education without compulsion: toward new visions … · education without compulsion: toward new...
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Education Without Compulsion: Toward New Visions of Gifted Education
Barry Grant
the aim of this paper is to induce doubt about the ethical rightness of compulsory education laws and inspire educators to imagine and begin to make a world in which there are many different forms of gifted education. the paper does this in three ways. it paints a polemical picture of gifted education as a minor variation on public schooling and describes the contradictions and limitations this entails. it presents a short history of education in the united States to support the claim that compulsory schooling aims to shape the character of children in the interests of religion, government, corporations, and other groups. it argues that compulsory schooling is inconsistent with the liberal democratic value of the right to self-determination. the paper also offers a conception of education for self-development as one vision of what gifted education could be were it freed from the strictures of compulsory schooling.
Theworst,themostdifficultthingthataffectsusaspeopleisthefailureofimagination.Wedonotrealizethatvariousthingsarepossible,whichistosaythatwedon‘trealizethatmosteverythingiscontingent,thatthingscouldbedifferent.
—AlexanderNehemas(Carrier,1998,para28fromend)
IntheUnitedStates,mostchildrenages6to16,must,underpenaltyoflaw,attendschooloralegislatedequivalent.Thefailureofpar-entstoadheretostatelawsgoverningschoolattendancecanresultinfinesandimprisonment(Novello,1998).Thefailureofadolescentstoattendschoolcanresultinlossofadriver’slicense,fines,jailtime,orcommitmenttocourt-mandatedtruancyprograms(e.g.,SuperiorCourtofArizonainMaricopaCounty,n.d.).
Giftededucatorsshowlittleawarenessthatstatesmandateuni-versalcompulsoryeducation,thatcompulsoryeducationlawsareethicallyinconsistentwithsignificantvaluesofgiftededucation,thatcompulsoryeducationsetsseverelimitsoneducationalpracticesand
BarryGrantisthechairofthemaster’sinprofessionalcounselingprogramatArgosyUniversityinDallas,TX.
Journal for the Education of the Gifted.Vol.29,No.2,2005,pp.161–186.Copyright©2005PrufrockPressInc.,http://www.prufrock.com
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philosophies,orthatalmostallofthewaysinwhichgiftededuca-tion“servestheneeds”ofgiftedchildrenarebackedbystatepower.Theaimofthispaperistoinducedoubtaboutthevalueandethicalrightnessofthecompulsoryeducationlawsandinspireeducatorstoimagineandbegintomakeaworldinwhichtherearemanydifferentformsofgiftededucation,allfreedfromthestricturesofcompulsoryschooling.Thisisanambitiousaim.Inthemindsofmany,compul-soryschoolingis education(Buckman,1973).
Thefirstsectionofthispaperoffersapolemicalpictureofgiftededucationasaminorvariationonpublicschoolinganddescribesthecontradictionsandlimitationsthisentails.ThesecondsectionisabriefsketchofthehistoryofpubliceducationintheUnitedStatesthatillustrateshowcompulsoryschoolingservestheinterestsofreli-gion,government,corporations,andothergroups.Thethirdsectionattemptstounderminetheethicalfoundationofpubliccompulsoryeducationbyshowingthatitisincompatiblewithliberaldemocraticvalues.Thefourthsectionpresentsavisionofgiftededucationasself-development.
Gifted Education and Public Schooling
Giftednessaswediscuss it inour journals, investigate it inourresearch, and identify it in our protocols is primarily a publicschool-basedphenomenon.Giftededucationexiststoaccommo-datecertain“special”studentsinpublicschools(cf.Borland,1997;Sapon-Shevin,1994).Gallagher(2002)arguesthatgiftededucationisdefinedalmostentirelybysocialpolicysetbylaw,courtdecisions,andadministrativerules(professionalgroupsarethefourthsourceofpolicy).Thepracticesofgiftededucationare,notsurprisingly,mostlyminorvariationsonregularpublicschoolprogramsandmethodsthatleaveuntouchedthemainstructures,values,andgoalsofpubliceducation.Enrichment,acceleration,leadershipandcre-ativitytraining,abilitygrouping,specialcurricula,andotherformsandmeansofgiftededucationareconservativeintheirunderlyingtheoriesandphilosophies.Theyarepublicschooltweaks.Theydonotaddresstheroot,theradical,ofeducation.
