Educators Professional Day 10/04/10

Neurophysiological Foundations of Learning &

Evidence-Based Teaching

Ahmed M. Abdelal, Ph.D., CCC-SLPAssistant Professor of Communication

Sciences & DisordersDepartment of Special Education &

Communication Disordersaabdelal@bridgew.edu Phone: 508-531-6146

http://www.facebook.com/photo.php?pid=261668&id=100000468610322

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4cDbY7Jf31I

LEARNING STAGES

& STRATEGIES

Learning

“Learning is the process in which neurons that fire together to produce a particular experience are altered so that they have a tendency to fire together again. The subsequent combined firing of the neurons reconstructs the original experience, producing a ‘recollection’ of it. The act of recollecting makes the neurons involved even more likely to fire again in the future.”

(Carter, et al 2009, 154)

Relationship Between Learning & Memory

Leaning is “the process by which we acquire knowledge about the world, while memory is the process by which that knowledge is encoded, stored, and later retrieved”

(Kandel, Schwartz, & Jessell, 2000, p. 1227)

Types of Memory Based on Duration

Immediate memory Capacity of 7 items Only 30 seconds, if info not

rehearsed Working Memory (WM)

Phonological loop (verbal info) Visuospatial sketch pad (faces, images,

spatial layouts)

WM sustains info for 0.5 sec. to 10 min.

Long-term memory

Learning & Emotions

“Our memories are personal and evocative, intertwined with emotion, and they provide us with a sense of who we are.”

(Squire & Kandel 2010, 75)

How Learning Changes Brain Structure

Any type of learning must result in physical changes in brain structure:Cellular changesBirth of new neurons

(Neurogenesis)Expansion of existing networks

Creation of new circuits

How Learning Changes Brain Structure

Cellular changes in the existing neurons: Strengthening existing synaptic

connections Growth of new synaptic branches and

production of neurotransmitter components in presynaptic neurons

Translation and transcription of specific genes

Production of new receptor proteins and inserting them along the membrane of the postsynaptic neuron

Primary Centers of Learning HippocampusAmygdalaMedial temporal lobe

PF cortex Association cortices

© A. Abdelal, Ph.D., CCC-SLP

Phases of Learning For information to be retained

in LT memory, it has to be processed in phases

Each phase involves specific neural pathways, and structural modifications

Perception Pre-encoding Encoding Transfer Imprinting Storage Retrieval Consolidation

Setting the Stage for Learning

Motivation and emotional response direct our attention

Information cannot enter into the memory system unless it is attended to

Attend to a piece of info for about 0.2 sec.

Attention intensifies the experience by triggering neurons to fire more frequently The more a neuron fires the

stronger its connections are with other neurons (Squire 07,77)

Preparatory Phase: Pre-encoding Mechanism

There are specific areas “pre-prepared to store new information, even before the stimuli are collected and coded”

If these areas are activated in time for encoding, encoding & recall will efficient

This pre-encoding circuit is activated by: Good self-esteem Strong motivation Positive attitude (Atlas of Human Physiology,

2009, 166-167)

Working Memory & Executive Functions

Executive functions: location? Develop, pursue & focus on goals;

sustain attention, allocate attentional resources, monitor our own work toward the goal; regulate our behavior, etc.

Behavioral inhibition suppresses distractions

Working Memory: PFC Sensory center Holds material to guide on-going behavior

and cognition Info gets shuttled back and forth from

frontal cortex to the sensory cortex that initially registered it.

Encoding The process by

which new information is attended to and processed when it is first encountered

(Kandel et al., 2000) Mediated by the

hippocampus & PFC

New info reaching the hippocampus induces activation of pathways to previous info

What Happens During Encoding

Activation of previous information

Evaluation of the new information

Analysis Organization Integration Reassembling and

synthesis

Encoding Mechanisms

Neurotransmitters Noreadrenaline/Norepinephrine Acetylcholine Serotonin Dopamine

Proteins C-Kinase Synapsin 1

Neurogenesis During Encoding

Occupies the first 20 minutes of learning

Newly born neurons immediately enter the memory pathways individually Enter Exit Re-enter and stay

They appear to imprint the new information and integrate it with previous information

They mediate forgetfulness of irrelevant information

Efficiency of Encoding

Encoding determines the efficiency of retrieval.

Efficiency of retrieval depends on the cues & strategies used while the info is being encoded, rather than the strategies used during the retrieval process.

What Determines Efficiency of Encoding

Emotional content of the info: happy vs sad

Motivation & level of interest cause deep encoding and subconscious rehearsal

Effort learner puts into practicing recall of info

Novelty (Carter et al, 2009, 154)

Extent to which the info is: Organized Related to previous knowledge Rehearsed after it has been presented

(Squire & Kandel 2009, 74)

Efficiency of Encoding: Elaborative Encoding

Elaborative/deep encoding is better than shallow/superficial encoding Breaking down info Discussing the meaning of each

part Relating the info to previous

knowledge Asking questions in the process

Example

Retrieval

The process of recalling stored information through reactivating the pattern or pathways in which the information was originally stored. (Nelson, 2005)

Retrieval is a reconstructive process that involves pulling pieces of info from various storage sites and integrating them into a coherent whole.

