context, could justifiably be seen as offering an expert opinion on TD in the UK. As such,

their opinions would seem to hold important advice for others; the selection criteria for

inclusion certainly support this view.

Secondly, theme consistency within the data must be considered. Throughout the

investigation, and reflecting good practice in qualitative work, we took careful steps to avoid

any leading of participants. However, clear and consistent guidelines emerged from this

diverse sport sample, which demonstrate a clear coherence with those themes obtained from

other research. Thus, qualitative limitations notwithstanding, this extended level of support is

presented in order to enhance the user generalizability of the findings by providing the reader

with the best possible description of effective TDEs (Peshkin, 1993). We present both

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message and methodological caveats, allowing researchers, coaches and policy makers alike

to use this work as a critical base on which to review, research and develop practice.

With these qualifications in mind, four important factors emerge from the data, over

and above the clarity of systemic considerations which is the primary message of the results.

Firstly, the need for an integrated, pan-stage system was a clear and consistent suggestion

from all participants. In the present study, the context of effective TDEs (defined as that

which aids the development of those who have been identified as talented) was associated

mainly with academies and national age group standards. However, emerging from this

developing picture of TDEs is that many, if not all, of these factors apply across a wide

variety of development experiences such as school and club systems. To highlight this point,

one participant in the study (ex-international head coach) was currently (and extremely

successfully) coaching his sport using the same ideas at school, club and age group levels.

The data support the contention that the most effective mechanism for change and influence

would be able to consider the athlete and their experiences as a whole, whereby the overall

philosophies and features espoused in the model would reverberate from “the top” right

through every youth experience, a situation only possible with the influence of those with

power to change sport structures and education (e.g., policy makers and governing bodies).

Furthermore, the full context of the process appeared to require consideration of what

happens before this stage. For example, this study also supported the well-documented need

for an early stage where fun, passion and fundamental skills (physical and mental) are

introduced to all youngsters as a prerequisite for effective future development.

Notably, the lack of effective foundations was a common concern for the UK coaches,

in both what and how skills were taught, a view that has been documented before (Moore et

al., 1998). In line with this, the issue of when youngsters should be selected (or not) was key,

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and while selection is needed eventually; the timing, rationale and development experiences

associated with it were promoted by participants as requiring special consideration.

Secondly, due to the recognized notion of late developers and the dynamic process of

development and performance, supported by other research (Abbott et al., 2005), a depth of

quality systems would sensibly be in place, outside of any select experience, to sufficiently

aid those with potential who, for whatever reason, may be overlooked by often premature

early selection.

Thirdly, the data highlight a number of UK system-specific problems, including a lack

of coherent aims between levels of development and clear long-term pathways; poor

communication systems; lack of funding; potential detrimental effects of University

lifestyles, and a lack of a “cultural mentality” for hard word, self-responsibility and self-

improvement. We leave it to the non-British reader to decide whether these issues apply to

their own setting.

Finally, the nature of this report as an achievable but yet to be reached ideal must be

stressed. For a number of reasons often outside their control, not all of the emerging factors

were currently practiced coherently, or at all, by the participants: nonetheless, all were factors

that the coaches believed were important for effective practice. For example, all believed

parent education was important, but due to resource limitation it wasn’t currently happening.

However, the five key goals and systems that emerged were representative and provided a

model for effective TD practice and critical reflection.

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Appendix

Hierarchical Model of the Inductive Analysis

Sub-theme 1 Sub-theme 2 General dimension

Get players to and winning at senior level

Prepare ‘kids’ for the rest of their lives

Develop ‘kids’ to be good enough to join a club/ stay

involved in sports

Coherent long term

aims and methods

Promote and develop coherent aims and messages

across school/club/country

Ensure players understand standards expected of

them and provide clear and relevant aims at their

level in relation to long term achievement

Ensure players understand standards eventually

required

Clear expectations and

links to senior level Clarity and consistency of

Maximize player contact and involvement with

senior players and coaching staff

philosophy, objectives and

methodology

Ensure coherent long term aims through the system

Ensure coaches ‘talk’ and integrate at all levels

Promote education and ‘use’ of parents

Promote education and ‘use’ of teachers

Promote education, integration and communication

between a variety of coaches Importance of education,

Promote integration with a wide variety support

staff: ‘Team of Support’

integration & use of

‘outside’ influences

Utilize the influence of peer group

Provide flexibility and support for athlete’s work or

education demands

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Sub-theme 1 Sub-theme 2 General dimension