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Thebureaucracyofpublicschoolsleadsgiftededucatorstoinor-dinateworriesaboutbookkeepingmatters.Doweenterachildinthecategoryofgifted,talentedinmath,creativebutlearningdisabled,or...?Giftededucationalresearchwithitsinvestigationsoftheeffectsofgrouping,effectivenessofnewidentificationprotocols,causesofunderachievement,characteristicsofgiftedstudents,andimpactofcurriculumcompactingonachievementtestscoresrarelyleavesthepublicschoolroom.Giftededucatorstakeseriouslya nation at risk,Goals 2000,national Excellence,NoChildLeftBehind,andothergovernmentreportsandlawsasofferingimportantandmeaningful(thoughsometimescontroversial)guidanceforeducation.Many,includingsomeofthemostprominent,acceptthe“giftedasthenation’sgreatestresource”(recentlyrepackagedas“giftedassocialcapital”)justificationforgiftededucation(e.g.,Benbow,Lubinski,&Sanjani,1995;Dai&Renzulli,2000;Feldhusen,1998;Renzulli,2002;Schwartz,1994;Tannenbaum,2001;Treffinger,1998).Theyjustifypublicfundingforgiftededucationonthegroundsthatgiftedchildrenorallchildren,properlycultivated,makeessentialcontri-butionstotheculturalandeconomiclifeofthecountry.Indoingso, they implicitlyacceptgovernmentconceptionsofeconomichealth,culturalassets,andnationalwell-being(Howley,Howley,&Pendarvis,1995).Ihavefoundnodiscussion,nomentioneven,ofalternativeorradicaleducationphilosophiesofeducationingiftededucationliterature,saveinhomeschoolingliterature(e.g.,Kearney,n.d.;Rivero,2002),anarticlebyPiirto(1999)discussingpostmod-ernpedagogy,andapresentationbyPiirto(2000)ontheideologyofgiftededucation.Criticalpedagogy(Freire,1968),themodernschoolmovement(Avrich,1980),deschooling(Illich,1970),andtheworkofJohnHolt(1976),PaulGoodman(1964),A.S.Neill(1960),MurrayRothbard(1999),andothercriticsofpublicschool-ingseemnottoexistforgiftededucators.
Giftededucationisaninnocent,ignorantofthehistoryofpub-licschooling,itsownhistory(Borland,1990),andtheroleofideol-ogy,corporations,foundations,industrygroups,religions,andotherinstitutionsininstitutingcompulsoryschoolingandshapingschoolagendas(Gatto,2001;Howleyetal.,1995;Spring,1994).Buffetedbychargesofelitism,favoritism,discrimination,andineffectiveness
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(e.g.,Treffinger,1998)anddoubtsabouttherealityof“giftedness”(Borland,1997),weworryaboutourfundingandfutureandstrug-gletoreinventourselvestobeabletocarryon“meetingtheneeds”ofthegifted—throughcompulsorypublicschooling.Whenweestab-lishprivateschools,welargelyrecreatepublicschoolingassuperiorcollegepreparation.
Noneofthecontributorstoarecentvolumeaimedatrethinking Gifted Education(Borland,2003)proposeeducationalmodelsthatchallengecompulsoryschoolingorevenacknowledgethatschoolingiscompulsory.Mostoftherethinkingisjustthinkinghowgiftededu-cationcanbetterfitintopublicschools.Heng(2003),themostradi-caloftheauthors,callsforgiftededucationthatis“beyondschool,”butnotbeyondcompulsoryschooling.Shedefends“alearner-cen-teredvisionforeducation....inwhichchildrenareregardedasendsnotmeans”(p.59),butshedoesn’tseethecontradictionbetweencompellingstudentstoattendschoolandtreatingthemasends.
Theconsequencesofthe limitedvisionsofgiftededucatorsincludeimpoverishedviewsoflife,constrictedandnarrowdevelop-mentofchildrendesignatedasgifted,anacceptanceofthestatusquoworkingsofgovernmentandcorporatepower,andmoralcon-tradictions.Giftededucationcouldbeameansofintellectualandpersonalliberation,butitismostlyatoolofpower(cf.Howleyetal.,1995;Margolin,1994;Pendarvis,Howley,&Howley,1999).Wewantschooltobeforchildren,butaslongaswe compelattendance,schoolisnecessarilysomethingwedotochildren.Giftededucatorswantgiftedchildrentodeveloptheirselves,realizetheirpotentials,createnewandamazingartandideas,deepentheirspirituality,andevendeveloptheirintellectsandcriticalfaculties.But,theyneverchallengethelimitsplacedonthesetasksbypublicschoolsandcom-pulsoryschooling,andtheydon’tfacethemoralcontradictionofcompelling studentstoattendschoolandthenhelpingthemdeveloptheirselvesandtalents.
Personalgrowthandtalentdevelopmentconcerncoreaspectsofchildren’sbeing,theirdeepestselves.Attemptstoinfluencetheseinsituationsthatchildren,aloneorguidedbytheirparents,arenotfreetorejectarecoercion,nothelp,insults,notexpressionsofrespect,nomatterhowwell-meant.Imagineifweadultswereforcedtoattend
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institutionsinwhichwewere“helped”torealizeourselvesbypeoplewhoreallycaredaboutus.Wewouldloudlyobjectthatourlibertytodevelopourselvesaswechoosewouldbeviolated,nomatterthegoodintentionsofourhelpers.
