educational psychology.doc

8/17/2019 Educational Psychology.doc

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THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

OEP 101

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Vincent I. Lema


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OEP 101

Edcati!na" P#$c%!"!&$

Vincent I. Lema

De'a(tment !) P#$c%!"!&$ and S'ecia" Edcati!n

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T%e O'en Uni*e(#it$ !) Tan+ania

The Open University of Tanzania

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TA,LE OF CONTENTS

INT&ODUCTION TO T>E COU&'E........................................................................vii

LECTU&E ONE.............................................................................................................<INT&ODUCTION TO P'YC>OLO?Y.......................................................................<

OLO?Y AND TEAC>IN?*..............................................I'TO&Y....................................................................................OLO?Y....................................................!. 9no8)e5=e of st45ents......................................................................................

.!.! Learnin= pro2ess................................................................................................

.!." Instr42tiona) strate=ies.......................................................................................

iii


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.!.0 (otivationa) si))s...............................................................................................E C>ILD............................................................................+

".< INT&ODUCTION................................................................................................+

". (AIN CONCEPT'...............................................................................................+

".! &OLE OF >E&EDITY AND ENI&ON(ENT ON T>E DEELOP(ENT OF

'TUDENT....................................................................................................................,

"." CO?NITIE DEELOP(ENT DU&IN? C>ILD>OOD...............................$

".".< The sensori1otor sta=e........................................................................................!<

".". Preoperationa) sta=e............................................................................................!

".".! Con2rete Operations sta=e..................................................................................!!

"."." For1a) Operations 'ta=e.....................................................................................!"

".0 I(PLICATION' OF T>E T>EO&Y TO TEAC>E&'.........................................!0

".+ LAN?UA?E DEELOP(ENT...........................................................................!+

iv


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"./ P'YC>O'OCIAL 'OCIOE(OTIONAL DEELOP(ENT..........................!$

"./.< Bronfen7rennerGs E2o)o=i2a) Theory.................................................................."#

"./. ErisonGs sta=es of 5eve)op1ent........................................................................."<

"., PA&ENTIN? 'TYLE' AND PEE&'...................................................................""

".$ DEELOP(ENT OF 'ELF................................................................................"/

LECTU&E FIE..........................................................................................................0

LEA&NIN? T>EO&IE' AND TEAC>IN?..............................................................0

0.< INT&ODUCTION................................................................................................0

0. 6>AT I' A T>EO&Y..........................................................................................0

0.! BE>AIO&AL APP&OAC>E'............................................................................0!

0.!.< C)assi2a) 2on5itionin=.........................................................................................00

0.!. Operant 2on5itionin= Instr41ent 2on5itionin=................................................0$

0.!.! 'o2ia) )earnin= theory.........................................................................................+0

0." CO?NITIE T>EO&IE' OF LEA&NIN?.........................................................++

0.".< ?esta)ts psy2ho)o=ists.........................................................................................+/

0.". Co=nitive 2onstr42tivis1....................................................................................+/

0.".! Pia=etGs theory of )earnin=..................................................................................+,

LECTU&E 'IH............................................................................................................/<

(OTIATION AND LEA&NIN?............................................................................../<

+.< INT&ODUCTION................................................................................................../<

+. DEFINITION OF (OTIATION........................................................................./<

+.! CONCEPTUAL APP&OAC>E' TO (OTIATION........................................./

+." FACTO&' T>AT INFLUENCE 'TUDENT'G (OTIATION TO LEA&N......./+

+.".< 't45ent Attri74tions to '422ess an5 Fai)4re......................................................../+

+.". Expe2tan2y........................................................................................................../,

+.".! Tea2her expe2tations.........................................................................................../$

+."." E1otions............................................................................................................./$

+.".0 C)assroo1 at1osphere an5 1otivation...............................................................,<

+.".+ Nee5 for a2hieve1ent.........................................................................................,<

+."./ 'e)feffi2a2y........................................................................................................,

+.0 'T&ATE?IE' FO& I(P&OIN? 'TUDENT (OTIATION TO LEA&N. .. ..,

+.0.< C)assroo1 at1osphere........................................................................................,!

+.0. Tea2her expe2tations...........................................................................................,"

+.0.! >e)pin= st45ent 5eve)op 1otivation to )earn......................................................,0

v


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LECTU&E 'EEN......................................................................................................,,

CO?NITIE P&OCE''E' IN LEA&NIN?* (E(O&Y FO&(ATION AND

&ET&IEAL................................................................................................................,,

/.< INT&ODUCTION................................................................................................,,

/. (E(O&Y............................................................................................................,,

/.! &ET&IEAL.........................................................................................................$

/." I(P&OIN? (E(O&Y....................................................................................$+

LECTU&E EI?>T.....................................................................................................IN9IN? '9ILL' AND P&OBLE( 'OLIN?..................................................

$..< Inte))i=en2e tests................................................................................................

vi


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earin= I1pair1ents.......................................................................


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Le2t4re One is an Intro542tion to Psy2ho)o=y. It =ives the 5efinition of psy2ho)o=y%

narrates history of psy2ho)o=y 7rief)y an5 5es2ri7es 1ain 2o1ponents of the s47e2t

1atter. Yo4 are expe2te5 to rea5 ?enera) Psy2ho)o=y text7oos an5 4se the 1ateria)

as a 74i)5in= 7)o2 to e17arin= on 4sin= s2ientifi2 approa2h in st45yin= 7ehavio4r.

Le2t4re T8o fo24ses on =enera) overvie8 of E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y s47e2t 1atter

an5 its s2ope. (ain a2tors in the esta7)ish1ent of E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y as an

in5epen5ent spe2ia)ization 8ithin Psy2ho)o=y are i5entifie5% the 5es2ription of its

o7e2tives is provi5e5% an5 the ey prin2ip)es an5 theories that =4i5e tea2hin= are

5es2ri7e5. In Le2t4re Three 8e 8i)) have a s411ary of ho8 &esear2h in E542ationa)

Psy2ho)o=y is 2arrie5 o4t% the 1ain too)s of 2o))e2tin= 5ata% 5ata ana)ysis an5 the

1eans of interpretin= resear2h res4)ts.

Le2t4re Fo4r )oos at the inf)4en2es of 5eve)op1ent of the 2hi)5 in ter1s of ho8 their

7ehavio4r an5 reasonin= 2han=es overti1e an5 ho8 these 2han=es effe2t on st45entsG

)earnin= an5 2)assroo1 tea2hin=. In Le2t4re Five the fo24s is on Learnin= Theories

an5 Learnin= 7y 5e1onstratin= the 7asi2 prin2ip)es of 5ifferent psy2ho)o=i2a)

perspe2tives of )earnin= an5 no8)e5=e 2onstr42tion. It f4rther =ives exp)anations of

ho8 the perspe2tives 2an 7e 4se5 in the 2)assroo1. Le2t4re 'ix 5efines h41an

1otivation% its 7asi2 2o1ponents an5 i5entifies its ro)e in )earnin=.

Le2t4re 'even 5es2ri7es the 2o=nitive pro2esses in )earnin=% spe2ifi2a))y fo24sin= on

1e1ory for1ation an5 retrieva) as 7asis for no8)e5=e a24isition fro1 the

environ1ent an5 its si=nifi2an2e on 2)assroo1 )earnin=. 9no8)e5=e =aine5 in )e2t4re

seven is 4se5 in Le2t4re Ei=ht to exp)ain h41an thinin= si))s an5 pro7)e1 so)vin=

strate=ies app)ie5 in a55ressin= 2ha))en=es re)ate5 to 2)assroo1 )earnin= an5

app)i2ation of no8)e5=e in st45entsG 5ai)y en2o4nters.

Le2t4re Nine 5es2ri7es in5ivi54a) variation an5 nee5s in ter1s of st45entsG variations

in inte))i=en2e% )earnin= si))s an5 persona)ityJ an5 ho8 these fa2tors inf)4en2e

st45ents )earnin= in s2hoo). In Le2t4re Ten 8e )oo at ex2eptiona) )earners i.e.

st45ents 8ith 5isa7i)ities an5 the =ifte5 ones sin2e they have spe2ia) nee5s that nee5 to

7e a55resse5 for the1 to )earn effe2tive)y in o4r s2hoo) syste1.

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Le2t4re E)even exp)ains assess1ent of )earnin= 7y 5es2ri7in= 2hara2teristi2s of =oo5

stan5ar5ize5 an5 se)f1a5e tea2her assess1ent te2hni4es an5 too)s. Last)y% Le2t4re

T8e)ve 5es2ri7es 1ana=in= 2)assroo1 pro2esses 7y 5e1onstratin= strate=ies for

2reatin= 2)assroo1 at1osphere that is 2on542ive for effe2tive )earnin=% an5 exp)ains

ho8 to effe2tive)y 5ea) 8ith 1is7ehavio4r in the 2)assroo1.

COURSE O,4ECTIVES

At the en5 of this 2o4rse yo4 sho4)5 a7)e to*

i &e2o=nize types of )earnin= an5 in their app)i2ationsJ

ii Interpret an5 ana)yse resear2h st45iesJ

iii I5entify the vario4s 2hara2teristi2s of st45ents in se2on5ary

s2hoo)sJ

iv ?ive =4i5an2e to st45ents on )earnin=J

v List an5 i5entify 2hara2teristi2s of a 2o1petent tea2herJ

vi De1onstrate si))s of 1eas4rin= an5 eva)4atin= tea2hin=- )earnin=

pro2esses.

Lea(nin& Otc!me#

After tain= this 2o4rse yo4 8i)) 7e a7)e to*

• (eet the prere4isite of OUT 5e=rees in E542ation

• Des2ri7e the 1eanin= of E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y an5 its re)ationship 8ith ?enera)

Psy2ho)o=y an5 other 7ran2hes of psy2ho)o=y

• ?ive 2onstr42tive 2riti4es on E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y st45ies an5 arti2)es

• Exp)ain ho8 st45entsG 7ehaviors 2han=e in respe2t of their physi2a)% 2o=nitive an5

psy2hoso2ia) 5eve)op1ent

• Define )earnin= an5 5es2ri7e the ey prin2ip)es in 5ifferent theories that exp)ain

)earnin=

• Des2ri7e the 2o=nitive pro2ess in re)ation to 1e1ory for1ation an5 retrieva)%

thinin= si))s an5 pro7)e1 so)vin=

• Define 1otivation an5 exp)ain its ro)e in )earnin=

• I5entify 5ifferen2es a1on= st45ents an5 5es2ri7e ho8 to a22o11o5ate these

variations in o4r e542ation syste1 for effe2tive st45ent )earnin=

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• Fa2i)itate effe2tive st45ent )earnin= thro4=h appropriate 2)assroo1 1ana=e1ent

si))s

• Constr42t an5 a51inister )earnin= assess1ent instr41ents

• ?ive 2ons4)tations to st45ents on effe2tive )earnin= strate=ies

• ?ive 2ons4)tations to other tea2hers on effe2tive tea2hin= strate=ies.

C%a(acte(i#tic# !) an e))ecti*e teac%e(

Fro1 the 7e=innin= it is 8ise to have the 2hara2teristi2s of an effe2tive tea2her so that

as yo4 =o thro4=h this st45y 1ateria) yo4 8i)) 7e 2reatin= a profi)e of 8hat is

expe2te5 of yo4 as a tea2her. Tea2hin= invo)ves shapin= st45entsG 7ehavio4r 8hi)e

)earnin= an5 their f4t4re )ives. 'o% yo4 8i)) have a 5ire2t =reat inf)4en2e on the )ivesof the 2hi)5ren yo4 8i)) 7e tea2hin= an5 the state of the 8ho)e nation. Yo4r persona)ity

as a 8ho)e is si=nifi2ant in the tea2hin= profession.

There are so 1any 2o1ponents of persona)ity that for1 an effe2tive tea2her. Be)o8

are so1e of the traits of s422essf4) tea2her as 5es2ri7e5 7y Beth Le8is retrieve5

#


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9. Scce##)" teac%e(# em'%a#i+e t%e )n in "ea(nin& and in "i)e. The tea2hers I

a51ire 1ost 2reate )i=hthearte5 f4n o4t of serio4s )earnin=. They arenKt afrai5 to 7e

si))y 7e2a4se they 2an snap the st45ents 7a2 into attention at 8i)) 8ith 4st a stern

)oo or a 2han=e in tone of voi2e.

A##e##ment

The assess1ent of the 2o4rse is as re4ire5 7y the re=4)ations of The Open University

of Tanzania.

This in2)45es (ain Ti1e5 Tests an5 Exa1inations.

Std$ #5i""#

This st45y 1ateria) is 4se5 as a too) of st45yin= E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y thro4=h

5istan2e )earnin= 1o5e. Its 1ateria) in the fie)5 of E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y is very

)i1ite5 in s2ope an5 5epth% th4s yo4 are re4ire5 to sear2h for 1ore infor1ation an5

re2o11en5ation fro1 5ifferent so4r2es. To =rasp the 1ateria)% yo4 a)so nee5 to

i1p)e1ent the st45y si))s as 5ire2te5 to yo4 in for1 of sy17o)s in ea2h )e2t4re. Bear

in 1in5 that assess1ent 8i)) stron=)y 7e 7ase5 on the no8)e5=e that yo4 have2o1prehensive)y fo))o8e5 the st45y instr42tions in this 1an4a).

