Educational Philosophies

Definition/Philosophers Implication/Application

Perennialism One should teach the things that one deems to be of everlasting importance to all people everywhere. Believe that the most important topics develop a person. Since details of fact change constantly, these cannot be the most important. Therefore, one should teach principles, not facts. Since people are human, one should teach first about humans, not machines or techniques. Since people are people first, and workers second if at all, one should teach liberal topics first, not vocational topics. The focus is primarily on teaching reasoning and wisdom rather than facts, the liberal arts rather than vocational training. The most conservative, traditional, or inflexible of the five philosophies is perennialism, a philosophy drawing heavily from classical definitions of education. Perennialists believe that education, like human nature, is a constant. Because the distinguishing characteristic of humans is the ability to reason, education should focus on developing rationality. Education, for the perennialist, is a preparation for life, and students should be taught the world's permanencies through structured study.

For the perennialist, reality is a world of reason. Such truths are revealed to us through study and sometimes through divine acts. Goodness is to be found in rationality itself. Perennialists would favor a curriculum of subjects and doctrine, taught through highly disciplined drill and behavior control. Schools for the perennialist exist primarily to reveal reason by teaching eternal truths. The teacher interprets and tells. The student is a passive recipient. Because truth is eternal, all change in the immediate school

This philosophy promulgates teacher as a manager in attaining pleasant and positive classroom atmosphere where they solely manipulate the teaching- learning process by integrating and preserving the tradition of culture, in which it is defined as the set of learned behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, values that are characteristics of a particular society or population (Ember, 1999).

Even though the learners are cosidered to be the first customers of the teaching- learning process but the teachers do not let their experiences and interests to dictate what they teach for they apply their own or perceived strategies which is believed to be true as a way of feeding and disciplining the learners’ minds.

In fact, this philosophy contradicts to the dynamics of teaching where continuous interaction is being deprived since the teachers dominated the process of information transmission and formulation of ideas.

environment is largely superficial. Secular perennialism Suggests something that lasts an indefinitely long time, recurs again and again, or is self-renewing. As promoted primarily by Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler, a universal curriculum based upon the common and essential nature of all human beings is recommended. Comprises the humanist and scientific traditions Espouse the idea that education should focus on the historical development of a continually developing common base of human knowledge and art, the timeless value of classic thought on central human issues by landmark thinkers, and revolutionary ideas critical to historical paradigm shifts or changes in world view. A program of studies which is highly general, nonspecialized, and nonvocational is advocated.Religious Perrenialism Perennialism was originally religious in nature, developed first by Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenth century in his work De Magistro.

Essentialism "Gripping and enduring interests frequently grow out of initial learning efforts that are not appealing or attractive."

William Bagley

Essentialism refers to the "traditional" or "Back to the Basics" approach to education. It is so named because it strives to instill students with the "essentials" of academic knowledge and character development. Believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to students in a systematic,

The prime scope of this philosophy is the promulgation of conserving moral values which forms or shapes the individual as a useful citizen in his own community and preserving intellectual knowledge which serves as a powerful weapon in formulating brilliant ideas in the midst of battling the modern world of information that would make a great soceital change and sustainable development in this fast- gearing world.Further, the teachers should

disciplined way. The emphasis in this

conservative perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that schools should teach. The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and academic rigor. Although this educational philosophy is similar in some ways to Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that this core curriculum may change. Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable members of society. It should focus on facts-the objective reality out there--and "the basics," training students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and logically. Schools should not try to set or influence policies. Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and discipline. Teachers are to help students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness.

emotionally developed and intellectually matured enough in transmitting indespensable learning that would feed the learners’ minds to be more equipped and globally competitive.Apparently, teachers are called the “fountain of information” in such a way that they teach from the heart and not from the book; imparting more than enough knowledge . Additionally, it would be such an impossible thing to hear if a teacher becomes a paragon of virtue since there is no one possesses perfection but with that imperfection, they gain mastery of basic skills in enhancing the students’ simple innate abilities to profound state.