Oneexplanationforthelimitedvisionsofgiftededucatorsmaybethatgiftededucationissimplyparasiticuponuniversalcompul-soryschooling:Ithasnootherraisond’êtrethantoadvocateforandserveasmallgroupof“exceptional”childreninpublicschools,whichareassumedtoserve“average”childrenprettywell.Ifpubliceduca-tionreallywasindividualized,asBorland(2003)advocates,“gifted”educationand“gifted”childrenwouldbecomemoot.But,theaspira-tionsofgiftededucatorsandeventheimplicationsofindividualizedschoolingpushagainstthepracticalandethicallimitationsofcom-pulsoryschooling.Somegiftededucatorshaveeducationalvisionsthatcannotberealizedincompulsorysettings,thoughtheyseemunawareofthis.Forexample,Roeper’s(1990)visionofeducationforlife;Schultz’s(2002)visionofcharactereducationasa“processwhereadults,adolescents,andothersengageinthedevelopmentofcommunity”(p.10);Piechowski’s(1998,2000)workonspiritualgiftedness;Schultz’sandDelisle’s(1997)workontherelationshipsamongcurricula,self,andvisionsofthegoodlife;andHeng’s(2003)calltoservechildren’ssearchformeaningcannotberealizedpracti-callyorethicallyincompulsorysettings.Giftededucationisripeforarticulatingeducationalvisionsthatexplicitlyrejectcompulsion.
Seeforyourself.Takeanyconceptionofgiftedness:asynchronousdevelopment(Silverman,1997),aminimumIQscore,Renzulli’s(1977)threerings,ortalent—ifyoubelongtothenewwaveingiftededucation(e.g.,Feldhusen,1998).TakeanyconceptionoflifeandTheMostImportantThings(Grant,2002;Schultz&Delisle,1997)andanythingelseyouthinkisimportanttothegrowthandeduca-tionofyoungpeople.Now,imaginegiftededucationindependentofcompulsorypubliceducation.Imagineitwithoutgovernment-mandatedlearningobjectives,standardizedtests,minimumseattime,agegrouping,schoolaspreparationforthenextgradelevel,andtextbookschosenbyaTexasschoolboard.Imagineitwithoutthenecessityofpreparingindividualsforschool,college,andcareer(Grant,2002;Roeper,1990).Imaginegiftededucationsthatplace
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thedevelopmentoftheindividualinthegreatrealitiesoflife—self,sex,ethics,power,spirit,meaning,community,nature.Ithinkyouwillseethatyourvisionofgiftededucationismorevitalandimpor-tantthanthevisionsoperatingincompulsorypublicschools.
The History and Goals of Compulsory Education
Compulsorypubliceducation,byitsnature,existstochangechil-dren,toshapetheirminds,character,values,skills,andconduct.ThefoundersoftheUnitedStatesandthefoundersofpublicschool-ingknewthis,arguedaboutit,anddefendedoropposedgovern-mentrolesineducationforthisreason.ThehistoryofeducationinAmericadeservesatreatmentthatshowsmultiplepointsofviewontheforces,rationales,hiddenagendas,andphilosophiesthatinflu-encedpubliceducation.WhatIofferonlytouchesonhighlightsandafewmajorpointsofviewsontheforcesdrivingpubliceducationintheUnitedStates.Ihopeitissufficienttoincitedoubtaboutthegoodness,necessity,andinevitabilityofcompulsoryeducation.
The first compulsory education law in the colonial UnitedStates was passed in 1642 by the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Itrequiredparentsandmasterstoprovideaneducationinreadingandtrade.Amongthereasonsforthislawwere“concernsthatyouthreadilyacceptthedevelopingreligious,politicalandsocialpatternsandbecomegoodcitizensofthestateandofthenewlyestablishedchurch”(Kotin&Aikman,1980,p.12).TheMassachusettsBayColonywaslargelypopulatedbyCalvinistPuritanswhowerekeentokeeptheirkidsfirminthefaith(Rothbard,1974).By1671,allcoloniesexceptRhodeIslandhadpassedcompulsoryeducationlawsbasedonthemodelofthe1642MassachusettsActanda1648refinement(Kotin&Aikman).“Forthefirsttimeinhistorythestateassumedclearresponsibilityfortheeducationandtrainingofallchildren”(Kotin&Aikman,p.14).In1647,theGovernorsofMassachusettsBayColonypassedalawthattownsofacertainsizemusthaveanelementaryschoolwherechildrencouldlearntoreadtheBible.Thisact,alsoknownastheOldDeluderSatanAct,waspassedtoensurethatchildrenwerearmedwiththeknowledgeof
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scriptureintheirbattleagainstSatan(Kotin&Aikman).Children,however,werenotcompelledtoattendschool.