In the st45y 1ateria) yo4 8i)) en2o4nter a n417er of sy17o)s that =4i5e yo4 to 1eans

of 2o1prehen5in= the 1ateria). P)ease 5o not i=nore the1.

xii


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LECTU&E ONE

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

1.1 INTRODUCTION

6e)2o1e to the 8or)5 of psy2ho)o=y. This 2o4rse is on E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y.

>o8ever% no8)e5=e on ?enera) Psy2ho)o=y is a prere4isite of 4n5erstan5in= the

spe2ia)ize5 fie)5 of E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y. As yo4 no8 =enera) psy2ho)o=y is a

2o4rse of its o8n. This )e2t4re is 4st =oin= to =ive yo4 a 7roa5 vie8 of the fie)5 of

psy2ho)o=y so that yo4 2an e17ar on E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y 1ore 2o1forta7)y.

LECTURE O,4ECTIVES

At the en5 of this )e2t4re yo4 sho4)5 7e a7)e to*

i Define psy2ho)o=yJ

ii Des2ri7e the 1ain o7e2tives of psy2ho)o=yJ

iii Narrate a 7rief history of psy2ho)o=yJ

iv Des2ri7e the 1ain 7ran2hes of psy2ho)o=y.

1. DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY

In short% the s47e2t 1atter of psy2ho)o=y is 7ehavio4r an5 1enta) pro2esses. B4t

there are other 1any fie)5s in2)45in= po)iti2a) s2ien2e% re)i=ion% astro)o=y% 8it2h2raft%

fort4ne te))in=% )iterat4re% e2ono1i2s% )a8 an5 so2io)o=y 4st to 1ention a fe8 that

5ea) 8ith h41an 7ehavio4rs. Psy2ho)o=y is 5ifferent fro1 these other fie)5s sin2e it

4ses s2ientifi2 approa2hes in st45yin= 7ehavio4r an5 1enta) pro2esses. 'o%

psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes.

'2ientifi2 approa2h is 7ase5 on e1piri2a) evi5en2e that is o7taine5 o7e2tive)y an5

2an 7e verifie5. It a)so 1aes 4se of 1eas4re1ents. Psy2ho)o=y 4ses s2ientifi2

approa2h in 4n5erstan5in= the nat4re 7ehavio4r an5 the f4n2tionin= of 1enta)

pro2esses. Exp)anations of 7ehavio4r 7ase5 on s2ientifi2 approa2h are 1ore 2re5i7)e

than those 7ase5 on 1ere spe24)ations. 'o1e of the 4estions re)ate5 to e542ation

a55resse5 7y psy2ho)o=y in2)45e* How do children learn? Why do students differ in

performance? What are best approaches of controlling classroom? An5 How can we

reduce aggressive behaviours in our schools? Other 5is2ip)ines )ie 1e5i2ine%


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74siness% hea)th% in54stries an5 vo2ations have 4estions that are a)so a55resse5 7y

psy2ho)o=y.

TA:E NOTE

A)) h41an a2tivities have so1e re)ations to the fie)5 of psy2ho)o=y.

The a7ove 4estions i1p)y that 7ehavio4r is a very 7roa5 2on2ept. 'o1e 7ehavio4rs

are 1anifeste5 externa))y an5 2an 7e o7serve5 5ire2t)y e.=. 8a)in=% sin=in=% 8ritin=%

an5 2)i17in= a tree. >o8ever% so1e of 7ehaviors are interna) an5 2an on)y 7e inferre5

e.=. thinin=% 7ein= happy an5 hatin= an o7e2t. As yo4 8i)) soon see in the 5efinition

of the 2on2ept “study” is a)so very 7roa5 as it in2)45es 5es2ri7in=% 4n5erstan5in=% an5

pre5i2tin= 7ehavio4r.

1. ;AIN AREAS OF PSYCHOLOGY

>41an 7ehavio4r is very 7roa5 8ith 1any 2o1ponents that are affe2te5 7y 1any

varia7)es. 'o% in or5er to 7e a7)e to 4n5erstan5 the 2ontent of psy2ho)o=y% 8e have

5ivi5e5 it 7roa5)y into fo4r 1ain areas* physical, cognitive, emotions an5 environment

aspe2ts.

T%e Physical aspe2t is the 7o5y of the in5ivi54a) i.e. 14s2)es% se)eton% =)an5s an5

sensory syste1s. This i1p)ies that 7io)o=i2a) pro2esses have inf)4en2e on o4r

7ehavio4r. For exa1p)e% h4n=er 1aes 4s to )oo for foo5 to eat 7ehavio4rJ fe1a)es

2an 7ear 2hi)5ren 8hi)e 1a)es 2annot% an5 8ritin= invo)ves 2oor5ination of eyes an5

14s2)es in the ar1.

The cognitive aspe2t in psy2ho)o=y fo24ses on 1enta) a2tivities that in2)45e 1e1ory%

thinin=% pro7)e1 so)vin= an5 )an=4a=e Yo4 no8 that 7rain is part of the physi2a)

7o5y% th4s there is a 2onne2tion 7et8een 7o5y an5 2o=nitive pro2esses. The 2o=nitive

2o1ponent is responsi7)e for the 4n5erstan5in= of o4rse)ves an5 the environ1ent%

8hi2h res4)ts in 2apa7i)ities an5 7ehavio4rs that 8e 4se to 1anip4)ate the

environ1ent for 5eve)op1ent.

Emotions are the fee)in=s that 8e have as o4r rea2tion to an o7e2t or event. These

fee)in=s 2an either 7e p)easant or 4np)easant. P)easant fee)in=s in2)45e 7ein= happy%


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fa))in= in )ove% )a4=hin=J an5 4np)easant fee)in=s in2)45e 7ein= an=ry% sa5% fearf4) an5

4nhappy. E1otions 1ae 4s h41an 5ifferent fro1 1a2hines an5 innate o7e2ts an5

2o)o4r o4r )ives happy in a 2ere1ony an5 sa5 8hen 8e )ose a )ove5 one an5 affe2t

o4r 7ehavio4r in for1 of rea2tin= an5 a2tin= on o4r e1otions. There is a 5ire2t

2onne2tion 7et8een e1otions an5 the 7rain% an5 7et8een e1otions an5 the physi2a)

7o5y.

The environment physi2a) environ1ent has effe2t on o4r 7ehavio4r in that% it

provi5es 4s 8ith the ne2essities to s4rvive air% foo5 an5 8aterJ it )i1its or enhan2es

o4r 7ehavio4rs an5 potentia)s thin of )earnin= environ1ent. Peop)e aro4n5 4s

so2ia) environ1ent have 5ire2t inf)4en2e on 4s for they tae 2are of the yo4n= ones

8ho 2annot )oo for foo5 or fen5 off ne=ative e)e1ents in the environ1ent% 7a7ies

2annot s4rvive 8itho4t the s4pport of the 2are=iversJ on the )an=4a=e 8e a24ire an5

in shapin= o4r 7ehavio4rs thro4=h so2ia)ization pro2esses.

These 1aor areas of st45yin= psy2ho)o=y are interre)ate5 an5 5o not a2t in iso)ation

of the other areas. For exa1p)e% the environ1ent affe2ts 4s e1otiona))y% 1enta))y%

physio)o=i2a))y% so2ia))y an5 7ehavio4r8ise an5 8e a)so have so1e inf)4en2e on the

environ1ent 7e it physi2a) or so2ia). 6hen 8e see foo5 8e )ie 8e sa)ivate% 5e2i5e

to approa2h the ven5or% 74y the foo5% an5 then enoy eatin= it. '42h an a2t is si1p)e

an5 yet 2o1p)ex as it affe2ts the )ife of the ven5or% foo5 pro2essin=% pro542tion of

foo5 an5 i1pa2t on the environ1ent. These areas a)so in5i2ate that psy2ho)o=y is a)so

re)ate5 to other 5is2ip)ines s42h as 7io)o=y% so2io)o=y% e2ono1i2s% e542ation%

environ1enta) s2ien2e% anthropo)o=y% 1e5i2ine an5 =eo=raphy. >o8ever% yo4 14st 7e

a8are of the 7o4n5aries 7et8een psy2ho)o=y an5 the other fie)5s.

1.6 O,4ECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY

This s47topi2 is an e)a7oration of the ter1 st45yG as re=ar5s the 5efinition of

psy2ho)o=y. There are fo4r o7e2tives of st45yin= psy2ho)o=y% na1e)y* to 5es2ri7e

7ehavio4r% 4n5erstan5 7ehavio4r% pre5i2t 7ehavio4r% an5 to 2ontro) 7ehavio4r.

• Describe


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• Predict


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they in t4rn inf)4en2e5 the f4t4re perspe2tives. Ea2h perspe2tive has 2ontri74te5 in

psy2ho)o=y an5 2onse4ent)y to 7etter 4n5erstan5in= of h41an 5eve)op1ent.

>o8ever% it is 8orth notin= that no sin=)e perspe2tive in psy2ho)o=y 2an exp)ain a))

aspe2ts of h41an 7ehavio4r. In this )e2t4re 8e sha)) on)y 7rief)y 1entionin= so1e of

these perspe2tives. The i1pa2t of these perspe2tives on e542ation 8i)) 7e 5is24sse5

)ater in 1ore 5etai)s in the re)evant )e2t4res.

1.8.1 St(ct(a"i#m

The first s2hoo) of tho4=ht in psy2ho)o=y is 2a))e5 str42t4ra)is1. 6i)he)1 64n5t

is 1ain 1etho5 of

o7tainin= these e)e1ents 8as 2a))e5 introspection i.e. se)f o7servation. >e traine5 his

assistants to report ver7a))y 8hat they 8ere sensin= 8hen presente5 8ith an o7e2t.

For exa1p)e% an assistant 8i)) ho)5 a 7anana an5 report 8hat he experien2e5 in ter1

of his sensation. The 1ain )i1itation of introspe2tion 8as )a2 of o7e2tive)y in that

res4)ts 2o4)5 not 7e in5epen5ent)y verifie5. The traine5 persons on introspe2tion

fre4ent)y =ave 2onf)i2tin= sensations on the sa1e o7e2t )ea5in= to

1is4n5erstan5in=s a1on= the1se)ves.

1.8. Fncti!na"i#m

This s2hoo) of tho4=ht 8as for1e5 in U'A 7y 6i))ia1 @a1es 8ho 8as inf)4en2e5 7y

Char)es Dar8inGs 2on2ept of nat4ra) se)e2tion i.e. s4rviva) for the fittest. >e 7e)ieve5

that psy2ho)o=y sho4)5 investi=ate the f4n2tions or p4rposes of 2ons2io4sness an5 not

the str42t4re of 2ons2io4sness as a5vo2ate5 7y 64n5t. The interest 8as on ho8

peop)esG 7ehavio4r f4n2tion to a5opt the 5e1an5s of the rea) 8or)5 aro4n5 the1.

Base5 on this perspe2tive @ohn De8ey 5eve)ope5 the first s2hoo) of psy2ho)o=y an5

the 7est 8ays of 1eetin= e542ationa) nee5s of 2hi)5ren.

1.8. P#$c%!d$namic

The 1aor for2e 4n5er this perspe2tive 8as a physi2ian 2a))e5 'i=14n5 Fre45


19/204

tho4=hts of his 2)ients. >e post4)ate5 that there is interp)ay 7et8een 1enta) pro2esses

an5 7ehavio4r% th4s the 2on2ept psy2ho5yna1i2s. >e asserte5 that 1ost of o4r a2tions

are 2ontro))e5 7y o4r 1in5s as res4)t of the 8ay 8e 4n2ons2io4s)y thin% fee) an5

8ish. Th4s% the 4n2ons2io4sness 2o1ponent of 4s has 1ore inf)4en2e on 4s than the

2ons2io4sness 2o1ponent. 'o1eti1es there is a 2onf)i2t 7et8een the 1otives of o4r

fee)in=s% tho4=hts an5 8ishes )ea5in= into a 2onf)i2t 8ithin 4s. >e 7e)ieve5 that these

2onf)i2ts have no physi2a) 7asis 74t have a stron= i1pa2t on the 8ay 8e )ive. The

1ain 2ontri74tion of this perspe2tive is the a2no8)e5=1ent of the i1portan2e of

2hi)5hoo5 experien2es on the 4a)ity of )ife in )ater years an5 the ro)e of psy2ho)o=y

in treatin= peop)e 8ith psy2ho)o=i2a) pro7)e1s thro4=h therapy.

?

'ear2h the fo))o8in= psy2hoana)ysis 2on2epts in psy2ho)o=y text7oos*

i5% s4per e=o an5 e=o.

