effective classroom-adaptations cec-2001

68 ■ THE COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

TEA

CH

ING

Exc

epti

onal

Chi

ldre

n,

Vol.

33,

No.

6,

pp.

68-7

4. C

opyr

ight

200

1 C

EC.

Effective Classroom Adaptations for Students with Visual Impairments

Penny R. Cox

Mary K. Dykes

• Basic traffic safety• Playground boundaries• Cafeteria use• Computer use in library or media cen-

ter• “Readable” maps and charts• Verbal (auditory) alternatives• Emergency procedures

How does your school or classroommeasure up in these categories when itcomes to making adaptations for youngpeople with visual impairments? Youneed to answer many questions: Caneverybody exit the building quickly inthe event of an emergency? Can all stu-dents locate and use water fountains?How about items on bookshelves in theclassroom or library? Or special learningcenters in the classroom?

We can appropriately teach studentswith visual impairments in general edu-cation settings. But we must be surethat we are informed about students’visual abilities and their affect on learn-ing and integration in the general class-room environment.

This article discusses strategies forincluding students with visual impair-ments into general education settings.The article provides a starting pointfrom which general educators can beginto learn about visual impairments andbuild skills that will benefit all their stu-dents (see box, “Commonly UsedTerms”).

Categories of VisualImpairmentsCategories of visual impairments reflectmore than just visual acuity. Students’ability to use vision, as well as howmuch they use other senses for learn-

ing, are aspects of each category(Bishop, 1996; Turnbull, Turnbull,Shank, Smith, & Leal, 2002). The termslow vision, functionally blind, and blindare often used to describe and catego-rize levels of vision. Each category isconsidered in terms of the degree ofacuity and its implications for students’learning.• Low Vision. Generally, students with

low vision are able to learn usingtheir visual sense; however, they mayneed to have print magnified, con-trast enhanced, or type font or sizechanged (Turnbull et al., 2002).Students in this category characteris-tically work more slowly and experi-ence difficulty working with details(Colenbrander in Barraga & Erin,1992).

• Functional Blindness. People withfunctional blindness typically use acombination of modalities to functionwithin their surroundings (Turnbullet al., 2002). Students in this categorygenerally read and write using Braille.Some functionally blind individualshave sufficient vision to allow themto move around the classroom safely.Others, however, may require consid-erable accommodations to do so.

• Blindness. Near blindness and totalblindness are included in this catego-ry. Near blindness occurs when visu-al acuity is reduced so greatly thatlearning takes place using data fromother senses most of the time(Colenbrander in Barraga & Erin,1992). Students with total blindnessreceive no stimuli from their visualchannel. They depend entirely oninput from other senses.

Incidental LearningStudents with visual impairments lackopportunities for incidental learningthat occur for their sighted peers almostconstantly (Hatlen & Curry, 1987).Without such opportunities, associatingwords with elements of the environ-ment is difficult. Thus, it is importantthat such associations be supplementedwith input from other senses andthrough alternative activities.

The limited nature of visual associa-tions for students with visual impair-ments has classroom implications.Absence of or reduced visual cues, suchas a schedule written on the chalkboardor seeing the clock, can prevent thesestudents from following classroom pro-cedures or anticipating coming events.Students need opportunities to becomeacquainted with their classmates.Because students with visual impair-ments may not readily associate namesand faces through incidental classroomexperiences, teachers need to designappropriate experiences to help buildrelationships among all students in aclass. Physical orientation of students toclassroom routines or other events thattake place during the day is importantand must occur as soon as possibleonce the student is assigned to theclassroom.

Orientation and MovementStudents with visual impairmentsshould move around the classroom orother areas of the school just as theirsighted peers do. Free movementaround school is an essential part ofsuccessful school experiences. Orien-tation and mobility training helps stu-

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ■ JULY/AUGUST 2001 ■ 69

dents accomplish this goal. Koenig(1996) stated that such training “pro-motes safe, efficient, graceful, and inde-pendent movement through any envi-ronment, indoor and outdoor, familiarand unfamiliar” (p. 260). Orientationand mobility skills help people knowwhere they are in relation to their sur-roundings and how to safely navigatewithin their environment (Turnbull etal., 2002).