Progressivism "We may, I think, discover certain common principles amid the variety of progressive schools now existing. To imposition from above is opposed expression and cultivation of individuality; to external discipline is opposed free activity; to learning from texts and teachers, learning through experience; to acquisition of' isolated skills and techniques by drill is opposed acquisition of them as means of attaining ends which make direct vital

“Change is the only constant in this world”, a very common mantra but it is worth living for. In fact, in the book English Expressways for secondary (p. 45), George Bernard Shaw discussed that there are two kinds of people in the world, the reasonable and unreasonable. The reasonable man adapts himself to the world; the

appeal; to preparation for a more or less remote future is opposed making the most of the opportunities of present life; to statistics and materials is opposed acquaintance with a changing world."

John Dewey

believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the content or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by active experimentation. Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through experiencing the world. It is active, not passive. The learner is a problem solver and thinker who makes meaning through his or her individual experience in the physical and cultural context. Effective teachers provide experiences so that students can learn by doing. Curriculum content is derived from student interests and questions. The scientific method is used by progressivist educators so that students can study matter and events systematically and first hand. The emphasis is on process-how one comes to know. The Progressive education philosophy was established in America from the mid 1920s through the mid 1950s. John Dewey was its foremost proponent. One of his tenets was that the school

unreasonable one persists in trying to adapt the world to himself. Therefore, all progress depends on the unreasonable man.In addition, the teachers used themselves as bridges over which they invite their students to cross over the defiance of learning situations and giving them quintessential range of information that would respond to their needs and the destitution of the working industry. The exposure of the students to new technological manoeuvre, scientific and social developments helped them to embrace education as a key to change their lives and boost their way of thinking through problem- solving method in achieving progress. Moreover, the teachers are probably using one of the learning styles coined by Harvey F. Silver which is the mastery (sensing- thinking) style where the learners learns best from drill, demonstration, practice and hands- on experience. If the students become mastery learners, they prefers to learn by seeing tangible results, practicing what they have learned and being active rather than passive. True indeed, experience is the best teacher and it can never be found even in the greatest book in the world since we should consider the big difference of imagination from actuality.

should improve the way of life of our citizens through experiencing freedom and democracy in schools. Shared decision making, planning of teachers with students, student-selected topics are all aspects. Books are tools, rather than authority.

Dewey taught that people are social animals who learn well through active interplay with others and that our learning increases when we are engaged in activities that have meaning for us. Book learning, to Dewey, was no substitute for actually doing things. Fundamental to Dewey's epistemology is the notion that knowledge is acquired and expanded as we apply our previous experiences to solving new, meaningful problems. Education, to Dewey, is a reconstruction of experience, an opportunity to apply previous experiences in new ways. Relying heavily on the scientific method, Dewey proposed a five step method for solving problems:

1. Become aware of the problem; 2. define it; 3. Propose various hypotheses to

solve it; 4. Examine the consequences of each

hypothesis in the light of previous 5. Experience; and

Test the most likely solution.Existentialism "Childhood is not adulthood; childhood is

playing and no child ever gets enough play. The Summer hill theory is that when a child has played enough he will start to work and face difficulties, and I claim that this theory has been vindicated in our pupils' ability to do a good job even when it

This philosophy supports the ninth intelligence as one of the multiple intelligencess possessed by humans authored by Howard Gardner which is the existentialist intelligence. It is the ability of an individual to question existing

involves a lot of unpleasant work."

A. S. Neill

Man is nothing else but what he makes of himself. Such is the first principle of existentialism.' '

Jean Paul Sartre

Existentialism as a Philosophical Term

The existentialist movement in education is based on an intellectual attitude that philosophers term existentialism. Born in nineteenth-century Europe, existentialism is associated with such diverse thinkers as

Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a passionate Christian, and

Friedrich Nietzsche (1811 1900)

who wrote a book entitled The Antichrist and coined the phrase God is dead. While the famous existentialists would passionately disagree with one another on many basic philosophical issues, what they shared was a respect for individualism. In particular, they argued that traditional approaches to philosophy do not adequately respect the unique concerns of each individual.

things in the world and their essence respectively.