Retrieval …

Either involuntary or intentional

Intentional retrieval is required for adequate academic performance and similar goal-directed behavior.

Requires: Executive functioning & WM Attentional resources Strategic memory searching

Retrieval …

Involves gene expression and protein synthesis and insertion along pathways

Any interruption of these cellular processes (e.g., stress, anxiety, etc.) prevents the formation of long-term memories

Retrieval: Facts & Strategies

Previous knowledge promotes efficient recall of new information

Experts have superior abilities in remembering info related to there area of expertise, but “have no special gift for recalling details that are not meaningful to their area of expertise”

Memory exercises do not improve retrieval

(Squire & Kandel 2009, 77-78)

Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based

Foster a friendly relationship with students, characterized by mutual respect

Create a flexible teaching environment free from tension and anxiety

Have the students move about in the classroom, whenever possible: to provide physical mobility & reduce tension

Teaching Environment

Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based

► Reduce your own stress to avoid stressing your students

► Perseveration Effect/Rigidity► Always adopt a positive

communication style► Yes, smile at the kids and use humor ► void negative feedback

► Always be positive, even if the student’s answer is incorrect – student’s learn from mistakes

Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based

► Avoid Habituation: ► Elicit student interaction► Avoid monotone► Vary loudness, tone, and accent

frequently ► Do not stand or sit still for an

extended period of time► Change topic points every 5-10

minutes► Use humor

Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based

► Ensure adequate encoding (quality over quantity)

► Guide students to the correct answer by asking step-by-step questions

► Keep in mind that students have different learning styles

► Two major interactive learning styles: ► Experiential/Narrative Style► Rational/Expository Style

A combination of both styles is expected to produce the best results

Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based

Experiential

Teaching through: Stories Settings Intentions Emotions Plots Acting and role-

playing Metaphors and

similes Personal experiences

Rational

Teaching through: Analysis Logical explanations Abstract ideas, etc.

Completely removed from direct experience

Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based

The familiarity effect Provide lesson previews a week

or two prior to in-depth presentation of lessons

Implications for: Arabic Instruction English Instruction to nonnative

speakers Exercise

Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based

Strengthens existing synaptic connections

Establishes new synaptic connections

Strengthens memory pathways between hippocampus and storage sites

Leads to cognitive efficiency First few revisions are the most

important First revision 40% Second revision 80-90% Third revision 95% Then, get a good night’s sleep!

Power of Retrieval (Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981; Anderson, 1995)

Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based

The more frequently the information is retrieved, the stronger the pathway, and the faster the activation

Information not retrieved for an extended period of time might take longer to reactivate or might be forgotten

Context & Strength of cues are related to strength of retrieval Retrieval is best when in same context

and in presence of initial cues used during encoding

Power of Retrieval

Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based

Create opportunities for student interaction: ► Heighten student curiosity, and ask

questions to make them actively engaged in the information

► Provide hands-on learning experiences and concrete examples

► Teach information in an organized way

► Use controlled, deep semantic encoding

► Allow for transition time when shifting between topics to avoid interference

Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Instructor-Based

Testing promotes “better long-term retention than restudying” (Squire & Kandel 2009, 77).

Prior knowledge of test format impr. perf.

High-protein breakfast prior to major exams

Focusing on concepts is best for essay tests

Focusing on details is best study for multiple-choice tests

Visual presentation is extremely powerful: “Nearly half of the cortex is dedicated to processing visual information” (Squire & Kandel 2009, 77)

Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based

Use testing as a teaching tool

Protein breakfast on morning of Testing

Advise parents who smoke not to do so in the presence of their children: Decreased recall, attention

& tooth decay Sleep is crucial

Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based

Sleep plays a direct role in WM, executive functioning, behavioral inhibition, and attention

Plays a crucial role in consolidation of new learning

Regulates neurotransmitters Learning and memory circuits

are reactivated during sleep

Sleep & Dreaming

Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based

Information is reprocessed during sleep

Plays a pivotal role in neuroplasticity

Different types of learning require different stages of sleep

Speed of processing in sleep is faster than in real time

Sleep & Dreaming

Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based

Regulate Sleep Seek medical help for

velopharyngeal obstruction (causes snoring, sleep apnea, and weight gain)

Avoiding studying over an extended number of hours

Avoid studying late into the night Organize your studying/learning

environment Organize the information while you

are learning it The method of loci could be an

effective tool for exam preparation

Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Learner-Based

Physical Exercises: Reduce stress Improve blood flow to the

brain Improve brain plasticity :

increases synaptic density, and positive effects of Ach

Increase amount of oxygen in blood stream

In adults, decreases risk for memory disorders, Alzheimer’s, and dementia.

Conclusion

• What you teach changes the structure of the brain

• Set a positive tone for the day • Mood & Motivational states play a

major role in determining the efficiency of encoding and retrieval of new learning

• Learning is an-experience and time dependent process

• The lengthy consolidation allows the brain time to re-configure itself in response to the new information

• Get the parents involved to implement healthy sleep and dietary habits