1.8.6 ,e%a*i!(i#m

This s2hoo) of tho4=ht ori=inate5 in the U'A an5 8as a 1o5ifi2ation of

f4n2tiona)is1. The 7ehavio4rists 7e)ieve that one 2annot o7e2tive)y o7serve an5

verify pro2esses that tae p)a2e in the 1in5 of a person. They ree2te5 introspe2tion

an5 other 1etho5s 4se5 in psy2hoana)ysis as not 7ein= tr4)y s2ientifi2. Instea5 they

propose5 that psy2ho)o=y sho4)5 on)y fo24s on o7serva7)e 7ehavior an5 the

environ1enta) 2on5itions that have inf)4en2e on ho8 h41an 7ein=s 7ehave. The

1etho5s of resear2h in psy2ho)o=y sho4)5 7e the sa1e as those 4se5 in other s2ien2es.

B.F. 'inner


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?esta)t is a ?er1an 8or5 1eanin= 8ho)e or pattern. This perspe2tive 8as

post4)ate5 7y three ?er1ans 8ho ha5 i11i=rate5 to U'A. For the1 h41an 7ehavio4r

2annot so)e)y 7e exp)aine5 7y 7ehavio4r a)one or re542e5 into sin=)e e)e1ents as

exp)aine5 7y the 7ehaviorists. They 8ere a)so a=ainst the notion that h41ans are

passive to the environ1ent. They 7e)ieve5 that h41ans are rather a2tive in =ainin=

experien2es fro1 the environ1ent. ?esta)t psy2ho)o=ists p4t 1ore e1phasis on

1enta) pro2esses i.e. ho8 8e or=anize sensory infor1ation into 1eanin=f4) state

thro4=h per2eption% 1e1ory an5 thinin=. Base5 on a n417er of experi1ents they

propose5 that 7rain a4to1ati2a))y or=anizes sensory infor1ation into 1eanin=f4)

8ho)es.

?esta)t perspe2tive 2an 7e 2onsi5ere5 as one of the fo4n5ation of 2o=nitive

perspe2tive. C4rrent)y% 1ore psy2ho)o=ists ho)5 the 2o=nitive perspe2tive rather than

the 7ehaviora) perspe2tive. Co=nitive psy2ho)o=ists ho)5 that psy2ho)o=y sho4)5 a)so

in2)45e 1e1ory syste1s that have inf)4en2e on ho8 sensory infor1ation is re2eive5%

pro2esse5% store5 an5 retrieve5 or for=otten. A)so they 7e)ieve that traits re)ate5 to

1enta) f4n2tions s42h as e1otions% 1e1ories% 1otivation an5 7e)iefs have effe2ts on

o4r 7ehavio4rs an5 )earnin=. It is safe to say that this perspe2tive has 7een inf)4en2e5

7y the 5eve)op1ent of 2o1p4ters.

TA:E NOTE

?esta)t porten5s that* The 8ho)e is 5ifferent fro1 the s41 of parts.

Cognitive perspective

This perspe2tive has evo)ve5 fro1 str42t4ra)is1 an5 7e)ieves that 1ost of h41an

7ehavio4r is roote5 in the 1in5. They fo24s on peop)eGs 4n5erstan5in= of the 8or)5

i.e. ho8 they thin% 4n5erstan5 an5 thin a7o4t the 8or)5 aro4n5 the1.

1.9 ,RANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

As the psy2ho)o=y has 7ein= =ro8in= it has 2reate5 1any areas of spe2ia)ization

8ithin the fie)5. There are severa) 7ran2hes of psy2ho)o=y. >o8ever in this )e2t4re 8e

are on)y =oin= to fo24s on a fe8 that are 2)ose)y re)ate5 to e542ation.

1.9.1 De*e"!'menta" P#$c%!"!&$

/


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Deve)op1enta) Psy2ho)o=y st45ies the 2han=es that o224r as h41ans =ro8 an5

5eve)op. It 5es2ri7es ho8 h41an 7o5y 2han=es an5 ho8 8e a5apt in these 2han=es.

For exa1p)e% at 8hi2h )eve) of 5eve)op1ent 5o 2hi)5ren re2o=nize or 7e2o1e a8are

of the1se)ves 6hat is the se4en2e invo)ve5 in 8a)in= an5 8hat 5o a5o)es2en2e 5o

in response to the physio)o=i2a) 2han=es p47erty o224rrin= at this sta=e A)so

5eve)op1enta) psy2ho)o=y 5es2ri7es 2o=nitive an5 psy2hoso2ia) 2han=es of

in5ivi54a). It )oos on aspe2ts in the environ1ent that have effe2t on the in5ivi54a) as

she-he =ro8s. Do 2hi)5ren 7e2o1e a==ressive or 8esternize5 7e2a4se of 8at2hin=

te)evision

1.9. S!cia" P#$c%!"!&$

'o2ia) Psy2ho)o=y )oos at the intera2tion of the in5ivi54a) an5 the so2iety i.e. ho8

in5ivi54a)Gs 7ehavio4r is affe2te5 7y so2ia) fa2tors. Topi2s 4n5er this area in2)45e

so2ia)ization pro2ess% pre45i2e% peer press4re% 1o7 4sti2e an5 the 8ay peop)e vie8

the1se)ves an5 ho8 they vie8 others.

1.9. C!&niti*e P#$c%!"!&$

Co=nition ste1s fro1 the Latin 8or5 1eanin= to no8. Co=nitive psy2ho)o=y

investi=ates aspe2ts of h41an 2o=nition i.e. a)) o4r 1enta) a7i)ities an5 pro2esses

in2)45in= per2eivin=% )earnin=% re1e17erin=% thinin=% reasonin=% an5 4n5erstan5in=.

It st45ies ho8 peop)e a24ire an5 app)y no8)e5=e or infor1ation. It is 2)ose)y

re)ate5 to other 2o=nitive s2ien2es an5 it is inf)4en2e5 7y artifi2ia) inte))i=en2e%

2o1p4ter s2ien2e% phi)osophy% anthropo)o=y% )in=4isti2s% 7io)o=y% physi2s% an5

ne4ros2ien2e.

1.9.6 Sc%!!" P#$c%!"!&$

'2hoo) Psy2ho)o=y is a 7ran2h of psy2ho)o=y that app)ies prin2ip)es of psy2ho)o=y to

the 5ia=nosis an5 treat1ent of 2hi)5renKs an5 a5o)es2entsK 7ehavio4ra) an5 )earnin=

pro7)e1s. '2hoo) psy2ho)o=ists 2arry o4t psy2ho)o=i2a) an5 psy2ho e542ationa)

assess1entJ 2o4nse)in=J an5 2ons4)tationJ an5 a)so in the ethi2a)% )e=a) an5

a51inistrative 2o5es in the tea2hin= profession.

1.9.8 E3'e(imenta" P#$c%!"!&$

,

http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Learninghttp://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Human_Intelligencehttp://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Languagehttp://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assessmenthttp://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Learninghttp://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Human_Intelligencehttp://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Languagehttp://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assessment


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Experi1enta) Psy2ho)o=y is intereste5 in 4sin= 2ontro))e5 experi1ents to st45y

psy2ho)o=i2a) pro2esses. It )oos at the h41an 1enta) pro2esses an5 7ehavio4r 4sin=

s2ientifi2 1etho5% resear2h% experi1entation an5 statisti2s.

1.9.9 C!n#e"in& P#$c%!"!&$

Co4nse)in= Psy2ho)o=y fo24ses on provi5in= psy2ho)o=i2a) therapy to in5ivi54a)s

experien2in= nor1a) e1otiona)% so2ia)% vo2ationa)% e542ationa) an5 5eve)op1enta)

pro7)e1s. Co4nse)in= psy2ho)o=ists are traine5 to have a variety of 2o4nse)in= si))s.

1.9. C"inica" '#$c%!"!&$

C)ini2a) psy2ho)o=y is 5evote5 to 4n5erstan5in= an5 fin5in= treat1ent to peop)e

experien2in= serio4s e1otiona)% 1enta) an5 7ehavio4r 5isor5ers s42h as 5epression%anxiety 5isor5ers an5 psy2hoti2 5isor5ers. C)ini2a) psy2ho)o=ists spe2ia)ize in a fe8

areas of the 5isor5ers an5 8or in 2)ini2a) settin=.

SU;;ARY

In this )e2t4re 8e have 5efine5 psy2ho)o=y an5 i5entifie5 the 1ain

o7e2tives of st45yin= psy2ho)o=y. 6e a)so )ooe5 7rief)y at the history

of psy2ho)o=y 7y fo24sin= on 5ifferent perspe2tive sin2e psy2ho)o=y

7e2a1e an in5epen5ent 5is2ip)ine in


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Any text7oo of ?enera) Psy2ho)o=y

LECTU&E T6O

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING<

DEFINITION AND HISTORY

.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previo4s )e2t4re 8e =ave a 7rief overvie8 of the s47e2t 1atter of psy2ho)o=y

an5 5ifferent 7ran2hes of psy2ho)o=y. One 7ran2h 8hi2h 8as not p4rposive)y

1entione5 8as E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y. This 8ho)e 2o4rse is on this 7ran2h an5 I

no8 yo4 are rea5y an5 )ooin= for8ar5 to en=a=in= yo4rse)f in this area of

spe2ia)ization not on)y for the sae of passin= yo4r exa1s 8hi2h is very ni2e% 74t

a)so for 5eve)opin= si))s that yo4 8i)) app)y as an effe2tive tea2her. One 2an tea2h

8itho4t tain= E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y. >o8ever% to 7e an effe2tive tea2her an5 to

enoy tea2hin=% yo4 14st tae this 2o4rse very serio4s)y.

LECTURE O,4ECTIVES


i Define E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y

ii Narrate a 7rief history of E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y

iii 'tate the 1ain o7e2tives of E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y

. >HAT IS EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY?

In Le2t4re One 8e )earnt that psy2ho)o=y is a s2ientifi2 st45y of 7ehavio4r an5 1enta)

pro2esses an5 that psy2ho)o=y has severa) 7ran2hes.

E542ationa) psy2ho)o=y is the 7ran2h that fo24ses on 5eve)op1ent of effe2tive

tea2hin= te2hni4es an5 in assessin= )earnersG aptit45es an5 pro=ress in )earnin=

pro2ess. It 4ses psy2ho)o=i2a) no8)e5=e to 4n5erstan5 )earnin= an5 tea2hin= in

e542ationa) settin=s. It in2orporates an5 app)ies no8)e5=e =aine5 fro1 other areas of

psy2ho)o=y e.=.


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• Theories of h41an 5eve)op1ent are 4se5 7y e542ationa) psy2ho)o=y to no8 ho8

st45ents 5eve)op an5 )earnJ an5 to 4n5erstan5 the 2hara2teristi2s of )earners at

vario4s sta=esJ

•

Co=nitive psy2ho)o=y 8hen referrin= to reasonin= an5 pro7)e1 so)vin=J s2hoo) psy2ho)o=y in 5eter1inin= st45entsG a7i)ities an5 the 7est 8ays an5 2on5itions

ne2essary for in5ivi54a)s to rea)ize their f4)) potentia).

• 9no8)e5=e fro1 5is2ip)ines o4tsi5e psy2ho)o=y 2ontri74tes to e542ationa)

psy2ho)o=y e.=. fin5in=s in ne4ros2ien2es he)p 4s to 4n5erstan5 ho8 the 7rain

8ors in re)ation to )earnin=.

A)so resear2h fin5in=s in e542ationa) psy2ho)o=y 2ontri74te to 8i5e fie)5 of psy2ho)o=y an5 e542ation in =enera) e.=. in 2reatin= e542ationa) po)i2ies an5

5eve)opin= 24rri24)41 7ase5 on 2hara2teristi2s of the )earners.

Thro4=h this 2o4rse yo4 8i)) fin5 that the 1ain fa2tors on h41an )earnin= settin=s are

a1on= the topi2s of e542ationa) psy2ho)o=y. These aspe2ts in2)45e instr42tiona)

5esi=n an5 app)i2ation% 24rri24)41 5eve)op1ent% spe2ia) e542ation% 2)assroo1

1ana=e1ent% 4se of te2hno)o=y in tea2hin= an5 assess1ent of )earners an5 their

perfor1an2e.

ACTIVITY

?o thro4=h the s2hoo) 24rri24)41 an5 1ae a )ist of ite1s that are

5ire2t)y re)ate5 to E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y.

. O,4ECTIVES @FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

In the previo4s )e2t4re the first t8o o7e2tives of psy2ho)o=y are to 5es2ri7e an5

4n5erstan5 7ehavio4r. 'o% in e542ationa) psy2ho)o=y 8e 8ant to 5es2ri7e an5

4n5erstan5 the nat4re an5 prin2ip)es of )earnin=* E542ationa) psy2ho)o=y ai1s at

ans8erin= the fo))o8in= 4estions 7y resear2h* 6hat is invo)ve5 in the )earnin=

pro2ess >o8 5o 8e )earnin= at 5ifferent sta=es of 5eve)op1ent 6hi2h are the

fa2tors that enhan2e-hin5er )earnin=


25/204

Base5 on the no8)e5=e =aine5 fro1 a7ove 4estions% E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y ai1s

at 5esi=nin= strate=ies for =4i5in= )earners in )earnin=. 't45ents possess )earnin=

a7i)ities an5 si))s. E542ationa) psy2ho)o=y =4i5es st45ents to 4se their existin= si))s

1ore effe2tive)y an5-or 5eve)op ne8 si))s.