Basically, existentialism allows students to express theirselves creatively in a way that they could formulate their own formulas in reaching the pedestal of success and the plinth of victory rather than copying acts and deeds from a historical model. This is one of the avenues in promoting freedom of choice on what field of interest they will engage to in preparing theirselves in the future battles of real life.

In connection, vocational education is given high regards as a means of teaching students about themselves and developing their potentials to compete in the global context in the near future. In fact, this philosophy connects with the idea of Harvey F. Silver about the four learning styles and one of which is the self- expressive (intuitive feeling) style where learners learns best from creative and artistic activities, open- ended discussions and social values and prefers to learn by being creative and using imagination, planning and organizing work in their own creative ways, searching for altenative solutions to problems beyond those normally considered and discussing real problems and looking for real solutions.

Therefore,this philosophy builds firm foundation of relationship between teachers and students where openness

Jean Paul Sartre's classic formulation of existentialism--that "existence precedes essence"--means that there exists no universal, inborn human nature. We are born and exist, and then we ourselves freely determine our essence (that is, our innermost nature). Some philosophers commonly associated with the existentialist tradition never fully adopted the "existence precedes essence" principle. Nevertheless, that principle is fundamental to the educational existentialist movement.

Existentialism as an Educational Philosophy

Just as its namesake sprang from a strong rejection of traditional philosophy, educational existentialism sprang from a strong rejection of the traditional, essentialist approach to education. Existentialism rejects the existence of any source of objective, authoritative truth about metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Instead, individuals are responsible for determining for themselves what is "true" or "false," "right" or "wrong," "beautiful" or "ugly." For the existentialist, there exists no universal form of human nature; each of us has the free will to develop as we see fit.

In the existentialist classroom, subject matter takes second place to helping the students understand and appreciate themselves as unique individuals who accept complete responsibility for their thoughts, feelings, and actions. The teacher's role is to help students define their own essence by exposing them to various paths they may take in life and creating an environment in which they may freely choose their own preferred way. Since feeling is not divorced from reason in

and honesty are considered to be the core values. In this manner, students can act justly in their respective soceities and become the agent or catalyst of change.

decision making, the existentialist demands the education of the whole person, not just the mind.

Although many existentialist educators provide some curricular structure, existentialism, more than other educational philosophies, affords students great latitude in their choice of subject matter. In an existentialist curriculum, students are given a wide variety of options from which to choose.

To the extent that the staff, rather than the students, influence the curriculum, the humanities are commonly given tremendous emphasis. They are explored as a means of providing students with vicarious experiences that will help unleash their own creativity and self-expression. For example, rather than emphasizing historical events, existentialists focus upon the actions of historical individuals, each of whom provides possible models for the students' own behavior. In contrast to the humanities, math and the natural sciences may be de-emphasized, presumably because their subject matter would be considered "cold," "dry," "objective," and therefore less fruitful to self-awareness. Moreover, vocational education is regarded more as a means of teaching students about themselves and their potential than of earning a livelihood. In teaching art, existentialism encourages individual creativity and imagination more than copying and imitating established models.

Existentialist methods focus on the individual. Learning is self-paced, self directed, and includes a great deal of individual contact with the teacher, who

relates to each student openly and honestly. Although elements of existentialism occasionally appear in public schools, this philosophy has found wider acceptance in private schools and ill alternative public schools founded in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

A.S. Neill is perhaps the most noted influence when it comes to the existentialism philosophy being applied in a school environment. Neill helped to promote existentialism with the creation of his Summerhill School. Jean Paul Sarte along with Soren Kierkegaard, and Friedrich Nietzche helped to strengthen the popularity of the existentialism movement. Each of these famous men contributed to the belief that it was "not just the mind that needed to be educated, but the whole person."

An existentialism school didn't enforce formal education. Instead it nurtured the creativity, and individuality of the student. It was felt that in time a student would mature by themselves, and decide what direction was suitable to pursue. In an existentialist school children would be given a variety of subjects to choose from. Vocational courses were to teach the student about themselves, and not to prepare them for a future occupation. The student pursued the subject of their choice, learning method, and worked at their own pace.