The United States Constitution, written in 1787, does notmentionschoolsoreducation.Parentswereresponsiblefortheirchildren’seducation,andlikelytheywouldnothavetoleratedstateinterference(Boss&Wurtz,1994).AftertheRevolution,supportforpubliceducationgraduallyincreased.Massachusettsagainled,establishingthefirstmandatoryschoollawsin1789,creatingthefirstpublichighschoolin1820,makingallgradesofpublicschoolfreetoallpupilsin1827,and,in1852,passingthefirstgeneralcom-pulsoryattendancelaw.Thiswasthefirstlawtocompelparentsandothersresponsibleforchildrentosendchildrenofacertainage(8–14)toschoolforacertainnumberofweeksayear(Kotin&Aikman,1980).By1918,allstateshaduniversalcompulsoryattendancelaws.Universalcompulsoryschoolingisaveryrecentphenomenoninthehistoryofhumanbeings’effortstoshapeandmaintainsocieties(Boss&Wurtz).
Thebasicstructureofmodernpublicschoolswascreatedinthemid1800s,theeraofthecommonschoolmovement(Spring,1994).The most prominent advocates of this movement were HoraceMann,thefatheroftheAmericanpublicschool,andHenryBarnard(Spring).Thecommonschoolmovementbeganthestandardizationandsystemizationofpubliceducation:(a)Allchildrenreceivedthesamesocialandpoliticalideology,(b)schoolswereaninstrumentofpublicpolicythataimedatfixingsociety’sproblems,and(c)stateagencieswerecreatedtocontrollocalschools(Spring).Glenn(2002)arguesthatthe
“commonschoolagenda”...thedeliberateefforttocreateintheentireyouthofanationcommonattitudes,loyalties,andvalues,andtodosoundercentraldirectionbythestate....[is]deeplyrootedinourthinkingabouteducation.(pp.4–5)
Whatdrovethecreationofmoderncompulsoryschooling?Howleyetal.(1995)intheirimportantcritiqueofAmericanschoolsandgiftededucation,echoJ.S.Mill(1859/1978)intheirclaimthat“schoolingaims,asithasforaverylongtime,toinculcatejustthosehabits,attitudes,andskillsthatlegitimateitintheeyesofpowerful
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economicinterests”(p.6).Spring(1974)agrees:“Schoolingmeans...shapingthetotalcharacteroftheindividualtomeetthepoliticalandeconomicdemandsofthestate”(p.139).Gatto(1993)arguesthatcompulsory schoolingwasnot instituted inorder tomakepeoplemoreliterate,thoughtful,knowledgeable,orintellectuallyskillful,buttomakethemmoremanageable.Curti(1959)seesthehistoryofAmericaneducationasthehistoryofconflictbetweenthosewhowanttouseeducationtomaintainpowerandthosewhowanttouseittoimprovelifeforeveryone.Reitman(1992)alsoseesAmericaneducationastheresultofstrugglebetweenincompatiblegoals:promotingdemocracy,supportingeconomiccompetitiveness,andteachingmoralvalues(ascitedinMiller,n.d.).
KotinandAikman(1980)mentionanumberofreasonsorforcesbehindthecompulsoryeducationlaws:toassimilateimmigrantsandtrainthemforjobs,tomakeimmigrants“uniformAmericans”withstandardvaluesandgoals,toenablealltoenjoythebenefitsofdemocracy,toprovideanintelligentelectorateandleadership,toeliminateilliteracy,topreventcrimeandpoverty,toforestallrevolu-tion,totrainskilledworkers,tokeepchildrenfrombeingexploited,toequalizeopportunitiesforeconomicsuccessforpooranddisad-vantagedchildren,andtopromoteinternationaleconomiccompeti-tiveness.GeorgeCheever(ascitedinRothbard,1974)eloquentlyexpressedamid-1800sbeliefinthesalutarypowerofteachingtheBibleinfreepublicschools:
Weareingreatdangerfromthedarkandstolidinfidelityandviciousradicalismofalargeportionoftheforeignimmi-gratingpopulation....Howcanwereachtheevilatitsroots...[and]defeattheworkingofthatmalignant,social,anti-Christianpoison?Howcanthechildrenofsuchapopula-tionbereachedexceptinourfreepublicschools?(p.21)
HoraceMannsawfreepubliceducationasanequalizer.Heini-tiallyopposedcompulsoryattendancelaws,butseeinga“tremendousdiscrepancybetweenthewealthoffactoryownersandpovertyofthelaborers”(Boss&Wurtz,1994,p.265),hecametosupportthem.Healsowanted“todriveoutofthelowerclassesanythoughtofviolenceorrebellion...[and]‘toinformandregulatethewillofthe
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people’”(Rothbard,1974,p.22).Tyack(1966)arguedthatpromi-nentintellectualsofthepost-RevolutionaryWarperiod—BenjaminRush,ThomasJefferson,andNoahWebster—wereanxiousaboutfreedomandwantedtocreate“anewunity,acommoncitizenshipandculture,andanappealtoacommonfuture . . . [a]uniformAmerican”(p.31).Rush(ascitedinTyack,1966)wasveryexplicitinhisbeliefthatAmericansmustbecomeuniformandpliable.Heproposed“‘onegeneral,anduniformsystemofeducation,’whichwillrenderthemassofthepeoplemorehomogeneousandtherebyfitthemmoreeasilyforuniformandpeaceablegovernment”(p.33).Writing75yearslater,J.S.Mill(1859/1978)acknowledgedRush’ssuccess:“Stateeducationisamerecontrivanceformoldingpeopletobeexactlylikeoneanother;andasthemoldinwhichitcaststhemisthatwhichpleasesthepredominantpowerinthegovernment”(p.105).Manyofthemostinfluentialvoicesinpubliceducationfromthemid-1800sintothiscentury—forexample,HoraceMann,G.StanleyHall,CalvinStowe,DallasBachet,HenryDwight,andHenryBarnard—wereinfluencedbythePrussianeducationsystem(Gatto,2001;Rothbard,1974).ThePrussiangoalofeducation,pre-cipitatedbyanembarrassinglosstoNapoleonin1806,wasobedientsoldiersandworkers,well-subordinatedcivilservantsandclerks,andcitizenswhothoughtalike,exceptforasmallelitewhoweretrainedtothinkandlead(Gatto,1996).