A1on= the 1aor responsi7i)ities of a tea2her is tea2hin=. 'o1e peop)e have a notion

that tea2hin= is easy. The opposite is tr4eJ tea2hin= is a very 2o1p)ex exer2ise. As

expe2te5% e542ationa) psy2ho)o=y provi5es tea2hers 8ith 1etho5s an5 spe2ifi2 si))s

of tea2hin=. These 1etho5s an5 si))s are 7ase5 on the o4t2o1es of resear2h fin5in=s

an5 fa2i)itate )earnin=. 't45ents 5o% an5 2an )earn a)one. >o8ever% in or5er to 1eet

the state e542ationa) =oa)s% )earners nee5 tea2hers 8ith effe2tive tea2hin= si))s.

Every )earner in the 2)assroo1 is 4ni4e. 'o% there are in5ivi54a) variations a1on=

)earner in one sin=)e 2)assroo1% in2)45in= )earners 7ein= in 5ifferent 5eve)op1enta)

sta=es 2o=nitive)y% physi2a))y% so2ia))y an5 e1otiona))y% 8ith 5ifferent a7i)ities%

te1pera1ents an5 )earnin= si))s. To 1aster these variations e542ationa) psy2ho)o=y

provi5es the tea2her 8ith the si))s to i5entify in5ivi54a) )earner pro2esses an5 traits.

An effe2tive tea2her 2reates a )earnin= environ1ent in the 2)assroo1 that 2aters for

the in5ivi54a) variation so that ea2h )earner is 1otivate5 to rea)ize his-her f4))

potentia)s.

The environ1ent has =reat effe2t on )earnin= pro2ess. Tea2hers 2an 4se the

environ1ent to enhan2e )earnin=. E542ationa) psy2ho)o=y trains tea2hers to i5entify

an5 2ontro) these externa) fa2tors. The externa) fa2tors in2)45e the i11e5iate

environ1ent an5 2on5itions% tea2hin= 1ateria)s avai)a7)e% resear2h fin5in=s an5 ne8

tea2hin= si))s an5 te2hno)o=i2a) a5van2es.

Yo4 1i=ht 7e intereste5 to 7e2o1e an E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=ist. To 7e an e542ationa)

psy2ho)o=ist% yo4 nee5 to have a =ra54ate 5e=ree in e542ationa) psy2ho)o=y it has

1any 2o4rses. E542ationa) psy2ho)o=ist 8or as 2ons4)tants% tea2h at 4niversities

an5 2on542t resear2h on 2o=nitive% so2ia) pro2esses of h41an 5eve)op1ent% )earnin=

an5 e542ation. 'o% this 2o4rse a)one 8i)) not 1ae yo4 an e542ationa) psy2ho)o=ist

74t it 8i)) 1otivate yo4 to strive to 7e2o1e one.


26/204

I 7e)ieve that if yo4 1eet the re4ire1ents of E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y% 5eve)op the

tea2hin= si))s an5 app)y the1 in )earnin= settin=s yo4 8i)) 7e 1otivate5 to 7e an

effe2tive tea2her a7)e to ta2)e tea2hin= 2ha))en=es 8ith 2onfi5en2e an5 8ith =reat

satisfa2tion. An5 8ho is an effe2tive tea2her 'evera) 7oos on e542ationa)

psy2ho)o=y E))iot et a).% ###J 'antro2% ##" point o4t that for one to 7e an

effe2tive tea2her s-he 14st 1aster the fo))o8in= 2on2epts an5 per2eptions a))

in2)45e5 in this 2o4rse*

..1 SBect matte( 5n!2"ed&e

This refers to havin= a 2on2ept4a) 4n5erstan5in= of the s47e2t yo4 tea2h. Yo4 14st

8or har5 not on)y to a24ire the no8)e5=e of yo4r s47e2t% 74t a)so to 7e a7)e to

or=anize this no8)e5=e an5 7e in position to in2)45e no8)e5=e fro1 other re)ate5

5is2ip)ines. @4st no8in= the fa2ts is not eno4=h. Too )itt)e no8)e5=e )ea5s to

tea2herGs )a2 of 2onfi5en2e in the 2)assroo1. &e1e17er that yo4 5onGt have to tea2h

a)) 8hat yo4 no8 sin2e yo4 1ay 2a4se har1 to the 2)assQ (ateria) presente5 in the

2)ass sho4)5 re)ate to the st45entsG a7i)ities an5 to the sy))a74s.

.. :n!2"ed&e !) #tdent#

As a tea2her yo4 14st no8 yo4r st45ents. ItGs very 5iffi24)t to 5ea) 8ith st45ents

8ho1 yo4 5onGt no8. As yo4 spen5 ti1e 8ith the1 )earn a7o4t the1 as a =ro4p% an5

as 8e)) as ea2h st45ent as a 4ni4e 7ein=. They 7rin= 5ifferent 7a2=ro4n5s to the

2)ass. 9no8 a7o4t their physi2a)% 2o=nitive an5 psy2hoso2ia) 5eve)op1ent. Yo4 8i))

2o1e into 2onta2t 8ith ex2eptiona) st45ents 8ho 1ay nee5 spe2ia) attention an5

approa2h in tea2hin=.

.. Lea(nin& '(!ce##

This is spe2ifi2a))y a si=nifi2ant 2o1ponent in the fie)5 of e542ationa) psy2ho)o=y.

9no8in= yo4r st45ents in2)45es havin= no8)e5=e on ho8 they )earn i.e. si))s an5

strate=ies st45ents 4se to =et ne8 no8)e5=e. 9no8)e5=e of this 2o1ponent 8i)) 7e

an asset in 5esi=nin= yo4r tea2hin= strate=ies sin2e they have to 7e 2o1pati7)e 8ith

)earnin= pro2esses of the respe2tive st45ents.

..6 In#t(cti!na" #t(ate&ie#


27/204

Instr42tiona) strate=ies are 1ore than 4st i1partin= no8)e5=e to st45ents on the

fa)se ass41ption that they are passive in the 2)assroo1. (ost effe2tive instr42tiona)

strate=ies )ea5 st45ents to 5eve)op ref)e2tive si))s% thinin= 2riti2a))y an5 in exp)orin=

their environ1ent. Therefore% they 1ae ea2h st45ent )earn effi2ient)y. Yo4 have to

set appropriate =oa)s for tea2hin= yo4r st45ents an5 or=anize a p)an for the1 to

a2hieve s42h.

..8 ;!ti*ati!na" #5i""#

Even 8ith the 7est instr42tiona) strate=ies in p)a2e% so1e of the ti1es st45ents 1ay

fa2e o7sta2)es in their )earnin= pro2esses. Learnin= is a nat4ra) pheno1enon 74t in

s2hoo) it 2an 7e 5is2o4ra=e5 or 4n5er1ine5 7y severa) e)e1ents 7oth 8ithin an5-or

externa) to the st45ent. To 7e an effe2tive tea2her yo4 14st 5ep)oy 2on5itions that

8i)) )ea5 to st45ents 5eve)opin= se)f 1otivation i.e. ea=er to )earn an5 stayin= on the

tas for persona) satisfa2tion rather than as a 8ay of p)easin= others.

TA:E NOTE

There is no point of havin= a 2o1p4)sory e542ation po)i2y or of for2in=

st45ents to atten5 s2hoo) if a st45ent is not intereste5 in )earnin=.

..9 C"a##(!!m mana&ement #5i""#

A 2)assroo1 environ1ent is 2o1pose5 of 1any in5ivi54a)s an5 fa2tors that have a

7earin= on the tea2hin=-)earnin= pro2ess. 'o% One of the 1ost i1portant

responsi7i)ities of a tea2her is to 2reate an5 1aintain an environ1ent in the 2)assroo1

that is 2on542ive to )earnin= i.e. eepin= st45ents en=a=e5 on the inten5e5 tas. Yo4

8i)) nee5 to have strate=ies of or=anizin= yo4r st45ents for effe2tive )earnin= an5 have

in p)a2e a 1e2hanis1 of preventin= pro7)e1s. Chaos or )a2 of or=anisation is

5etri1enta) to opti1a) )earnin=.

.. A##e##ment #t(ate&ie#

A tea2her nee5s to no8 if his-her st45ents are s422essf4) or not in their )earnin=. This

2an 7e rea)ize5 if the tea2her is a7)e to 5eve)op or o7tain appropriate instr41ents%

1ae a224rate assess1ents an5 interpretations of the 1eas4re1ents. Assess1ent

ena7)es one to 5eter1ine the perfor1an2e an5 nee5s of the st45ents )ea5in= to 1ain=

2orre2t 5e2isions an5 a2tions that 8i)) i1prove the perfor1an2e of ea2h st45ent.


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../ Tec%n!"!&ica" #5i""#

This is an era of infor1ation te2hno)o=y an5 for one to f4n2tion effe2tive)y s-he nee5s

to 7e 2o1petent in te2hno)o=i2a) si))s. These si))s 8i)) assist yo4 to a22ess

no8)e5=e an5 inte=rate te2hno)o=y in yo4r tea2hin= strate=ies. A)so yo4 8i)) 7e in a

position to 1ae st45ents 4se te2hno)o=y in their )earnin=.

ACTIVITY

List the a7ove 2on2epts% then o7serve tea2hers in one the s2hoo)s

tea2hin= an5 fro1 the o7servations i5entify 2o1ponents that re)ate to

ea2h of the 2on2epts.

.6 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Le2t4re One =ave 4s a 7rief history of psy2ho)o=y. In this part 8e sha)) )oo

spe2ifi2a))y at the history of E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y.

In . E77in=ha4s% a ?er1an% 7e2a1e the first person to 5o a s2ientifi2 st45y on

1e1ory 8hi2h is re)ate5 to )earnin= pro2ess. >o8ever% e542ationa) psy2ho)o=y as an

in5epen5ent fie)5 starte5 4st 7efore the 7e=innin= of # th 2ent4ry in A1eri2a. In this

se2tion 8e are =oin= to have an overvie8 of i1portant a2tors in the 5eve)op1ent of the fie)5 an5 )ater on in this 2o4rse 8e sha)) 5is24ss their approa2hes 1ore 5eep)y.

6i))ia1 @a1es


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E58ar5 L. Thorn5ie e initiate5 the 4se of assess1ent an5 1eas4re1ents in

)earnin=. B.F. 'inner 74i)t on the i5eas of Thorn5ie. >o8ever% he insiste5 that the

s47e2t 1atter of psy2ho)o=y sho4)5 not in2)45e 1enta) pro2esses 74t sho4)5 on)y

fo24s on the o7serva7)e 7ehavio4rs. This is ter1e5 as behavioral perspective.

'innerGs approa2h 5eter1ine5 the 7est 2on5itions for )earnin= to tae p)a2e. The

tea2her 4ses a re8ar5in= syste1 that i1proves st45ent 7ehavio4r or perfor1an2e. >e

5eve)ope5 the 2on2ept of pro=ra11e5 )earnin= in 8hi2h a )earner is reinfor2e5 in

ea2h step that )ea5s to the inten5e5 =oa).

Bena1in B)oo1


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SU;;ARY

This has 7een a 7rief 5es2ription of E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y an5 its

history as an in5epen5ent profession in the fie)5 of Psy2ho)o=y. (ost

i1portant)y% the )e2t4re i5entifie5 the )ist of the 1ain 2on2epts in

E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y that yo4 have to 5eve)op to 7e2o1e a

2o1petent tea2her.E=ERCISES


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LECTU&E T>&EE

RESEARCH IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

.1 INTRODUCTION

6e sa8 in Le2t4res One an5 T8o that psy2ho)o=y is a fie)5 7ase5 on s2ientifi2

approa2hes. 'o% it is expe2te5 that 7efore 8e =o into f4rther into the sphere of

E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y 8e sha)) )oo at 1etho5s 4se5 to 5eter1ine its 2ontent an5

thereafter% into app)i2ation in the )earnin=-tea2hin= pro2esses.

LECTURE O,4ECTIVES


i Exp)ain the i1portan2e of resear2h

ii Define 5es2riptive resear2h

iii Des2ri7e an5 i5entify sin=)e2ase st45y

iv Des2ri7e 2orre)ation st45y

v Des2ri7e an5 i5entify the 2o1ponents of )a7oratory experi1ents

vi Des2ri7e an5 i5entify ran5o1ize5 fie)5 experi1ents

vii Des2ri7e a2tion resear2h.

. >HAT IS A SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH?

'2ientifi2 resear2h is 7ase5 not on the pheno1enon 7ein= investi=ate5 74t on the 8ay

the investi=ation is 2arrie5 o4t. '2ientifi2 approa2h is o7e2tive% syste1ati2 an5

verifia7)e. It is o7e2tive sin2e it is 7ase5 on the o7serva7)e an5-or on 1eas4ra7)e

aspe2ts. E542ationa) psy2ho)o=ists 5o not a22ept reso)4tions that 1i=ht 7e 7iase5%

7ase5 on persona) 7e)iefs% opinions% spe24)ation or experien2e a)one. erifia7i)ity is

fo4n5e5 on the pre1ise that so1eone e)se 2an 2ross2he2 the fin5in=s 7y repeatin=

the sa1e resear2h. Th4s% s2ientifi2 approa2h is 7ase5 on e1piri2a) evi5en2e.