They received one-on-one guidance from their teacher. Existentialism was an independent study program rather than a traditional class.

Behaviorism "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well informed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take anyone at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select--doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief; and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors."

John Watson

While educational existentialism is based on the notion that we possess free will to shape our innermost nature, behaviorism is derived from the belief that free will is an illusion. According to a pure behaviorist, human beings are shaped entirely by their external environment. Alter a person's environment, and you will alter his or her thoughts, feelings, and behavior. Provide positive reinforcement whenever students perform a desired behavior, and soon they will learn to perform the behavior on their own.

Behaviorism has its roots in the early 1900s in the work of the Russian experimental psychologist

Ivan Pavlov (1848-1936)

and the American psychologist

John Watson (1878-1958).

By refining and expanding their studies, Harvard professor

Behaviorism is an educational philosophy that follows the concept of Stimulus-Response theory. This theory is more concerned with the response generated where stimulus serves as input and response serves as an output that produces behavioral changes.In fact, stimulus and response considers strengthening or reinforcement relevant becausethis would arouse the learners disposition to explore and learn necessary things in ife. This philosophy was pioneered by Ivan Pavlov, Edward Lee and Bhurrus Skinner’s behavior theories respectively . They describe about the behaviorism and the points specifically for learning activities are stimulus and responses. This can also be interpreted as cause and effect.Reinforcement as the way to reach the goal and repeated actions that will become the habit and then students will reached their goals.

As teachers, we must know what subjects can apply behaviorism theory. Basically, teachers give specific stimulus what they want and the students will respond. For instance, when the teacher want to teach about recreational activities, he will observe the

B. F. Skinner (1904-1989)

has been the driving force behind the spread of behaviorism within modern American culture. Skinner developed the now-famous Skinner box, which he used to train small animals by behavioral techniques. He also invented a World War II guided missile system that employed pecking pigeons to keep a projectile on course, a controversial air crib for keeping babies in a climatically controlled environment, and programmed learning.

Underlying Philosophical Basis

Behaviorism asserts that the only reality is the physical world that we discern through careful, scientific observation. People and other animals are seen as complex combinations of matter that act only in response to internally or externally generated physical stimuli. We learn, for instance, to avoid overexposure to heat through the impulses of pain our nerves send to our brain. More complex learning, such as understanding the material in this chapter, is also determined by stimuli, such as the educational support you have received from your professor or parents or the comfort of the chair in which you sit when you read this chapter.

Human nature, according to behaviorism, is neither good nor bad, but merely the product of one's environment. It is not human nature but defective environments that are responsible for harmful things that people do to themselves and others. To a behaviorist, there is no such thing as free

physical condition of students and also their basic skills. Then, teacher will give learning material as stimulus and they will explain about the material related to the topic. More so, the response is a behavioral change as a result of learning.

In cognizance, behaviorism provides an avenue for teachers to be sensitive to any situations of learning and is suitable for teachers in implementing repeated act with a specific award for the students to be motivated in doing activities.

will or the autonomously acting person; such ideas are only myths that may make us feel better but do not correspond to scientific observation.

Skinner recommends that moral standards ought to be derived from the scientific observation of human behavior. We should identify through experimentation those environments that best utilize humankind's potential. In such environments, we would find the moral code that people ought to follow. That scientifically developed code would be much preferable to our present codes, which are derived from the histories and cultures of particular groups.

Regarding esthetic appreciation, behaviorists consider our sense of beauty environmentally formed. Have you ever wondered why something believed to be beautiful by another culture appears ugly to you? Behaviorism says that the reason lies in the way your environment has shaped your tastes. A good example is the effect of the media on your appreciation of clothing styles. Over a few months or years, the media may convince you to regard as beautiful a style you previously found unattractive.

Realism Aristotle- placed great emphasis on

balancing the theoretical and practical aspects of subjects taught. Subjects he explicitly mentions as being important included reading, writing and mathematics; music; physical education; literature and history; and a wide range of sciences. He also mentioned the importance of play.