Relevant skills for the school settinginclude knowing where landmarks arethroughout the school setting; beingfamiliar with the layout of classroomsand common areas such as the library,gym, and cafeteria; and knowing whereexits, restrooms, the main office, andother relevant areas are. Students need

training in the school’s emergency pro-cedures, such as fire, tornado, or earth-quake drills. Orientation and mobilityskills are also important in outdoorareas such as playgrounds and bus load-ing zones (see Figure 1 on page 70 for achecklist of skills for classroom teach-ers).

Different types of mobility systemsare available, including sighted guides,canes, guide dogs, and electronicdevices (Hill & Snook-Hill, 1996).Orientation and mobility specialists canhelp determine the best system to usefor individual students; as well, the spe-cialists can provide information aboutthe preferred system and any traininggeneral education teachers may need.

Designing Effective LearningEnvironments ThroughCollaboration with VisionSpecialistsStudents with visual impairmentsplaced in general education classes usu-ally get support services from a visionspecialist (Heward, 2000). Such topicsas learning through other senses,instructional and curricular adaptations,and appropriate resources and materialsare the domain of vision specialists.General educators will find these col-leagues a valuable source of informa-tion and assistance that will help themcapitalize on students’ abilities (seeFigure 2 on page 71 for a checklist ofclassroom materials and strategies forteachers).

General education teachers servingstudents with visual impairments mustwork in collaboration with vision spe-cialists. Vision specialists should be apart of the team of professionals work-

Most students with visual impair-ments have some usable vision.

TEACHERS NEED TO DESIGN

APPROPRIATE EXPERIENCES TO

HELP BUILD RELATIONSHIPS

AMONG ALL STUDENTS IN A CLASS.

Commonly Used Terms

The following terms are frequently used by professionals who work with stu-dents who have visual impairments. Understanding these terms will allow gen-eral education teachers to communicate with other support personnel moreeffectively. Visual Acuity. Visual acuity is a term used to refer to how well a person seesfrom specified distances. For example, a measurement of 20/20 denotes normalvision—objects seen from a distance of 20 feet can be seen with accuracyexpected for that distance. If visual acuity is measured at 20/100, objects seenby the individual with typical vision at 100 feet must be viewed at 20 feet bythe person with impaired vision.Visual Impairment. Conditions of the eye or visual system that result in lessthan normal vision are visual impairments (Barraga & Erin, 1992). Such impair-ments can include reduced visual acuity, obstructed or narrowed field of vision,or failure of visual stimuli to be sent to or processed by the brain. The condi-tion may or may not be correctable.Visual Perception. Visual perception is the ability to gain meaning from stim-uli received visually (Barraga & Erin, 1992). Students with visual impairmentscan have visual perception even if their visual acuity is low. Visual perceptioncan be enhanced through training.Visual Functioning. The extent to which vision is used is called visual func-tioning. Visual functioning skills allow people with visual impairments to gath-er information from their experiences, which they use to interpret their imme-diate surroundings and to apply in other circumstances. According to Corn(1989), visual functioning skills help students gain information from directed,as well as incidental, experiences and aid them in planning and carrying outtasks.

Students whose visual acuity is poor can learn to use their vision efficient-ly to meaningfully interpret visual images (Heward, 2000). Many students withimpaired acuity can still use their vision for learning. In fact, people with loweracuity who have learned to use their vision may actually function better thanpeople with higher acuity who have not developed skills for using their vision.Visual functioning can depend on students’ experiences using their vision,training to use their vision, and their motivation to function visually.


Figure 1. Checklist for Outdoor and Indoor Orientation and Mobility Adaptations

Outdoor Orientation and Mobility Yes N/A More Information

At bus loading zones: Student knowsBasic traffic safety

Location of zone in relation to building entrance

Procedure for getting on and off the bus

On the playground: Student knowsConfiguration of playgroundLocation of boundaries of the playground in relation to the classroom,

building, streets, etc.