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'2ientifi2 approa2h is syste1ati2 sin2e it has )ai5 5o8n pro2e54res of 2arryin= o4t an

investi=ation. The fo))o8in= are the 1ain sta=es of 2on542tin= a resear2h in

E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y*

..1 C!nce'ta"i+in& t%e '(!B"em

The first sta=e is to i5entify a pro7)e1 that is resear2ha7)e% i.e. research problem. A

pro7)e1 is any iss4e that 2an 7e ans8ere5 7y 5oin= a resear2h. 'o1e of the thin=s 8e

1ay )ie to st45y 2annot 7e exp)aine5 thro4=h s2ientifi2 approa2h. '2ientifi2 1etho5s

2annot 7e app)ie5 in fin5in= the existen2e of ?o5% or ?o5Gs re)ationship 8ith st45entGs

a2a5e1i2 perfor1an2e. &esear2h pro7)e1 2an 7e a res4)t of persona) experien2es in

oneGs professiona) fie)5 e.=. tea2hin=-)earnin= experien2es in s2hoo) settin=s or

5eve)ope5 fro1 the fin5in=s of other resear2hes nor1a))y resear2h fin5in=s raise ne8

4estions that nee5 to 7e ans8ere5 thro4=h s2ientifi2 1etho5s. An exa1p)e of a

resear2h pro7)e1 1ay 7e to fin5 o4t why most students from area &'( are dropping out

of school and why the performance of most of those remaining in school is low . 6hen

for14)atin= the resear2h pro7)e1 one has to 5ra8 fro1 theories an5 other 1ateria)s

re)ate5 to pheno1enon 4n5er investi=ation. This no8)e5=e =aine5 sho8s 8hat is

=oin= on the area of resear2h an5 a)so is 4se5 to for14)ate the hypothesis. >ypothesis

is a state1ent in5i2atin= the re)ationship of the varia7)es of the resear2h an5 in5i2atin=

the expe2te5 res4)ts of the st45y. >ypothesis of the a7ove resear2h pro7)e1 1ay 7e

)tudents of parents with secondary education in area “'” are more li*ely to

complete schools than students whose parents have only primary school education”.

+ariables are the e)e1ents in the hypothesis. In the a7ove hypothesis the varia7)es are

parents with secondary education”, “parents with primary school education” and

“completing school”. 'o% the 1ain a2tivity in this first sta=e is to i5entify an5 2)arify

the resear2h pro7)e1.

.. Data C!""ecti!n

This sta=e invo)ves 5eter1inin= instr41ents an5 1e2hanis1s of o7tainin=

infor1ation nee5e5 in so)vin= the resear2h pro7)e1. In this step% infor1ation =athere5

is 4se5 to test the hypothesis. The hypothesis is not 5eter1ine5 as 2orre2t or in2orre2t%

74t if it is ree2te5 or a22epte5 on the 5ata o7taine5. There are severa) 8ays of

2o))e2tin= 5ata that are to 7e 5is24sse5 in the fo))o8in= se2tion.


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.. C!nc"#i!n#

The ra8 5ata 2o))e2te5 is pro2esse5 thro4=h statisti2a) pro2e54res so that res4)ts 2an

7e ana)yze5 an5 interpretations 1a5e. 'tatisti2a) ana)ysis 5eter1ines if the res4)ts

happene5 7y 2han2e or are the res4)ts of 2on5itions 2reate5 or that o7serve5 7y the

resear2her. The res4)ts are 4se5 to 1ae 2on2)4sions that in5i2ate the app)i2ation of

fin5in=s in respe2tive sit4ations.

ACTIVITY

?I5entify five iss4es in the fie)5 of e542ation that yo4 2an 4se to 5eve)op

a resear2h pro7)e1.

. ;A4OR RESEARCH ;ETHODS

In this part 8e )oo at the 1aor 7asi2 1etho5s 4se5 to 2o))e2t 5ata. As 1entione5

a7ove the infor1ation =aine5 here is 4se5 to test the hypothesis. The 1etho5 4se5 in a

st45y is 5eter1ine5 7y the nat4re of resear2h i.e. the pro7)e1 7ein= investi=ate5.

There are t8o 1aor types of resear2h 1etho5o)o=y in E542ationa) Psy2ho)o=y%

na1e)y* 4antitative 1etho5s an5 4a)itative 1etho5s. In uantitative approa2hes

1eas4re1ents an5 test s2ores are 4se5. aria7)es in the resear2h are 4antifie5 an5

statisti2a) 1etho5s are app)ie5 for the interpretation of the 5ata.

In e542ationa) settin=s ualitative approa2hes are 4se5 to st45y theoreti2a) varia7)es

that 2an on)y 7e inferre5 an5 are 5iffi24)t to 4antify. This 1etho5 2an 7e 4se5 to

5es2ri7e events% pro2esses% 1otivation% attit45es an5 persona) experien2es. For

exa1p)e% a parti2ipant 1i=ht 7e 5ire2te5 to narrate his fee)in=s 4n5er spe2ifi2

2on5itions an5 then his-her exp)anation is re2or5e5 an5 ana)yze5.

Be)o8 is a 5es2ription of so1e 1etho5s 4se5 to 2o))e2t resear2h 5ata*

..1 De#c(i'ti*e Std$

This type of 4a)itative st45y 5eter1ines the 24rrent stat4s of the 7ehavior in the

resear2h pro7)e1. The 1ain ai1 is to 4n5erstan5 an5 5es2ri7e the 8ay thin=s are. 'o%

the resear2her 2o))e2ts 5ata to test hypothesis. Des2riptive st45y is 4se5 to =et the

attit45es% opinions% an5 the o224rren2es of 7ehavio4r a1on= st45ents.

#


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One 1eans of 2o))e2tin= 5ata in 5es2riptive st45y is thro4=h observation. -atural

observation is syste1ati2 o7servation an5 re2or5in= 5ata th4s s2ientifi2 in a nat4ra)

settin= 8hi)e the resear2her is 5eta2he5 fro1 the a2tivities of the =ro4p 4n5er st45y.

This 2an either 7e o7servin= st45ents an5 tea2hers in a 2)assroo1% 2afeteria or in a

p)ayin= fie)5. In Participant observation the resear2her o7server is a2tive)y en=a=e5

in the a2tivities of the =ro4p of the st45y. 'o the o7server is 7oth part of the =ro4p an5

is a)so invo)ve5 in re2or5in= the 5ata.

Another 1etho5 in 5es2riptive is survey research which invo)ves se)e2tin= a n417er

of peop)e sa1p)e to 2o))e2t 5ata that represents the vie8s% opinions% attit45es an5-or

7e)iefs of a pop4)ation. Data 2an 7e 2o))e2te5 7y as*ing uestions through

uestionnaires andor conducting interviews. D4e to te2hno)o=i2a) a5van2e1ents

these instr41ents 2an 7e a51inistere5 either 7y fa2etofa2e or thro4=h e1ai) an5-or

phones.

.. Sin&"e Ca#e Std$

This st45y is 7ase5 on investi=atin= one sin=)e in5ivi54a) or spe2ifi2 event. It is 4se5

8hen an opport4nity avai)s itse)f for a st45y that 2o4)5 not other8ise 7e 5one 54e to

ethi2a) or pra2ti2a) reasons. 6e 2annot ine2t st45ents 8ith a55i2tive 5r4=s to st45y

their )eve)s of a==ressions a=ainst others. >o8ever 8e 2an o7serve the )eve)s of

a==ression of st45ents 8ho are 5is2overe5 to 7e 5r4= a55i2ts. The fin5in=s of 2ase

st45y 2an he)p 4s to 2o1e 4p 8ith so1e 4n5erstan5in= of a pheno1enon. >o8ever%

sin2e the res4)ts 2annot 7e ana)yze5 statisti2a))y% their interpretations 2annot 7e

=enera)ize5 to other peop)e.

.. C!((e"ati!na" #td$

This st45y 5eter1ines the re)ationship 7et8een t8o or 1ore varia7)es that are

asso2iate5. It in5i2ates 8hether there is re)ationship or not. 'tatisti2a) approa2h is 4se5

to 5eter1ine the stren=th of the re)ationship an5 if it is either positive or ne=ative. The

s2ore of re)ationship )ies 7et8een the 2oeffi2ient of < ne=ative an5 S< positive. A

s2ore 2)ose to # 1eans there is no re)ationship 7et8een the varia7)es. There is no

re)ationship 7et8een the hei=ht of st45ent an5 his-her test s2ore. A s2ore 2)ose to <

i1p)ies a ne=ative re)ationship i.e. if one varia7)e in2reases the other one 5e2reasesan5 vi2e versa. A =oo5 exa1p)e is the re)ationship 7et8een test s2ore an5 n417er of


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8ron= ans8ers. If the n417er of 8ron= ans8ers in2reases the test s2ore 5e2rease%

8hen the n417er of 8ron= ans8ers 5e2reases the test s2ore in2rease. A s2ore 2)ose to

S< 1eans a positive re)ationship i.e. if one varia7)e in2reases the other varia7)e a)so

in2reases. 6hen the n417er of 2orre2t ans8ers in2rease a)so the test s2ore in2reases.

The stren=th of the re)ationship 2an 7e 4se5 to 1ae pre5i2tions. >o8ever% fin5in=

that there is a re)ationship 7et8een the varia7)es 5oes not 1ean there is 2a4seeffe2t

re)ationship i.e. one 2annot say either of the varia7)es is the 2a4se of the re)ationship.

The n417er of 2orre2t or in2orre2t test ans8ers is not the 2a4se of a2a5e1i2

perfor1an2e of a st45ent 74t rather 54e to other fa2tors s42h as 1enta) a7i)ity% st45y

si))s or )eve) of 5iffi24)ty of the test.

..6 E3'e(imenta" Re#ea(c%

E542ationa) psy2ho)o=ists 4se experi1enta) resear2h to 5eter1ine 2a4seeffe2t

re)ationship 7et8een varia7)es i.e. to fin5 o4t if a 2ertain varia7)e is the 2a4se of

7ehavio4r or 2on5ition. Experi1enta) resear2h is 2on542te5 in a )a7oratory or

2ontro))e5 environ1ent 8here7y 2on5itions or fa2tors tho4=ht to 2a4se-inf)4en2e the

respe2tive 7ehavio4r are 2aref4))y 1anip4)ate5. The fa2tor that is 1anip4)ate5 is

2a))e5 the independent variable 8hi)e the 7ehavior 7ein= o7serve5 or 1eas4re5 is

2a))e5 the dependent variable. 'o in5epen5ent varia7)e is the fa2tor 2onsi5ere5 to 7e

inf)4entia)% 2a4se or has effe2t on the 5epen5ent varia7)e. If the 5epen5ent varia7)e

2han=es 54e to 1anip4)ation of the in5epen5ent varia7)e then 8e say there 1i=ht 7e

2a4seeffe2t re)ationship 7et8een the t8o varia7)es i.e. in5epen5ent varia7)e has an

inf)4en2e on the 5epen5ent varia7)e.

In 1any experi1enta) resear2hes t8o =ro4ps of in5ivi54a)s are 4se5 i.e. e/perimental

group an5 control group. At the 7e=innin= of the resear2h 7oth =ro4ps are e4a) in a))

aspe2ts. &an5o1 sa1p)in= is 4se5 to for1 these =ro4ps. This te2hni4e =ives ea2h

in5ivi54a) of the st45y an e4a) 2han2e to 7e se)e2te5 in either =ro4p an5 e)i1inates

the 7iases that the resear2her 1ay have. Experi1enta) =ro4p is the one 1anip4)ate5

8hi)e the 2ontro) =ro4p is treate5 the sa1e 8ay as the experi1enta) =ro4p 8ith the

ex2eption of the 1anip4)ate5 fa2tor. The fa2tor 1anip4)ate5 in the experi1enta) =ro4p

is the in5epen5ent varia7)e 8hi)e the 7ehavio4ra) o4t2o1es of the t8o =ro4ps are the

5epen5ent varia7)e.

..8 Time #'an (e#ea(c%e#


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These are resear2hes 7ase5 on 2har=es re)ate5 to perio5 of ti1e. 6e 1i=ht 7e

intereste5 to no8 the 2hara2teristi2s of st45ents at 5ifferent sta=es of 5eve)op1ent.

There are t8o 1ain approa2hes 4se5 in ti1e span resear2hes* 2rossse2tiona) an5

)on=it45ina) resear2h.

• In cross-sectional research =ro4ps of 2hi)5ren 7ase5 on their a=e are se)e2te5 an5

then the resear2h fo24ses on the pro7)e1 area of interest. The ai1 is to 2o1pare

the 2hara2teristi2s of the respe2tive a=e =ro4ps.

• In longitudinal research the sa1e =ro4p of in5ivi54a)s is investi=ate5 over a

perio5 of ti1e that is nor1a))y over a year% so1e )ast 1any years e.=. fro1 7irth

to 5eath. One o7serves the 2han=es that tae p)a2e a1on= the =ro4p 1e17ers

54rin= the 54ration of the st45y.