Avicenna- ‘children can learn better if taught in

classes instead of individual tuition

For the realist, the world is as it is, and the job of schools would be to teach students about the world. Goodness, for the realist, would be found in the laws of nature and the order of the physical world. Truth would be the simple correspondences of observation.  The realist would favor a school dominated by subjects of the here-and-now world, such as math and science. Students would be taught factual information for

from private tutors, and he gave a number of reasons for why this is the case, citing the value of competition and emulation among pupils as well as the usefulness of group discussions and debates.

refers to the secondary education stage as the period of specialization, when pupils should begin to acquire manual skills, regardless of their social status.

writes that children after the age of 14 should be given a choice to choose and specialize in subjects they have an interest in, whether it was reading, manual skills, literature, preaching, medicine, geometry, trade and commerce, craftsmanship, or any other subject or profession they would be interested in pursuing for a future career. He wrote that this was a transitional stage and that there needs to be flexibility regarding the age in which pupils graduate, as the student's emotional development and chosen subjects need to be taken into account.

Ibn Tufail- demonstrated the empiricist theory

of 'tabula rasa' as a thought experiment in which he depicted the development of the mind of a feral child "from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society" on a desert island, through experience alone.

John Locke – “The business of education is not,

as I think, to make them perfect in any one of the sciences, but so to open and dispose their minds as may best make them capable of

mastery. The teacher would impart knowledge of this reality to students or display such reality for observation and study. Classrooms would be highly ordered and disciplined, like nature, and the students would be passive participants in the study of things. Changes in school would be perceived as a natural evolution toward a perfection of order.

any, when they shall apply themselves to it." Expressed the belief that education maketh the man, or, more fundamentally, that the mind is an "empty cabinet", with the statement, "I think I may say that of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education

Jean Jacques Rousseau- held that there was one

developmental process common to all humans. This was an intrinsic, natural process, of which the primary behavioral manifestation was curiosity. Said that a child should grow up without adult interference and that the child must be guided to suffer from the experience of the natural consequences of his own acts or behaviour. When he experiences the consequences of his own acts, he advises himself.

Mortimore Jerome Adler- was a proponent of educational

perennialism.Harry S. Broudy-

based on the tradition of classical realism, dealing with truth, goodness, and beauty. However he was also influenced by the modern philosophy existentialism and instrumentalism.

In his textbook Building a Philosophy of Education he has two major ideas that are the main points to his philosophical outlook: The first is truth and the second is universal structures to be found in humanity's struggle for education and the good life. Broudy also studied issues on society's demands on school. He thought education would be a link to unify the diverse society and urged the society to

put more trust and a commitment to the schools and a good education.

fragments of Aristotle's treatise On Education are still in existence

considered human nature, habit and reason to be equally important forces to be cultivated in education

Experimentalism and Pragmatism

Aims of Education

Education must teach one how to think so that one can adjust to an ever-changing society. The school must aim at developing those experiences that will enable one to lead a good life. These objectives include:

1. Good health.

2. Vocational skills.

3. Interests and hobbies for leisure living.

4. Preparation for parenthood.

5. Ability to deal effectively with social problems.

Additional specific goals must include an understanding of the importance of democracy. Democratic government enables each citizen to grow and live through the social interaction that takes place with other citizens. Education must help its students become excellent citizens in the democracy.

the democratic tradition is a self-correcting tradition

the social heritage of the past is not the focus of educational interest. Rather, the focus is for the good life now and in the future. The standard of social good is constantly being

For the experimentalist, the world is an ever-changing place. Reality is what is actually experienced. Truth is what presently functions. Goodness is what is accepted by public test. Unlike the perennialist, idealist, and realist,  The experimentalist openly accepts change and continually seeks to discover new ways to expand and improve society.  The experimentalist would favor a school with heavy emphasis on social subjects and experiences. Learning would occur through a problem-solving or inquiry format. Teachers would aid learners or consult with learners who would be actively involved in discovering and experiencing the world in which they live. Such an education program's focus on value development would factor in group consequences

tested and verified through changing experiences; therefore, education must work to preserve democracy

view the curriculum of the education imparting institution must not exist apart from the social context. The subject matter of education is the tool for solving individual problems and as the individual learner is improved or reconstructed, society is improved in similar fashion. Therefore, the problems of democratic society must form the basis of the curriculum; and the means to resolve the problems of democratic institutions must also be included in the curriculum. Therefore, there must be 