Location and nature of playground equipment

Safety rules of using playground equipment

Location and use of adapted equipment

In the community: Student knowsProcedures for riding the bus to and from school

Indoor Orientation and Mobility Yes N/A More InformationIn the building: Student knows locations ofMain office

Restrooms

ClinicExits and entrances (in relation to where the student is at different

times—including emergency procedures)

Classrooms

Media Center

Cafeteria

Potential hazards

In the classroom: Arrangement is easy to navigate Pathways are unobstructed

Books, bookbags, and other personal items are properly storedAreas often used by students (i.e., centers, places to turn in work, exits) are

readily accessibleFamiliarize students with configuration of desks; repeat or inform each time

configuration changes

Student knows location ofStorage areas

Sink and water fountain

Centers or other work stations

In the Media Center: Student knows location ofCirculation desk

Bookshelves

Tables or reading areas

Adapted computers and printers

Student knows procedures forObtaining assistance

Checking out and returning materials

In the cafeteria: Student knows location ofServing line

Cashier

Tables

Disposal areas

Student knows procedures forGoing through the serving line, requesting, and obtaining food

Disposing of garbage

Leaving the cafeteria


Figure 2. Checklist for Classroom Strategies and Adaptations

Classroom Supplies and Equipment Yes N/A More Information

Raised-line or bold-line paper, templates, and/or writing guides

Soft lead pencils

Felt-tip pens (various widths; high-contrast colors)

Supplementary light source (e.g., desk lamp)

Braille writer; slate and stylus

Magnification device

Book stand

Cassette tape recorder/player

Sun visor or light shield to reduce glare

Large print reading materials (preprinted or produced using computer technology)

Physical education equipment with auditory signals (e.g., beep balls)

Safety Considerations Yes N/A More Information

Evaluate environment for potential hazard areas (e.g., stairs, playground structures, dimly lit areas)

Ensure that doors and storage areas are completely open or completely closed at all times

Ensure that student knows routines for fire drills and other emergency procedures

Instructional Strategies Yes N/A More Information

Have student sit closer to see board, videos, demonstrations, etc.

Give student copies of teacher notes

Read notes aloud while writing them on board

Provide audio tapes of reading material

Allow student to turn in taped rather than written responses

Enlarge books, worksheets, etc.

Provide opportunities for hands-on learning

Additional Curriculum Areas Yes N/A More Information

Daily living

Listening skills

Keyboarding and computer skills

Orientation and mobility

Social skills

Human growth and development

Braille literacy

Use of vision

Collaborating with Other Professionals Yes N/A More Information

Meet and know schedules of specialists who might work with student (e.g., orientation and

mobility, itinerant vision educator, occupational therapist, etc.)

Learn how and when student uses sighted guide, long cane, etc. for travel

Learn about magnification devices, braillers, and other equipment available to and used by student

Learn about student’s strengths/weaknesses and academic needs and develop appropriate strategies

Become familiar with individualized education programs (IEP) goals and objectives and

other services specified to be provided

ing to ensure that students are receivingappropriate services and accommoda-tions. Vision specialists can help deter-mine what goals and related servicesshould be included on the individual-ized education program (IEP) of the stu-dents, as well as what types of accom-modations are needed in the classroom.General educators who consult regular-ly with vision specialists are better ableto fashion learning experiences appro-priate for their students.

Tactile and Kinesthetic Learning Students with visual impairments usetactile and kinesthetic input to learnabout their environments. Such inputshould not be thought of as “lessersenses” to use in the absence of vision,but as another system through whichlearning takes place (Klatzy &Lederman, 1988). Tactile and kinesthet-ic input can provide students with infor-mation about objects they come in con-tact with and use.

Any visual materials used in class-rooms need to be adapted for use bystudents who do not have the visualskills required for the task. Charts, mod-els, maps, and graphs will have greatereducational value for students withvisual impairments if they can be “read”using the sense of touch. For example,outlining map boundaries with stringenables students with visual impair-ments to use their sense of touch to readmaps.