Be systematic and individually focused Promote

Allow for individual differences within needs,

strengths/ weaknesses and developmental program

individualized

programs

Promote player self awareness

Promote player ownership Develop player

Promote independent learning ownership, autonomy

Promote self responsibility and self motivation

Promote and check player understanding

Ongoing review and goal

setting for player improvement

Set up non threatening, informal interactions – more

opportunities to find out about and help athletes Informal player/coach

Create open and honest two way communication interactions and set up

Provide overall balanced development within sport Systems facilitating the

Encourage lifestyle balance Balance promotion of player

Target emotional and physical recovery Development

Many age group teams too selective too early

Create opportunities for all to develop

Individual differences in ‘development’ – must focus

on individual development not squad/team

performance

De-emphasize age

group success

Coach rewards must focus on bringing players

through not win loss record

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Sub-theme 1a Sub-theme1b Sub-theme 2 General dimension

Parents as role models

Peers as role models

Teachers/schools as role models Utilize the effects of

Senior performers as role models role models

Older/more experienced peers as role models

Coaches as role models

Reinforce skills through a variety of means Systematic and integrated

Promote systematic skill teaching and practice teaching and reinforcement

Maturation stage variability

Past training experience variability

Unpredictability in development

and later success

Identifying

potential/talent

Early selection/de-selection putting

‘kids’ off sport

in youngsters

is problematic

Identification difficult – requires

best coaches

Transitions can be positive or

negative

Athlete development is

individualized and

Transitions offer important lessons Transitions – unpredictable

Most athletes have hard times issues regarding

Mental toughness key to

progression

potential

problem periods

Pressures effect athletes differently

Support network important

Variety of potential generic and

individualized problem periods

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Sub-theme 1a Sub-theme1b Sub-theme 2 General dimension

Development experience is

required before potential can

be identified

Identify potential

over time Flexible, open, and

Importance of ongoing TID

and opportunities

Potential emerges over time ongoing opportunities

Late developers exist Provide breadth and

Variations in progress exist depth of opportunities

Sport-specific skills

Fundamental and generic

skills

Wide range of

necessary skills

Life skills

Love for the game Skills that must be

Ability to adapt to life,

competition or training

pressures Generic qualities of

promoted in

development

environment

Fundamental skills and

coordination

young players with

potential

Ability to improve and

develop

Mental desire and attitude to

improve/succeed

Individual differences in

mixture of qualities

characterizing potential

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Table 1

Summary of Deductive Data Analysis

Key theme No support

Some

support Support

Long-term aims and methods 3 13

Widespread coherent messages and support 1 15

Emphasize appropriate development not

early “success” 2 14

Individualized and ongoing development 2 14

Integrated, holistic and systematic

development 1 15

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Figure Captions

Figure 1. The model of effective TDEs emerging from the literature (Martindale et al., 2005).

Figure 2. Interview questions.

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NATURE OF MODEL

Individualised

and Ongoing

Development

Provide Opportunities and Fundamentals to as Many Youngsters as Possible

Provide Flexible Systems to Allow for Performance and Physical Development Variation

Identify, Prepare for and Support Individuals Through Key Transitions

Provide Regular Individual Goal Setting and Review Processes

Provide Systematic Reinforcement Contingencies

Emphasise Appropriate Development NOT Early

Success

De-Emphasise ‘Winning’ as Success at Developmental Stages

Provide Clear Expectations, Roles, and Meaning Within the ‘Big Picture’ at Every Level

Provide ‘Stage Specific’ Integrated Experiences and Teaching

o Fundamental Physical and Perceptual Skills o Fundamental Mental Skills (Learning and Development; Life; Performance Related) o Sport Specific Skills (Technical, Tactical, Mental, Physical, Perceptual) o Balance

Encourage Increasing Responsibility and Autonomy in Learning/Development

Develop Intrinsic Motivation and Personal Commitment to Process

Promote Personal Relevance, Athlete Understanding and Knowledge

Wide Ranging Coherent Messages

and Support

Provide Coherent Philosophies, Aims and Methods at a Variety of Levels (e.g. Parents, Coach Content, Practice and Reward Systems, Selection, Funding, Competition Structure, NGBs)

Educate Parents, Schools, Peers, Coaches & Important Others (and encourage positive contributions!)

Utilise Role Models at a Variety of Levels

Set Up a Variety of Support Networks Over the Long Term (e.g. Peer, Coach, Sport Staff, Family)

Provide Forums for Open and Honest Communication Patterns at a Variety of Levels

Long Term Aims and Methods

Develop a Long Term Vision, Purpose and Identity

Develop Systematic Planning and Implementation

Provide Coherent Reinforcement at a Variety of LevelsIn

tegrated, H

olistic and

System

atic

KEY FEATURES KEY METHODS

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1. Could you give me an overview of what you do when you coach development athletes?

2. How does this contrast to what you do when you coach elite athletes?

3. What factors do you think characterize someone who has the potential to become elite?

4. What are the stages that someone has to go through to progress from novice to elite in

your sport?

5. What do you do at each of the stages?

6. Could you tell me about the complexity of what you are trying to do at each stage?

7. Could you tell me about your use of ‘others’ within each stage?

8. Does your NGB offer clear guidelines as to the levels/skills etc. expected by each stage?

9. How effective do you think current TD processes are in your sport?