Compulsoryschoolingcannothelpbuthavepoliticalandmoralgoals.HoraceMann(ascitedinGoldberg,1996)saidthat“noideacanbemoreerroneousthanthatchildrengotoschooltolearntherudimentsofknowledgeonly,andnottoformcharacter”(p.85).Mannwasrightinhiscentralclaim,butnaiveincounterposingtheneutralrudimentsofknowledgewithmorallychargedeffortstoshapecharacter.Therearenorudimentsofknowledge,onlywhatparticularcommunitiesandgroupsconsiderthebasics.Themeansandconditionsforteachingthesebasicsshapecharacter.Besser(1993) showshowthemilitary,government, corporations, andhighereducationleaderswereinstrumentalincreatingournewest“basic,”computerliteracy,andhowtrainingincomputerskillsfos-tersworkhabitsdesiredbybusinesses.Evensuchseeminglyinnocentsubjectsasnumeracyandliteracyhaveimplicitpoliticalandmoral
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agendas.Whatshouldstudentsread?Whatshouldtheycalculate?Howshouldtheybetaught?Therearenovalue-neutralanswers.
Compulsory universal schooling was by no means univer-sally accepted. Today, most Americans accept the justice ofcompulsoryschoolingandseeitassynonymouswithpublicedu-cation(McGhan,1997),butitwasnotalwaysthisway.The1852Massachusettslaw
wasresisted—sometimeswithguns—byanestimatedeightypercentoftheMassachusettspopulation,thelastoutpostinBarnstableonCapeCodnotsurrenderingitschildrenuntilthe1880s,whentheareawasseizedbymilitiaandchildrenmarchedtoschoolunderguard.(Gatto,1992,p.25)
Indeed,
Manyfeltthatsuchlegislationdeprivedparentsoftheirinalienable right to control their children, and was anunconstitutionalinfringementuponthelibertygrantedbytheFourteenthAmendment....Claimsthatthelawswere“un-American”andinimicaltothespiritofafreedemocraticinstitutionwereraised.(Kotin&Aikman,1980,p.27)
Eventoday,manypeopleresistcompulsoryschooling.Homeschoolers,parentsofcertainreligiousfaiths,anarchists,andfreethinkersresisttheintrusionofthegovernmentintotheirchildren’smindsandchar-actersandinsteadchoosetheirownwaysofeducatingchildren.
A Principled Critique of Compulsory Education
Whetherwesupportthegoalofcreatingliteratecitizens,butnotthegoaloftrainingworkers;whetherweliketheideaofteachingreading,butnottheideaofteachingChristianvalues;whetherwewanttouseeducationtomaintainpowerforasmallgroupofpeo-pleortoimprovethingsforeveryone;whetherwebelieveschoolsshouldpromotedrug-freefamilyvaluesorlibertarianatheism;wemustanswerthequestion:Isitrightforthestatetocompelstudentstoattendschool?Many,asIdo,answerthequestioninthenegative
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(e.g.,Gatto,1992;Illich,1970;Novello,1998;Richman&Kopel,1996;Rothbard,1999).
Thecontexts foransweringthequestionareasmanyas thenumberofourpoliticalphilosophies,religions,andvisionsofthegoodsociety(Miller,n.d.).Wecananswerfromthepointofviewofanarchism,orPlato’sRepublic,orthetheonomyofthe“extremeChristianright.”Thereisnoneutralstartingpoint.Anargumentcanonlybeeffectiveinsofarasitspeakstotheassumptionsandvaluesofitsaudience.IaddressthequestionfromwithinthetraditionofpoliticalliberalismthatoriginatesinthephilosophiesofJohnLockeandJ.S.Mill.Manyofusfindthistraditioncongenial.Itscentralclaimisthatoneisfreetoliveone’slifeasonechooses,aslongasonedoesnotharmorlimitthefreedomofanother.Thecoreideaofliberalismisthatfreedomisthebasicpoliticalconditionofhumanbeingsandthatanylimitationonfreedommustbejustified(Gauss,1996).