Whenever teachers use manipula-tives, models, or other equipment, stu-dents with visual impairments need theopportunity to use their tactile andkinesthetic senses to become familiarwith the objects to benefit from theiruse in lessons. Teachers should intro-duce students with visual impairmentsto materials and equipment used in

activities such as science experimentsbefore the activity. If students have theopportunity to learn about the materialsor equipment before the activity begins,they will be more able to concentrate onthe concept being taught rather than onwhat equipment they are using. Towardthis end, a specialist will assist studentsand general classroom teachers withadaptations as needed.

Auditory Learning andAccommodationsAuditory input provides another waystudents can gain information. Teachersshould not assume, however, that stu-dents will understand verbal input in

the same way and at the same depth asother students understand visual input.Auditory language triggers the creationof mental images that correspond withwords. Images are recalled to assist stu-dents in comprehending verbal lan-guage (Barraga & Erin, 1992). A studentwith visual impairments is likely tohave fewer and less detailed mentalimages to correspond with verbal lan-guage. Such images may differ accord-ing to a student’s individual experiencesand verbal input he or she has receivedfrom others (Whitmore & Maker, 1985)

General education teachers shouldobserve and interact with students withvisual impairments in an effort to deter-mine whether individual studentsunderstand verbal input. The teachermust check for comprehension duringclass discussions and when givingdirections. If students are having diffi-culty understanding what the teachersays, the teacher may need to clarify or

expand on their background knowledgeor vocabulary.

Organizations providing services forpeople with visual impairments offeraudiotaped textbooks. Classmates canbe designated as notetakers for studentswith visual impairments. Class notescan then be audiotaped or transcribedusing an enlarged font or Braille.

General education teachers may alsodevelop verbal or other auditory cues assignals for attending to important infor-mation or particular events. Teachinglistening skills is also important.Efficient listening is crucial to classroomsuccess for students with visual impair-ments. Improved listening skills helpstudents with visual impairmentsincrease their spoken and written com-munication and reading skills (Heward,2000). Teachers can consult vision spe-cialists to determine appropriate audito-ry accommodations for each student.

Visual Learning andAccommodationsMost students with visual impairmentshave some usable vision. Their visuallearning can become more efficient ifthey can enhance their skill to use theirvision through training or the use ofassistive devices. Observe students todetermine that they have visual skillssufficient for locating and tracking visu-al materials. Vision specialists can offerassistance in developing students’ visu-al skills and in making accommodationsnecessary for helping students use theirvision in productive ways. Such servic-es include making maps, adapting read-ing materials, and assisting in generalaccommodations.

Many options are available for teach-ers selecting reading and writing materi-


ORIENTATION AND MOBILITY

TRAINING CAN HELP STUDENTS

MOVE AROUND THE CLASSROOM

AND SCHOOL FREELY AND SAFELY.

MANY STUDENTS NEED TO LEARN

CONVERSATIONAL SKILLS, SUCH AS

MAKING (OR SIMULATING) EYE

CONTACT OR ORIENTING

THEMSELVES TO OTHERS

SPATIALLY.

TEACHERS OFTEN NEED TO

PROVIDE DIRECT INSTRUCTION IN

SKILLS SUCH AS HOUSECLEANING,SAFETY, HOME MAINTENANCE, AND

MONEY MANAGEMENT.

als for students with visual impair-ments. According to their needs andpreferences, students may use printedor Braille materials. Printed materialsshould be clear and be printed using aneasily readable font. Providing an easelto hold reading materials can help stu-dents with visual impairments do closework more easily (Barraga & Erin,1992). Black felt-tip pens and soft leadpencils are useful writing utensils forstudents with visual impairmentsbecause of the increased amount of con-trast they create against white writingpaper (Koenig, 1996). An extra lightsource at the student’s work area can behelpful for some students (Heward,2000). If a student can benefit from anadditional light, the light’s placementshould be determined in collaborationwith the vision specialist.