1.      A social basis to the curriculum.2.      Opportunity to practice democratic

ideals.3.      Democratic planning at every level of

education.4.      Group definition of common social

goals.5.      Creative means to develop new

skills.6.      Activity-centered and pupil-centered

curriculum.

learning is always considered to be an individual matter. Teachers ought not to try to pour the knowledge they have into the learners, because such efforts are fruitless. What each learner learns depends upon his own personal needs, interests, and problems. In other words, the content of knowledge is not an end in itself but a means to an end. Thus, a learner who is faced by a problem may be able to reconstruct his environment

so as to solve this felt need. To help him the teacher must

1. Provide experiences that will excite motivation. Field trips, films, records, and guest experts are examples of activities designed to awaken learner interest in an important problem.

2. Guide the learner into formulating a specific definition of the problem. Because each learner approaches the problem from his own experiential background, the teaches should encourage the learners to formulate their own aims and goals.

3. Plan with the class the individual and group objectives to be used in solving the problem.

4. Assist the learners in collecting the information pertaining to the problem. Essentially, the teacher serves as a guide by introducing skills, understandings, knowledge, and appreciations through the use of books, compositions, letters, resource speakers, films, field trips, television, or anything else that may be appropriate.

5. Evaluate with the class what was learned; how they learned it; what new information occurred; what each learner discovered for himself.

Idealism Plato's writings contain some of the following ideas: Elementary education would be confined to the guardian class till the age of 18, followed by two years of compulsory military training and then by higher education for those who qualified. While elementary education made the soul responsive to the environment, higher education

Idealism is a philosophy that espouses the refined wisdom of men and women. Reality is seen as a world within a person's mind. Truth is to be found in the consistency of ideas. Goodness is an ideal state, something to be strived for. Idealism would favor schools

helped the soul to search for truth which illuminated it. Both boys and girls receive the same kind of education. Elementary education consisted of music and gymnastics, designed to train and blend gentle and fierce qualities in the individual and create a harmonious person.

teaching subjects of the mind, such as is found in most public school classrooms. Teachers, for the idealist, would be models of ideal behavior.  For idealists, the schools' function is to sharpen intellectual processes, to present the wisdom of the ages, and to present models of behavior that are exemplary. Students in such schools would have a somewhat passive role, receiving and memorizing the reporting of the teacher. Change in the school program would generally be considered an intrusion on the orderly process of educating.

Scholasticism A fifth metaphysical school of thought

applied in Roman Catholic schools in the educational philosophy called "Thomism." It combines idealist and realist philosophies in a framework that harmonized the ideas of Aristotle, the realist, with idealist notions of truth. Thomas Aquinas, 1255-127, was the theologian who wrote "Summa Theologica," formalizing church doctrine. The Scholasticism movement encouraged the logical and philosophical study of the beliefs of the church, legitimizing scientific inquiry within a religious framework.

combined Logic, Metaphysics and semantics into one discipline, and is generally recognised to have developed our understanding of

Logic significantly primarily concerned with

uncovering transcendental truths that would lead a person back to God through a life of moral and religious choice (Kreeft 15). The vehicle by which these truths were uncovered was dialectic.

two methods of teaching: the "lectio" (the simple reading of a text by a teacher, who would expound on certain words and ideas, but no questions were permitted); and the "disputatio" (where either the question to be disputed was announced beforehand, or students proposed a question to the teacher without prior preparation, and the teacher would respond, citing authoritative texts such as the Bible to prove his position, and the students would rebut the response, and the argument would go back and forth, with someone taking notes to summarize the argument).

Social Reconstructionism

and Pedagogy

Critical pedagogy is an "educational movement, guided by passion and principle, to help students develop consciousness of freedom, recognize authoritarian tendencies, and connect knowledge to power and the ability to take constructive action." Based in Marxist theory, critical pedagogy draws on radical democracy, anarchism, feminism, and other movements for social justice