Thestate’sdemandthatallstudents,ages6to16,attendapublicschoolorsomelegislatedequivalentisprimafacieinconsistentwiththisright.Ittakesauthoritythatproperlybelongstochildrenorpar-entsandputsitinthehandsofthestate.Indeed,fromitsbeginning,compulsoryschoolingwasbasedontheideathatchildrenbelongtothestate,nottotheirparentsorthemselves(Gatto,1996;Rothbard,1974).BenjaminRush(1786)wrote,“Letourpupilbetaughtthathedoesnotbelongtohimself,butthatheispublicproperty”(ascitedinTyack,1966,p.34).CompulsoryschoolingpatentlyaffrontsthebasiccivillibertythatisthefoundationofAmericandemocracy.JusticeMarshallwrote,“Ourwholeconstitutionalheritagerebelsatthethoughtofgivinggovernmentthepowertocontrolmen’sminds”(Stanley v. Georgia,1969).
Therighttodetermineone’sownlife,however,isnotabsolute.BossandWurtz(1994)describetwobroadreasonsinfavorofthegovernmentdenyingindividualliberty:ifthedenialofindividuallib-ertybringssubstantialbenefitstosociety,andifthedenialoflibertyprotectsindividualsfromharm.Lawsprohibitingsuicideanddruguse,lawsmandatingmilitarydrafts,andmanyotherlegallimitsonfreedomhavebeenjustifiedononeorbothofthesegrounds.Liberalargumentsinfavorofuniversalcompulsoryeducationacknowledge
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thatschoolsshapethemindsandsoulsofchildrenandtakethisastheveryreasonwhychildrenshouldbecompelledtoattendschool:Theviolationofchildren’sandparents’libertiesisacceptablebecauseofthebeneficialeffectsofuniversalcompulsoryschoolingforsoci-etyasawholeandforindividualchildren.Iwillarguethatthereisnocompellingliberaldefenseofcompulsoryschooling:Compulsoryschoolingisnotarationalandefficientmeansofdeliveringspecificbenefitstosocietyorofpreventingspecificharmtochildren;com-pulsoryschooling’spositiveeffectscannotoutweighthedeprivationofindividuallibertyitentails.
The Debatable Benefits of Compulsory Schooling
Theresimplyarenodangers—tohealth,safety,orphysical,emo-tional,moral,orintellectualdevelopment—thatthreateneverychildfromwhichcompulsoryschoolingoffersprotection.Compulsoryschooling,then,cannotbejustifiedongroundsthatitpreventsharm.Argumentsaboutthepossiblebenefitsofcompulsoryschoolingquicklygetboggeddowninamiasmaofconflictingviewsofgoalsandbenefits.Shouldschoolsproduce“competent,caring,loving,andlovablepeople”(Noddings,1995,p.99);peoplewhobelieveinthe“workethicandobediencetolegitimateauthorityandtheimpor-tantnonreligiousthemesarticulatedintheTenCommandments”(Wynne,1989,p.19);peoplewiththeskillsneededina21stcen-turylabormarket;peoplecapableofusingtheirtalentstothefullest;peoplewhorealizetheirtrueSelves;orpeoplewho...?Somemayapplaud“left”educationalmovementscriticalofmainstreamvalues,forexample,socialjusticeeducation,queerpedagogy,andfeministpedagogy.OthersmaydamnthemasharboringthebeginningsoftheendoftheAmericanwayoflife.
Thesevererestrictionsonfreedomofspeech,freedomofmove-ment,freedomofassociationandaccesstopoliticallydissidentideas,andtheenforcedobediencetoauthoritycharacteristicofpublicschoolingcanbecitedwitheitherapprovalordisapproba-tion.Goodsfromonepointofviewareevilsfromanother.HoraceMannfacedthisproblem150yearsago.Inanattempttoavoidconflictoverthecontentofeducation,heproposedthatschools
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Education Without Compulsion 173
teach“onlythosearticlesofrepublicanfaiththatwereapprovedby‘allsensibleandjudiciousmen,allpatriots,andallgenuinerepub-licans’”(Spring,1994,p.69)andnon-denominationalChristianvalues.Hefailed,ofcourse.Withoutagreementonthegoalsandbenefitsofschoolingamongthecitizensofastate,compulsoryschoolingisameanswherebysomevotingcitizensforceyearsofalienandrepugnantvaluesandideasuponthechildrenofothercitizens.