..9 Acti!n Re#ea(c%

This is a resear2h 2arrie5 7y a tea2her or severa) tea2hers% rather than psy2ho)o=ist or

resear2h experts% 8ith the ai1 of so)vin= a spe2ifi2 pro7)e1 in a 2)assroo1 or s2hoo).

The fin5in=s are 4se5 to re1e5y an5 i1prove tea2hin=-)earnin= pro2esses.

In A2tion &esear2h a tea2her 4ses resear2h pro2e54res to =ain si))s that he)p the1 to

5ea) 8ith pro7)e1s or sit4ation that hin5er effe2tive )earnin= in their 2)assroo1s. 'o%

the tea2her has to no8 ho8 to for14)ate 4estion that a224rate)y ref)e2ts the

pro7)e1-sit4ation% to 5efine the ter1s in the 4estion% 2o))e2t 5ata an5 4se ana)ysis

pro2esses that yie)5 fin5in=s that are va)i5 an5 re)ia7)e. Fro1 the fin5in=s the tea2her

1aes strate=ies for instr42tiona) i1prove1ent or for a55ressin= the a5verse sit4ation.

The i1p)i2ations are that as an effe2tive tea2her yo4 are not on)y =oin= to tea2h 74t

a)so 7e a resear2her in the 2)assroo1 a)) the ti1e. In a2tion resear2h yo4 1ay fo))o8

the sa1e pro2e54res 4se5 in the other types of resear2hes to avoi5 persona) 7iases 74t

have re)ia7)e res4)ts that )ea5 to effe2tive )ine of a2tion.

As an exa1p)e% a tea2her 1ay o7serve that a 2ertain st45ent in the 2)ass is a)8ays

2a4sin= 2o11otion an5 that s-he is s4pporte5 7y so1e other st45ents 5espite 7ein=

8arne5 severa) ti1es. First)y% the tea2her for14)ates a uestion “ 6hat 1aes Bahati

to 1ae 2o11otion The tea2her nee5s to 5efine 2o11otion. Next% the tea2her

!


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en=a=es in data collection. The tea2her re2or5s 8hen an5 ho8 1any ti1es s-he 1aes

2o11otion an5 thro4=h intervie8 5e542e 8hy s-he 1aes 2o11otions. A)so s-he

1ay re2or5 8hen an5 ho8 1any ti1es the other st45ents s4pport hi1-her. Then next

fo))o8s the data analysis. The findings fro1 the ana)ysis 1ay revea) that Bahati an5

his-her 2o))ea=4es are not 1otivate5 )earn the tea2herGs s47e2t. Base5 on the fin5in=s

the tea2hers 1aes an action plan on ho8 to 1ae st45ents 1otivate5 to )earn his-her

s47e2t.

TA:E NOTE

Ea2h 1etho5 of 2o))e2tin= 5ata has its a5vanta=es an5 )i1itations.

ACTIVITY

For ea2h of the 1etho5s of 2o))e2tin= 5ata 1entione5 a7ove i5entify its

a5vanta=es an5 )i1itations.

.6 ETHICS IN RESEARCH

6hen 2on542tin= a resear2h st45y in2)4sive a2tion resear2h% there are severa) ethi2a)

iss4es yo4 have to 7ear in 1in5. If these are i=nore5 the pro2esses an5 the fin5in=s of

the resear2h 1i=ht 2a4se har1 to parti2ipants% 7e ree2te5% an5-or 2an )ea5 to )e=a)

a2tions a=ainst the resear2her.

• The first pre2a4tion is to 1aintain the 8e))7ein= of the parti2ipants. (ae s4re the

resear2h 5oes not har1 any of the parti2ipants physi2a))y% 1enta))y or e1otiona))y.

• @4st =ain 2onsent fro1 the parti2ipants an5 per1ission fro1 responsi7)e

a4thorities 7efore e17arin= on 2o))e2tin= 5ata. If the parti2ipants are too yo4n=

to 1ae 5e2isions then yo4 are re4ire5 to see 2onsent fro1 their parents or

tea2hers.

• In 2ase ani1a)s are 4se5 in the st45y 1ae s4re they are treate5 h41ane)y.

SU;;ARY

"


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In this )e2t4re 8e 5es2ri7e5 o7e2tives of resear2h in the fie)5 of

e542ationa) psy2ho)o=y. A)so 8e )ooe5 at the 1ain 2o1ponents of a

resear2h an5 1etho5s yo4 4se5 to 2o))e2t 5ata. Yo4 8ere re4ire5 to

i5entify stren=ths an5 )i1itations of ea2h 1etho5 of 2o))e2tin= 5ata.

P)ease 5o the a2tivity as it 1ay prove han5y one 5ayQE=ERCISES


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In this )e2t4re 8e )oo at st45ents as they =ro8 an5 5eve)op in re)ation to )earnin=.

&e1e17er that yo4 nee5 to have no8)e5=e of yo4r st45ents so as to 7e an effe2tive

tea2her 7e2a4se yo4 2annot tea2h st45ents 8ho1 yo4 5onGt no8. Chi)5 5eve)op1ent

no8)e5=e e4ips yo4 8ith an 4n5erstan5in= of yo4r st45ents 8ho are at 5ifferent

sta=es of 5eve)op1ent so that yo4 2an appropriate)y tea2h the1. A)so% yo4 1ay stay

8ith the sa1e st45ents for a )on= perio5 of ti1e in 8hi2h so1e 5eve)op1enta)

2han=es 8i)) 5efinite)y 7e o224rrin=. Yo4 nee5 to noti2e these 2han=es an5 respon5 to

the1 a22or5in=)y.

LECTURE O,4ECTIVES


i I5entify here5itary an5 environ1enta) fa2tors 8hi2h 4n5er)ie

)earnin= a7i)ityJ

ii Distin=4ish 7et8een 2ontin4o4s an5 5is2ontin4o4s theories of

5eve)op1entJ

iii Des2ri7e the physi2a)% 2o=nitive an5 psy2hoso2ia) 5eve)op1ent of

st45entsJ

iv I5entify the 5iversity in the 2)assroo1.

6. ;AIN CONCEPTS

LetGs start 7y 5es2ri7in= the 2on2epts =ro8 an5 5eve)op1ent as 4se5 in

psy2ho)o=y. Both 2on2epts are 7ase5 on the fa2t that 54rin= )ife span in5ivi54a)s are

pro=ressin= fro1 one sta=e to a hi=her sta=e. This pro2ess an5 sta=es are 2hara2terize5

7y 2han=es. 0row is 4se5 8hen the 2han=es are 4antitative% i.e. an in2rease or

5e2rease in n417ers. A =oo5 exa1p)e is hei=ht an5 8ei=ht of st45ents. In nor1a)

2ir241stan2es 2hi)5renGs hei=ht an5 8ei=ht in2reases rea5 =ro8 as they pro=ress in

years. 6e expe2t t8o years o)5 to 7e shorter an5 )i=hter at this a=e re)ative to 8hen

they 8i)) 7e in pri1ary s2hoo).

1evelopment is 4se5 for 4a)itative 2han=es. These are not 5ire2t)y o7serva7)e 74t

infer so1e 2han=es 8ithin the in5ivi54a) have taen p)a2e. A =oo5 exa1p)e is

)an=4a=e 5eve)op1ent. At 7irth 2hi)5ren 2annot ta) ho8ever aro4n5 t8o years they

7e=in to spea. Lan=4a=e spoen at the a=e of t8o is 4a)itative)y inferior re)ative to

the )an=4a=e 4se5 at fo4r or at ten. The 2han=es 1anifeste5 in )an=4a=e 5onGt 1ean

+


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that the 7rain has 2han=e5 74t rather so1e reor=anization has taen p)a2e that a22o4nt

for the 5ifferen2es 7et8een the sta=es.

In this )e2t4re 8e )oo at the 5eve)op1ent of the st45ents in three 1ain areas i.e.

physi2a)% 2o=nitive an5 psy2hoso2ia). These areas 5eve)op si14)taneo4s)y an5 are% as

1entione5 7efore% interre)ate5. As yo4 have noti2e5 on the 5eve)op1ent of st45ents

there is 4ite a variation in rate of 5eve)op1ent. In a =ro4p of st45ents of the sa1e

a=e an5 in the sa1e 2)ass an5 a)) sti)) =ro8in= yo4 fin5 so1e of the1 are ta))er 8hi)e

others are shorter for their a=e% so1e heavy an5 others not so heavy% so1e have

)an=4a=e that is 8e)) a5van2e5 for their a=e 8hi)e for others their )an=4a=e is 7e)o8

that of the nor1a) a=e =ro4p. A)so% there are 5eve)op1enta) variations 8ithin the

in5ivi54a) hi1se)f-herse)f. 'o1e 1ay =ro8 fast in ter1s of 8ei=ht 74t 1ore s)o8)y in

hei=ht. The i1p)i2ation is that st45ents of the sa1e a=e are si1i)ar in so1e aspe2ts

an5 5ifferent in others.

The perio5s of 2hi)5 5eve)op1ent are 2)assifie5 7y psy2ho)o=ists into fo4r perio5s.

Noti2e that% as 1entione5 a7ove% there is variation on the onset an5 en5 of the perio5s.

These perio5s are*

• Inancy* starts fro1 7irth to


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6. ROLE OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRON;ENT ON THE DEVELOP;ENT

OF STUDENT

In 5eve)op1ent% there is a 2onstant intera2tion 7et8een nat4re an5 environ1ent or

n4rt4re. The nat4re 2o1ponent invo)ves the 7io)o=i2a) pro2esses that start at

2on2eption i.e. =eneti2 inheritan2e for1e5 7y the 2o17ination of =enes of the sper1

an5 those in the ova. The 2on2eption pro2esses has a 1aor ro)e in 5eter1inin= the

rate of =ro8th of the 7o5y in ter1s of 8ei=ht an5 hei=htJ an5 the 5eve)op1ent of

7rain% 1otor si))s an5 7o5y 2han=es 2a4se5 7y hor1ones. A)so% there are so1e

h41an potentia) that are =eneti2a))y pro=ra11e5% in2)45in= the )earnin= pro2esses%

)an=4a=e 5eve)op1ent% an5 1otor 2oor5ination.

The environ1ent in2)45es physi2a) an5 so2ia) s4rro4n5in=s. Physi2a) environ1ent is

essentia) for the s4rviva) the in5ivi54a)% his-her 5eve)op1ent in =enera) an5 )earnin=

pro2ess. 'o1e st45ies have in5i2ate5 that 2hi)5ren 8ho ha5 severe 8ashioror

experien2e5 )earnin= 5iffi24)ties )ater in s2hoo)s ?a))er et al.,


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8e 5onGt f4))y 4n5erstan5 ho8 the 7rain f4n2tions an5 there are 5e7ates =oin= on

a7o4t the 7io)o=i2a) 7ases of )earnin=.

The 7rain has t8o ha)ves% 2a))e5 2ere7ra) he1ispheres% 8hi2h are 2onne2te5 7y 2orp4s

2a))os41. The t8o spheres appear to 7e i5enti2a) 74t there are so1e 5ifferen2es in

their f4n2tions. 2erebral laterali3ation is the spe2ia)ization of the f4n2tions of ea2h

sphere of the 7rain. The ri=ht he1isphere 2ontro)s the )eft si5e of the 7o5y 8hi)e the

)eft he1isphere 2ontro)s the ri=ht si5e of the 7o5y. 'o if yo4 are ri=ht han5e5 yo4 are

)eft )atera)ize5% if )eft han5e5 yo4 are ri=ht )atera)ize5. For 1ost peop)e% spee2h is

)o2a)ize5 in the )eft he1isphere. Nonver7a) pro2esses s42h as spatia) per2eption%

vis4a) a2tivities% an5 e1otions are pre5o1inant)y )o2a)ize5 in the ri=ht he1isphere.

>o8ever% st45ies sho8 that the 7rain is 1ore 2o1p)i2ate5 than that sin2e 7oth

at1ospheres to so1e 5e=ree are invo)ve5 in a)) a2tivities. Co1p)ex f4n2tions s42h as

)o=i2 an5 2reativity invo)ve 7oth spheres of the 7rain.

The 7rain has fo4r )o7es. Fronta) )o7e has f4n2tions for 1otor a2tivities an5 thinin=J

te1pora) )o7e has f4n2tions for hearin=J parieta) )o7e has f4n2tions for 7o5y

sensationsJ an5 o22ipita) has f4n2tions for vision.

The 5eve)op1ent of the 7rain is not f4))y 4n5erstoo5. Ne4rons% nerve 2e))s =ro8 7y

in2reasin= in size an5 in n417er. A pro2ess no8n as 1ye)ination% 8here7y the

ne4rons are 2overe5 7y an ins4)atin= 1ateria)% in2reases the size of the 7rain an5 the

spee5 at 8hi2h 1essa=es trave) thro4=h the nervo4s syste1 'antro2% ##".