Some simple strategies for usingprinted materials can help students withvisual impairments learn visually with-out requiring huge adjustments to theclassroom environment. Simply holdingbooks or other materials closer isenough to help some students withvisual impairments (Heward, 2000).Using magnification devices or large-print materials are two accommodationsthat are often implemented in the class-room (Barraga & Erin, 1992). Suchequipment and materials are availablefor students who need them.

Here are other considerations forgeneral education teachers to rememberduring lessons and when preparingmaterials for use in the classroom (seeFigure 2).• The student’s position in the class-

room in relation to visual presenta-tions should allow for an unobstruct-ed view. If necessary, allow the stu-dent to move to a position with a bet-ter vantage point when visual materi-als are being used.

• Information written on the chalk-board should be large. Dry eraseboards are good alternatives to regu-lar chalkboards. The bright back-ground strongly contrasts with thecolors (especially black) used onthem.

• All visual aids should have clear,sharp images. Materials with highcontrast are easier for students with

visual impairments. For example,handouts should have very darkblack or navy blue print on bright,white paper.

Technological AdaptationsTechnological advances have createdmany products that are advantageousfor students with visual impairments,both for input and output of informa-tion. Equipment is available that helpsstudents with visual impairments by“reading” printed material, providingbraille printouts of what is seen on thecomputer monitor, and convertingbraille to print. Some word processorsprint in traditional text or Braille.

Choosing appropriate technologicaladaptations for students with visualimpairments entails numerous andcomplex considerations that are beyondthe scope of this article. Teachers andschool teams should make such deci-sions in consultation with the visionspecialist, according to each students’needs.

Curricular ConsiderationsThe academic curriculum appropriatefor students with visual impairments isdetermined by their cognitive abilities.The goals and objectives set for stu-dents without visual impairments donot need to be changed for a studentdue solely to a vision problem, though

the methods for accomplishing thegoals may be different.

Many students with visual impair-ments, however, require instruction inadditional curricular areas. Teachersand schools frequently need to empha-size orientation and mobility training,daily living skills, and social skills forstudents with visual impairments.Again, the vision specialist should beactively involved in curricular deci-sions.Orientation and Mobility. As men-tioned earlier, students with visualimpairments need to learn skills thatwill enable them to travel from place toplace safely. An orientation and mobili-ty specialist should provide instructionfor students in this area and can provideinformation for classroom teachersabout the skills being taught.


Students may need to have print magnified, contrast enhanced, or typefont or size changed.

CHARTS, MODELS, MAPS, AND

GRAPHS WILL HAVE GREATER

EDUCATIONAL VALUE FOR

STUDENTS WITH VISUAL

IMPAIRMENTS IF THEY CAN BE

“READ” USING THE SENSE OF

TOUCH.

Daily Living. Lack of opportunities forincidental learning may make it neces-sary for students with visual impair-ments to receive specific instruction indaily living skills. Barraga and Erin(1992) mentioned some daily livingskills that are important to consider. Self-care skills that need to be assessed todetermine the need for instructioninclude dressing, taking care of clothing,eating, and preparing food. Teachersoften need to provide direct instructionin skills such as housecleaning, safety,home maintenance, and money manage-ment. Depending on the nature of theskills, they may be taught by a teachercertified in vision, an occupational ther-apist, or an orientation-and-mobilityspecialist. Vocational rehabilitationcounselors may be involved in planningand providing transition services for stu-dents seeking postsecondary educationor training or preparing to enter thework force (Torres & Corn, 1990).Social Skills. Research has indicatedthat students with visual impairmentsare behind their peers without impair-ments in social skills development(Erin, Dignan, & Brown, 1991). Withoutthe benefit of certain visual cues, somestudents may not have learned behaviorappropriate in social situations.Students with visual impairments mayneed to be taught how to extend theirhand to shake hands or how to use theirhands to gesture appropriately whentalking. Conversational skills, such asmaking (or simulating) eye contact orhow to orient themselves to others spa-tially (Barraga & Erin, 1992), are impor-tant for successfully integrating students

with visual impairments into generaleducation settings.