Theargumentthatcompulsoryeducationisneededtopreparechildrenforparticipationinaliberaldemocracyrunsafoulofthesameproblemofdisagreementoverthegoalsofschooling.Theargu-mentbegsthequestions:• Whatexactlyisademocraticsociety?• Whatskillsareneededtomaintainit?• Howaretheskillsbesttaught?
Theseareallmattersofcontention.JohnDewey,ourgreatphilosopherofdemocracy,isofnohelp
here.Insofarasheisrightthateducationisanexpressionofacom-munity’sviewoflife,itsvalues,aspirations,andvisionsofimprove-mentandtotheextentthatourcountryiscomposedofamultitudeofoverlappingcommunities,manywildlyatoddswithothers,therewillbenoagreementontheendsofschooling.Indeed,wehavenoagreementontheendsofschooling.Toputthepointanotherway,insofarasDeweyisrightthat“ademocracyismorethanaformofgovernment;itisprimarilyamodeofassociatedliving,ofconjointcommunicatedexperience”(InstituteforLearningTechnologies,1994,chapter7,para.2), wecannotagreeonthemeansandendsofschoolinginademocracyifwelackacommonmodeofdemocraticlife.Welacksuchamode.
Asanempiricalclaimaboutanecessaryconditionofdemoc-racy,theargumentthatcompulsoryeducationisneededtopreparechildrenforparticipationinaliberaldemocracyfoundersononeprominentcounterexample:TheUnitedStatessurvivedasademoc-racyformanyyearswithoutuniversalcompulsoryschooling.Thisfactmakesitverydifficulttoarguethatcompulsoryschoolingisanecessaryconditionfordemocracy.Perhapsexperimentationwould
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Journal for the Education of the Gifted174
showthatdemocracyisbestservedbyallowingchildrenfreedomfromstate-mandatededucationbutrequiringitofadults.Itisveryhardtoseehowcurrentcompulsoryschoolingwithitsanti-intel-lectualism(Howleyetal.,1995)andrestrictionsonfreedom(Boss&Wurtz,1994)providesstudentswiththeskillsandvaluesneededforthoughtful,informedexerciseoffreedominademocraticsoci-ety,yetwearecarryingon,insomefashion.Theempiricalrela-tionshipbetweenformsofeducationandformsofsocietyisnotstraightforward.
The Inefficiency and Irrationality of Compulsory Schooling
Argumentsthatcompulsoryschoolingisalegitimategovern-mentinfringementonindividuallibertyalsofalterongroundsofefficiencyandrationality.Universalcompulsoryschoolinglawsrequireall individualsofcertainagestospendafixednum-berofhoursanddaysinschooldoingroughlythesamesortsofthingsatroughlythesametimeforroughlythesameamountoftime.Thisfactleadsdirectlytotheconclusionthatcompulsoryschoolingcannotbearationalandefficientmeansofdeliver-ingspecificbenefitstosocietyorofpreventingspecificharmtochildren.
Rationalityandefficiencyarguethatschoolingshouldservespecificgoals.Ifstatelawshadspecificpurposesandwererational,somechildrenwouldnotneedtoattendschoolbecausetheywouldbeabletoaccomplishthepurposeofschoolinotherwaysandallchildrenwouldbefreetoleaveschoolwhenthepurposeshadbeenaccomplished.Patientsarefree,indeedrequired,toleavehospitalswhenthepurposeofhospitalizationisaccomplished.Evenprison-ersgenerallygetthebenefitofsentencesthataddresstheirparticu-larcrimeandcircumstances.And,wedon’trequireallchildrentoattendstate-runcafeteriasonthegroundsthatsomewouldoth-erwisegohungry.Lawsrequiringindividualstoremaininschooluntiltheycandemonstratespecificcompetenciesmightberationalandmightjustifydeprivationoflibertyifwecouldagreeonthegoalsofschooling.Giftedchildrenandtheirparentsmaywelcomesuchlaws.Theonlygoalthatcompulsoryschoolinghasrational
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Education Without Compulsion 175
andefficientmeansofachievingisthatofpreventinglargenum-bersofpeoplefromspendingthousandsofhoursoftheirlivesastheyortheirparentsseefit.