(ye)ination in the areas re)ate5 to fo24s an5 attention is not 2o1p)ete 4nti) the en5 of

)ate 2hi)5hoo5% exp)ainin= 8hy st45ents 7e)o8 this sta=e have pro7)e1 re1ainin=

fo24se5 on one tas for a )on= ti1e.

In 5es2ri7in= 2o=nitive 5eve)op1ent 8e 8i)) 4se the theory propose5 7y @ean Pia=et


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environ1ent is not )earne5 74t an inherit 1etho5 of inte))e2t4a) f4n2tionin= i.e. a

f4n2tion that is there sin2e 7irth.

Pia=etGs theory of 2o=nitive 5eve)op1ent has fo4r 1aor sta=es. They are 1aor sin2e

in ea2h sta=e there are s47sta=es. >o8ever% 7efore )ooin= at the1 )et 4s 5efine

so1e ey 2on2epts of the theory*

• #chema is a 2on2ept or an or=anize5 pattern of tho4=hts or 7ehavio4r that for1

one or=anize5 4nit. &i5in= a 7i2y2)e is a s2he1e 7ehavio4rJ pi2t4re of a 5o= or a

5o= is a s2he1eJ an5 tea2hin= is a s2he1e a 2o1p)ex one. '2he1es he)p 4s to

or=anize an5 1ae sense of o4r 8or)5.

• "daptation is a psy2ho)o=i2a) 1e2hanis1 4se5 7y 2hi)5ren to 4se an5 a5apt

s2he1as in a ne8 experien2e. This 1e2hanis1 has t8o pro2esses% na1e)y

assimilation an5 accommodation. Assi1i)ation o224rs 8hen a 2hi)5 in2orporates

ne8 no8)e5=e into existin= no8)e5=e i.e. tain= in ne8 o7e2ts% events% an5

2on2epts into the existin= s2he1as. A22o11o5ation o224rs 8hen 8e are 2han=e5

7y 8hat enters into o4r 1enta) str42t4res. 'o% thro4=h assi1i)ation 8e transfor1

the environ1ent to fit into preexistin= 2o=nitive str42t4res 8hi)e a22o11o5ation

2han=es o4r 2o=nitive str42t4res in or5er to a22ept so1ethin= ne8 fro1 the

environ1ent.

• E$uilibration% En2o4nterin= a sit4ation that 5oes fit into o4r 1enta) str42t4re

2reates 5ise4i)i7ri41 i.e. a 2onf)i2t in tryin= to 4n5erstan5 the ne8 sit4ation. The

pro2ess of reso)vin= the 2onf)i2t thro4=h assi1i)ation an5 a22o11o5ation is

no8n as e4i)i7ration.

• &rgani'ation refers to the 7rin=in= to=ether of iso)ate5 7ehavio4rs or i5eas into a

sin=)e 1ore 2o1p)ex 7ehavio4r or 2on2ept. This )ea5s to havin= a s1ooth

f4n2tionin= 2o=nitive syste1.

The a7ove pro2esses are f4n5a1enta) as re=ar5s ho8 2hi)5ren 4n5erstan5 their 8or)5

an5 a5apt it in their 1enta) str42t4res. 6ith this no8)e5=e 8e no8 )oo 2)ose)y at the

fo4r sta=es of 2o=nitive 5eve)op1ent. These sta=es are in a spe2ifi2 se4en2e% ea2h

in5i2atin= 2hi)5ren as havin= a 5istin2t 8ay of thinin=. The 5ifferen2es 7et8een the

sta=es are 4a)itative in nat4re rather than 7ein= 4antitative i.e. 5ifferen2es are not

7ase5 on 8hat or n417er of i5eas a 2hi)5 has 74t on ho8 a 2hi)5 thins. 'o% in the

!#


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se4en2e of 2o=nitive 5eve)op1ent in the fo))o8in= sta=e the thinin= pro2ess is 1ore

2o1p)ex an5 a224rate than in the previo4s sta=e. These sta=es are 2a))e5 sensori1otor%

preoperationa)% 2on2rete operations% an5 for1a) operations. Let 4s )oo at these sta=es

one after the other.

TA:E NOTE

A)) 2hi)5ren fo))o8 the sa1e se4en2e 74t at a 5ifferent rate.

6.6.1 T%e #en#!(im!t!( #ta&e

This exten5s fro1 7irth to years. The ter1 sensori1otor i1p)y that 54rin= this sta=ethe 2hi)5 exp)ores his 8or)5 7y 4se of sensory experien2es s42h as seein=% hearin= an5

to42hin=. It is 7y 2oor5inatin= these experien2es that the 2hi)5 5eve)ops the first

s2he1as an5 it is the 7asis of the 7e=innin= of 2o=nitive 5eve)op1ent.

At the 7e=innin= of this sta=e the 2hi)5Gs responses are thro4=h ref)ex a2tions i.e.

4n)earne5% innate ref)exes s42h as s42in= anythin= that to42hes the 1o4th or

=raspin= any o7e2t that to42hes the pa)1 of the han5. Thro4=h these ref)ex a2tions

the 2hi)5 7e2o1es a8are of sensations 2a4se5 7y these a2tions an5 4ses the1 to a5apt

to the 8or)5. At this s47sta=e% no8n as primary circular reaction% 1ost of the

5e)i7erate)y repeate5 a2tions invo)ve on)y the 7o5y e.=. s42in= s42in= invo)ves

fin=ers an5 1o4th. Later on% the rea2tions invo)ve o7e2t o4tsi5e the 2hi)5

hi1se)f-herse)f secondary circular reaction% e.=. ho)5in= an o7e2t 4se of han5 an5

the o7e2t. Then they 2oor5inate severa) a2tions to a2hieve so1ethin=. Bet8een


45/204

sin2e the 2hi)5Gs 8or)5 7e2o1es or=anize5 an5 pre5i2ta7)e. F4rther1ore% in this sta=e

the 2hi)5 7e2o1es a8are that s-he 2an 7e the 2a4se of an a2tion. A)so% 54e to

5eve)op1ent of 1o7i)ity the 2hi)5 is a7)e to exp)ore o7e2ts that are far an5

2onse4ent)y ne8 1enta) a7i)ities.

In this sta=e they )earn to 8a)% 1eanin= they =ain the a7i)ity to a22ess the

environ1ent aro4n5 the1. Before 8a)in= they ha5 to 5epen5 on others to 7rin= ite1s

to the1% no8 they 2an 1ove aro4n5 to the o7e2t an5 exp)ore their s4rro4n5in=s. 'o in

sensori1otor sta=e 2hi)5ren )earn thro4=h 4se of senses% a2tive)y exp)orin= their

environ1ent.

To42h the pa)1 of 2hi)5 )ess than


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of the o7e2t as hi1se)f-herse)f the 2hi)5Gs vie8. Ever hear5 of a 2hi)5 sayin= that the

1oon is fo))o8in= hi1-her Be2a4se of this 2hara2teristi2 2hi)5 at this a=e 1ay nee5

2o1pany of other 2hi)5ren 74t nor1a))y ea2h en=a=e in his-her o8n p)ay an5

1ono)o=4e.

TA:E NOTE

Do not 8aste yo4r ener=y for2in= a 2hi)5 in this a=e to see thin=s fro1

yo4r point of vie8.

2entration refers to 2hi)5Gs ten5en2y of 2on2entratin= an5 fo24sin= on on)y one aspe2t

of an o7e2t an5 5isre=ar5in= the other aspe2ts a)tho4=h they are i1portant feat4res of

the o7e2t. ?ive a 2hi)5 in this sta=e a 2o))e2tion of si1i)ar o7e2ts 74t 8ith 5ifferent

2o)o4rs an5 shapes an5 te)) her-hi1 to p4t the1 in =ro4ps. (ost )ie)y s-he 8i)) for1

=ro4ps 7y fo24sin= on)y on the 2o)o4rs of o7e2ts an5 i=nore their shapes. Chi)5ren in

preoperationa) sta=e a)so )a2 conservation i.e. the a7i)ity to rea)ize that properties of

an o7e2t re1ain the sa1e a)tho4=h its shape 1i=ht 2han=e. For a54)ts a vo)41e of

)i4i5 re1ains the sa1e even 8hen p4t into a 2ontainer of 5ifferent shape or size. D4e

to )a2 of 2onservation a 2hi)5 thins that 8ater po4re5 into a narro8 2ontainer is

1ore than 8hen it 8as in 7roa5 2ontainer. This is 2a4se5 7y irreversibility i.e. the

2hi)5 7ein= 4na7)e to reverse 1enta))y the pro2e54res or his-her thinin=.

'o 8e have seen that in preoperationa) sta=e 2hi)5ren )earn 7y experien2in= rea)

o7e2ts in their s4rro4n5in=s. They 4se sy17o)s an5 i1a=es in 2onstr42tin=

no8)e5=e a7o4t their 8or)5. Chi)5ren are e=o2entri2 an5 2annot 4n5erstan5 other

peop)eGs point of vie8.

6.6. C!nc(ete O'e(ati!n# #ta&e

This sta=e exten5s fro1 / to


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1ore than ten an5 they are 8earin= shoesQ I thin yo4 have seen 2hi)5ren of this a=e

2arryin= s1a)) sti2s% or 7ott)e tops in a strin= to s2hoo) for 1ain= 2a)24)ations.

One of the 2hara2teristi2s of this sta=e is classification i.e. to sort o4t thin=s fro1 a

7i= =ro4p an5 p4t the1 in sets or 2ate=ories 7ase5 on their si1i)arities. A)so% they

have the a7i)ity to no8 that an o7e2t 2an 7e 2)assifie5 into 5ifferent =ro4ps% e.=. one

8o1an at the sa1e ti1e 2an 7e a 5a4=hter% 1other% sister% 8ife an5 =ran51other.

In this sta=e a 2hi)5 2an arran=e thin=s a22or5in= to their re)ative sizes e.=. fro1

shortest to the ta))est or fro1 the s1a))est to the )ar=est or vi2e versa. ?iven ten sti2s

of 5ifferent hei=hts they are no8 a7)e to arran=e fro1 the shortest to the ta))est. This is

seriation% an a7i)ity )a2in= in the preoperationa) sta=e 8here 2hi)5ren 2annot2o1pare 1ore than t8o o7e2ts at the sa1e ti1e. D4e to seriation they 2an reason

a7o4t re)ationships an5 2o1e 4p 8ith )o=i2a) 2on2)4sions @transitivity. They 2an

2on2)45e that o7e2t C is ta))er than o7e2t A 4pon rea)ization that B is ta))er

than A% an5 C is ta))er than B.

ACTIVITY

'pen5 so1e ti1e in )o8er 2)assroo1s in a pri1ary s2hoo) i.e.

stan5ar5 one an5 t8o. (ae o7servations of the 2hara2teristi2s of

2hi)5ren in preoperationa) sta=e.

6.6.6 F!(ma" O'e(ati!n# Sta&e

This is the fo4rth an5 )ast sta=e in Pia=etGs 2o=nitive theory. It starts at a7o4t


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6.8 I;PLICATIONS OF THE THEORY TO TEACHERS

• 6e have to a2no8)e5=e Pia=etGs 2ontri74tion to 5eve)op1enta) psy2ho)o=y%

espe2ia))y on 2o=nitive 5eve)op1ent. >is theory 5e1onstrates that p4pi)s area2tive)y invo)ve5 in their )earnin=. This is proven so 7y the 2on2ept a5aptation%

or=anization% assi1i)ation% a22o11o5ation an5 e4i)i7ration a1on= others.

• Pia=etGs theory i1p)ies that 2hi)5ren are 1enta))y 4a)itative)y 5ifferent fro1

a54)ts an5 a1on= the1se)ves% 5epen5in= on their 2o=nitive sta=e of 5eve)op1ent.

They are a)8ays a5aptin= to their 8or)5% an5 the environ1ent is a)so affe2tin=

their 1enta) str42t4res. The ro)e of the tea2her is to 4n5erstan5 the 1enta)

f4n2tionin= of st45ents an5 2reate an environ1ent that fa2i)itates assi1i)ation an5

a22o11o5ation.

• 6e nee5 to re2o=nize an5 4n5erstan5 that 2hi)5renGs ans8ers are not 8ron=G or

8eir5 74t state1ents in5i2atin= the state of their 1enta) f4n2tions. @4st i1a=in=

yo4r rea2tions to st45entsG ans8ers 7efore 7ein= intro542e5 to Pia=etGs theoryQ

• (42h of Pia=etGs theory is 7ase5 on o7servation he 1a5e on his o8n three

2hi)5ren. 6e 2an o7serve the 1enta) f4n2tions of o4r o8n 2hi)5ren an5 st45ents 7y

no8in= the i1portant thin=s to )oo for. Chi)5renGs 5ra8in=s% sy17o)i2 p)ays an5

ans8ers sho4)5 te)) yo4 so1ethin= a7o4t 2o=nitive )eve) of 5eve)op1ent an5 the

appropriate tass to 7e =iven to respe2tive a=es. DonGt tae the 2hi)5renGs

responses 2as4a))y 74t rather have 2riti2a) ana)ysis on the1.