Final ThoughtsAs inclusive programs for students withdisabilities increase in number, generaleducation teachers will need to under-stand the effect that disabilities have onstudents. Such understanding will allowthem to make appropriate accommoda-tions and adaptations to design inclusiveeducations for students with disabilities.

Visual impairments affect students ina variety of ways. General educationteachers who are aware of the implica-tions of visual impairments on students’learning will be able to provide theirstudents with educational opportunitiesthat will lead to successful academicand social experiences.

ReferencesBarraga, N. C., & Erin, J. N. (1992). Visual

handicaps and learning. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.*

Bishop, V. E. (1996). Teaching visuallyimpaired children (2nd ed.). Springfield,IL: Charles C Thomas.*

Corn, A. L. (1989). Instruction in the use ofvision for children and adults with lowvision. RE:view, 21, 26-38.

Erin, J. N., Dignan, K., & Brown, P. A.(1991). Are social skills teachable? Areview of the literature. Journal of VisualImpairment and Blindness, 85, 58-61.

Hatlen, P. H., & Curry, S. A. (1987). In sup-port of specialized programs for blind andvisually impaired children: The impact ofvision loss on learning. Journal of VisualImpairment and Blindness, 81(1), 7-13.

Heward, W. L. (2000). Exceptional children:An introduction to special education.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.*

Hill, E. W., & Snook-Hill, M. (1996).Orientation and mobility. In M. C.Holbrook (Ed.), Children with visualimpairments: A parents’ guide (pp. 260-286). Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House.*

Klatzky, R. L., & Lederman, S. J. (1988). Theintelligent hand. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), Thepsychology of learning and motivation(pp. 121-151). New York: AcademicPress.*

Koenig, A. J. (1996). Growing into literacy. InM. C. Holbrook (Ed.), Children with visu-al impairments: A parents’ guide (pp. 227-257). Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House.*

Torres, I., & Corn A. L. (1990). When youhave a visually handicapped child in yourclassroom: Suggestions for teachers (2nded.). New York: American Foundation forthe Blind.*

Turnbull, A., Turnbull, R., Shank, M., Smith,S., & Leal, D. (2002). Exceptional lives:Special education in today’s schools (3rded.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.*

Whitmore, J. R., & Maker, C. J. (1985).Intellectual giftedness in disabled persons.Rockville, MD: Aspen Systems.*

*To order the book marked by an asterisk (*),please call 24 hrs/365 days: 1-800-BOOKS-NOW (266-5766) or (732) 728-1040; or visitthem on the Web at http://www.BooksNow.com/TeachingExceptional.htm. Use VISA,M/C, AMEX, or Discover or send check ormoney order + $4.95 S&H ($2.50 each add’litem) to: Clicksmart, 400 Morris Avenue,Long Branch, NJ 07740; (732) 728-1040 orFAX (732) 728-7080.

Penny R. Cox, Doctoral Candidate; andMary K. Dykes (CEC Chapter #1024),Professor, Department of Special Education,University of Florida, Gainesville.

Address correspondence to Mary K. Dykes,Department of Special Education, Universityof Florida, P.O. Box 117050, Gainesville, FL32611 (e-mail: [email protected]).

TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 33,No. 6, pp. 68-74.

Copyright 2001 CEC.


ALL VISUAL AIDS SHOULD HAVE

CLEAR, SHARP IMAGES.MATERIALS WITH HIGH CONTRAST

ARE EASIER FOR STUDENTS WITH

VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS.

18th International Seating SymposiumMarch 7-9, 2001

Held in Vancouver, British Columbia, CanadaCall for Abstracts and Advance Notice

Website: http//www.geocities.com/UBC interproffContact: Interprofessional Continuing Education

Telephone: 604/822-0054; e-mail: [email protected]

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ■ JAN/FEB 2001 ■ 75