• The 24rri24)41 an5 )earnin= tass for the 2hi)5ren sho4)5 7e 7ase5 on the

2o=nitive 5eve)op1enta) sta=es of the st45ents. Tea2hin= sho4)5 1ae the st45ents

1ove on to the next sta=e =ra54a))y. A22or5in= to >4itt


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to 5ea) 8ith 1ore than t8o varia7)es at on2e% an5 a)so =ivin= the1 opport4nities to

2)assify an5 =ro4p o7e2ts an5 i5eas on in2reasin=)y 2o1p)ex )eve)J an5 present

the1 8ith pro7)e1s 8hi2h re4ire )o=i2% ana)yti2a) thinin= to so)ve. For those

7e=innin= to 4se for1a) operations =ive the1 an opport4nity to exp)ore 1any

hypotheti2a) 4estions an5 a)8ays en2o4ra=in= the1 to exp)ain ho8 they so)ve

pro7)e1s.

6.9 LANGUAGE DEVELOP;ENT

Lan=4a=e is si=nifi2ant in the )earnin= pro2ess. It is 4se5 in storin= infor1ation in the

1e1oryJ 2o114ni2atin= 7et8een )earners an5 tea2her an5 a1on= )earnersJ an5 a)so

in 5e1onstratin= that )earnin= has taen p)a2e in for1 of 8ritin=% rea5in= an5

speain=. In short% )an=4a=e is para1o4nt in tea2hin= an5 )earnin= pro2esses.

Lan=4a=e 2han=es in an in5ivi54a)Gs 5eve)op1ent have to 7e taen into a22o4nt 8hen

5ea)in= 8ith st45ents. Deve)op1ent of )an=4a=e 1aes it possi7)e for a 2hi)5 to

intera2t 8ith the peop)e aro4n5 hi1-her.

@4st 8hat is )an=4a=e Lan=4a=e is 1ore than ver7a) 2o114ni2ation. A)) )an=4a=es

have three 1ain properties% na1e)y se1anti2% 5isp)a2e1ent% an5 pro542tivity.

)emantic 1eans the 8or5s represent an o7e2t or event% displacement 1eans the

8or5s represent o7e2ts that are not present in spa2e an5 ti1eJ productivity i1p)ies

that )an=4a=e has )i1ite5 vo2a74)ary 74t 2an 1ae an infinite 2o17ination of 8or5s

to present i5eas.

In 5eve)opin= )an=4a=e one a)so nee5s to event4a))y a5here to the fo))o8in= r4)es*

• Phonology is the syste1 of 4sin= so4n5s to 1ae 8or5s. It 5eter1ines the 8ay

so4n5s are 2o17ine5 in a se4en2e that has a spe2ifi2 1eanin=.

• #ynta( refers the 8ay 8or5s are 2o17ine5 to 1ae 1eanin=f4) phrases. In the

state1ent the )ion ate the ze7ra yo4 no8 8ho ate 8ho or 8ho 8as eaten 7y

8ho1. &earran=e1ent of these 8or5s 1aes the state1ent to have a 5ifferent

1eanin= or so1eti1es 1eanin=)ess. >ave yo4 ever hear5 of a ze7ra that ate a

)ionQ

!+


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• Pragmatics invo)ves the 4se of )an=4a=e in a so2ia))y 2orre2t 8ay i.e. no8in=

ho8 to parti2ipate in 2onversation 4sin= proper )an=4a=e that taes into

2onsi5eration the so2ia) 2ontext prevai)in=.

Lan&a&e de*e"!'ment #ta&e#

Lan=4a=e 5eve)op1ent invo)ves a24irin= the a7i)ity to )isten an5 spea. Before 8e

)oo on the sta=es )etGs 5is24ss a )itt)e a7o4t environ1ent an5 )an=4a=e 5eve)op1ent.

Noa1 Cho1sy e 7e)ieves )an=4a=e is very 2o1p)ex that 2hi)5ren 5o not 4st

2opy fro1 their parents. It is 5iffi24)t or i1possi7)e to tea2h 2hi)5ren to speaJ they

start to spea at a =iven sta=e of 5eve)op1ent. Does this 1ean that environ1ent has

no ro)e on 2hi)5Gs )an=4a=e 5eve)op1ent The ans8er is 5efinite)y no. First)y% the

)an=4a=e one 5eve)ops is that of the 2are =ivers interna)izin= spee2h they hear. The

4a)ity of )an=4a=e spoen ref)e2ts that of peop)e aro4n5 the 2hi)5. The vo2a74)ary of

2hi)5ren at the a=e of three 8ho have 7een )ivin= in poverty stri2en 2on5itions is

142h )o8er than that of 1i55)e in2o1e fa1i)ies Faras% ##


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Ne87orn 7a7ies 4se crying an5 fussing as 1eans of 2o114ni2ation i.e. 2onveyin= the

1essa=e that s-has a nee5 that nee5s to 7e atten5e5. Bet8een ! 1onths an5 + 1onths

babbling 5eve)ops 8hen the 2hi)5 1aes so4n5s that rese17)e spee2h. By a=e of


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a7o4t their 5ay a2tivities-spe2ia) o22asions an5 5es2ri7e the a2tions there are

5oin=.

?

>o8 1any )an=4a=es 2an a 2hi)5 )earn at the sa1e ti1e 6hy 5o

'8ahi)i spea 9is8ahi)i an5 the En=)ish spea En=)ish

6. PSYCHOSOCIAL @SOCIOE;OTIONAL DEVELOP;ENT

6e have )ooe5 at the 2o=nitive an5 )an=4a=e 5eve)op1ent of st45ents. No8 8e t4rn

o4r fo24s to psy2hoso2ia) 5eve)op1ent. 't45entGs )earnin= in s2hoo) is 4n5er the

inf)4en2e of peop)e aro4n5 an5 his-her o8n e1otions. A)so% st45entGs 7ehavio4r is to

so1e 5e=ree =4i5e5 7y 1ora) aspe2ts.

The pro2ess of interna)izin= so2ieta) va)4es an5 7ehavio4r a22epta7)e in the

in5ivi54a)Gs so2ieta) settin= is 2a))e5 sociali3ation. The 1ain a=ents of the

so2ia)ization pro2ess are parents% si7)in=s% peers% tea2hers an5 the 1e5ia. To exp)ain

the re)ationship 7et8een the st45ent an5 the a=ents 8e 8i)) 4se Urie Bronfen7rennerGs

theoryJ an5 for 5es2ri7in= so2ia) 5eve)op1ent 8e 4se Eri2sonGs psy2hoso2ia) theory.

!$


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I""#t(ati!n !) ,(!n)enB(enne(# Ec!"!&ica" T%e!($

6..1 ,(!n)enB(enne(# Ec!"!&ica" T%e!($

Urie Bronfen7rennerGs


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a2tive for2e in 2onstr42tin= these settin=s. &e2ent)y this theory has 7een 2a))e5 Bio

E2o)o=i2a) 'yste1s Theory 7e2a4se oneGs 7io)o=y is 2onsi5ere5 part of the

(i2rosyste1s.

)ii* !esosystem refers to the )ina=e 7et8een the (i2rosyste1s. The st45ents 1ae

2onne2tions 7et8een their experien2es at ho1e an5 the experien2es in s2hoo)J an5 this

to so1e 5e=ree% have inf)4en2e on )earnin=. If the s2hoo) =ives va)4e an5 s422ess to

har5 8or an5 the fa1i)y has the sa1e expe2tations then 8e 2an expe2t a st45ent to

perfor1 4ite 8e))J 74t if the tea2hers an5 the fa1i)y 5o not va)4e e542ation then 8e

expe2t the st45ent not to perfor1 8e)). A 2hi)5 2an tae 2h4r2h or 1os4e experien2es

to s2hoo)-ho1e or vi2e versa.

)iii* E(osystem is 7ase5 on experien2e of settin=s that the st45ent is not 5ire2t)y

invo)ve5 8ith 74t has so1e inf)4en2e on hi1-her. There is no 5ire2t )in 7et8een the

st45ent an5 parentGs 8or. >o8ever% the parentGs 8or 1ay have effe2t on the

experien2es of the st45ent% e.=. sa)ary 4se5 for fees an5 other s2hoo) 1ateria)s. For

exa1p)e there is no 5ire2t 2onne2tion 7et8een tea2hersG sa)aries an5 st45entsG

a2a5e1i2 perfor1an2e. In Tanzania there 8as a ti1e 8hen 2o4n2i)s 5i5 not pay

tea2hers on ti1e. 'o1e of the tea2hers 8ere 5e1ora)ize5 or spent 5ays 2hasin= their

sa)aries an5 this ha5 inf)4en2e on the )earnin= pro2ess of st45ents. If so1eone 5onates

text7oos to a s2hoo) this 1ay )ea5 to a24isition of 1ore )earnin= 1ateria)s an5

hen2e 7etter st45entGs perfor1an2e. In 7oth 2ases the st45ents is not 5ire2t)y invo)ve5

74t s-he 1ay 7e affe2te5 7y the 5e2isions an5 a2tions of others.

)iv* !acrosystem refers to the 7roa5 24)t4re of the so2iety. C4)t4re in2)45es =en5er

ro)es% so2ioe2ono1i2 str42t4re% tea2hers an5 st45entsG )ives% attit45es% i5eo)o=ies%

sports% ethni2ity% va)4es an5 24sto1s. 'o1e so2ieties 5o not va)4e sen5in= =ir)s to

s2hoo)s 8hi)e others 5e)i7erate)y en2o4ra=e an5 expe2t =ir)s to ex2e) in s2hoo).

Chi)5ren fro1 poor fa1i)ies% 8ho are not s4re of the next 1ea)% 1ay 7e affe2te5 7y

this 2on5ition an5 8e 8i)) not 7e s4rprise5 if they 2annot 2on2entrate on their

)earnin=.

)v* Chronosystem is the existin= so2ia) an5 histori2a) 2on5itions of the st45ent. Do

yo4 no8 that 1any st45ents to5ay in Tanzania have a22ess to 2o1p4ters 8hi)e


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te)evision. In a55ition 1any se2on5ary s2hoo) st45ents 5o not have to 8a) for 1any

i)o1eters to s2hoo) every 5ay no8a 5ays. Before I -AID'. A)) these 5eve)op1ents have a 7earin= on st45ents )earnin= experien2es.

?

Base5 on Chronosyste1 5es2ri7e the 2on5itions of st45ents in

Internationa) se2on5ary s2hoo)s an5 those in 6ar5 se2on5ary s2hoo)s in

Tanzania.

Bronfen7rennerGs e2o)o=i2a) theory has sho8n 4s that so2ia) settin=s have 1aor

inf)4en2e on the 5eve)op1ent of the st45ents. It te))s 4s that 8e sho4)5 )oo on

5ifferent so2ia) settin=s 8hen 5eter1inin= or 8ant to i1prove st45entsG perfor1an2e.

For exa1p)e% 8hen 2onsi5erin= st45entsG perfor1an2e 8e have not on)y to re)y on

2)assroo1 or s2hoo) 2on5itions 74t rather 8e have to thin a7o4t an5 invo)ve the

si=nifi2ant others. 6hatGs the point of a tea2her =ivin= ho1e8or 8hen the parents 5o

not va)4e itJ or at ho1e parents 8i)) not =ive the st45ent a 2han2e to 5o ho1e8or

6.. E(i5#!n# #ta&e# !) de*e"!'ment

Eri >. ErisonGs


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This is the first sta=e an5 fo24ses on ho8 the 7asi2 nee5s are 1et 7y parents. In the

first year of )ife a)) 7asi2 nee5s foo5% 8ater an5 se24rity are 1et 8ith the he)p of

parents% an5 8itho4t this he)p none 8i)) s4rvive. In this sta=e attachment is esta7)ishe5

i.e. the e1otiona) 7on5 7et8een 2hi)5 an5 parents espe2ia))y 1other. Chi)5ren are

a2tive)y rea2tin= to the so2ia) environ1ent 7y a pro2ess 2a))e5 reciprocal interactions

8here7y they rea2t in a parti24)ar 1anner. 6hen yo4 s1i)e at the1 they nor1a))y

respon5 7y s1i)in= 7a2 an5 if yo4 are an=ry to the1 they respon5 a22or5in=)y. If

parents 2reate a re=4)ar)y 8ar1% 2arin= an5 se24re environ1ent the 2hi)5 8i)) 5eve)op

sense of se24rity an5 a)so tr4st his-her 8or)5. If the parents are ne=)e2tf4) or a74sive

8hen 1eetin= the 2hi)5Gs nee5s or i=nore the1% the 2hi)5 8i)) )earn to 1istr4st the

8or)5 7e)ievin= that it is 4n5epen5a7)e% 4nre)ia7)e% an5 4npre5i2ta7)eJ an5 a

5an=ero4s p)a2e 6iipe5ia% retrieve5 #


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7ehavio4rs. The 1ain fo24s is tryin= to fin5 o4t if they are =oo5 or 7a5 in re=ar5 to

the o4t2o1e of their a2tions. The ans8er to this 2onf)i2t 7rin=s positive or ne=ative

e1otions to the 2hi)5

)iv* Industry versus Ineriority )Childhood, to 1 years*

educational psychology.doc

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