Compulsory Schooling Is an Unjustifiable Infringement on Liberty
Theconclusionoftheforegoingisthatcompulsoryschoolingisanunjustifiableinfringementonindividualliberty.Itisnotrationalorefficient;itcannotprotectallchildrenfromharm,becausetherearenoharmsthreateningthemall;andits“benefits”aretheposi-tivevaluesandbeliefsofsomeandtheevilsofothers.But,mostparentsandeducatorssupportcompulsoryeducationnotbecausetheyhavebeenpersuadedbyargumentstothecontrary(probablyfewhaveheardthemoreventhinkofschoolingascompulsory),butbecausetheybelievethatschoolingisnecessarytogettingadecentjob(Collins,1979).Thisisnotareasonforcompulsoryschooling,butforjobpreparationinmanyforms.Compulsoryschoolingmaywellperpetuateinequalitiesbetweenrichandpoorratherthanequalizeincomesorgiveallanequalchanceatgoodjobs(Collins).VanGalen(1988)
Theenormousexpansionofeducationsincethemid-nineteenthcenturyhashadnoeffectsatallforincreasingsocialmobility....therehasbeenthesamelevelofcorrelationbetweenfathers’andsons’occupationswitha largeeducationalsystem,amoderate-sizedone,orvirtuallynoeducationalsystematall.(Collins,p.182)
Incomeshavebeenequalizedonlytotheextentthatthetop10%ofincomeearnersmakelessandthenexttwodecilesmakemore. Incomes at the bottom and middle have not increased(Collins,1979).VanGalen(1988)writesthat“evidencemountsfromcriticsofbothpublicandprivateschoolsthattheformalandhiddencurriculumsofschoolcontributetothereproductionofsocialinequalitiesratherthanequalizingopportunity”(p.52).Morerecentdatasuggestthattheincomegapbetweenthemostwealthyandtherestofthepopulationhasincreasedsincethe1970s(Krugman,2002).
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Journal for the Education of the Gifted176
Toward the End of Compulsory Schooling
Gatto(1992)writes,
Itisthegreattriumphofcompulsorygovernmentmonopolymass-schoolingthatamongeventhebestofmyfellowteach-ers,andamongeventhebestofmystudents’parents,onlyasmallnumbercanimagineadifferentwaytodothings.“Thekidshavetoknowhowtoreadandwrite,don’tthey?”...‘Theyhavetolearnhowtofollowordersiftheyeverexpecttokeepajob.”(p.12)
WhenItalktopeopleaboutendingcompulsoryeducation,theyimmediatelythinkofitendingtomorrow.Theyimaginesocietyasitisnowminuscompulsoryeducationandinanxietyandangerask:Wherewillkidsgowhenparentswork?Whataboutallthereallyterribleparentswhowilllocktheirkidsupathome?Whataboutthestupidparentswhowilltrytoteachandfail?Whataboutkidsfromchaotichomesthat“need”thestructureofschool?Whataboutthepoorkidswhoseparentswon’tteachthemanythingofvalue?Whataboutallthebadinfluencesthatwillgouncorrected?Thatsocietyisfilledwithills,somecausedbypublicschooling,andthefactthathardlyanyonereallyconsidersevidenceorargumentwhenaskingthesequestions,seemstomakenodifference.Wehavefaiththatschoolswillmakethingsbetterandarenotinclinedtolookatwhatschoolsactuallyaccomplishorimaginenewwaysofeducatingchildren.
Compulsorypublicschoolingwillendwhenweseethatitisnotnecessarytosuccessandhappiness,whenage-segregationbar-riersbreakdown,whencommunitiesbecomemore importantthanprofits,whenadultsstopthinkingtheycanimprovesocietybytryingtomoldchildreninsteadofchangingthemselves,andwhenpeoplecreativelydevisemany,manyalternativestoschoolandpublicschoolsystemsthatcannolongersupportthemselves.Somethinglikethishappenedonce.Forabout100yearsfromthelate1600stothelate1700s,NewEnglandgraduallyremovedallcompulsoryeducationlawsfromitsbooks(compulsoryeduca-tionlawsrequiredmastersandparentstoprovideaneducation;they did not require that students attend school). Education
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Education Without Compulsion 177
lawsbecamebothirrelevantandimpossibletoenforce(Kotin&Aikman,1980).Growingfrontierliferequiredchildrentoworktosupporttheirfamilies,peoplelefttownsforthecountry,familiesandgovernmentswereweakenedbyIndianWars,religiousplural-ismgrew,Puritanismlostinfluence,andreligioningeneralbecamelessimportant.Circumstanceschanged,interestschanged,andasystemoflawsandasetofbeliefsfellaway.
Thereareafewsignsthattheeraofuniversalcompulsoryschoolinginthiscountrymaybeending.Theincreasingnumberofhomeschooledchildren“from50,000to1.5–1.9millionin15years”(Talbot,2001,p.136),callsforvouchers,a25%dropoutrateinhighschools,athirdofallteachersleavingtheprofessionafter2years,theriseoftheuseofdrugstomanagestudentsinclassrooms(Goldberg,1996),theriseofunschoolingmovements(e.g.,Griffith,1998),andothersignsofdissatisfactionwithpub-liceducationpointtogrowingdisillusionmentwiththeprom-isesofcompulsoryeducation.Critiquesofcompulsoryschoolingthatwereleveledlargelybyintellectualsinthe1960sand1970sarebecomingmainstream.Llewellyn(1998)haswrittenthethirdeditionofabookforteenagersthattellsHow to Quit School and Get a real life and Education. Wolfthal (1986), a teacher inBronx,NY,writes:
Itisdifficulttoimaginethat[compulsoryschooling]wasonce considered a boon to mankind. Students, for themostpartnormal,healthyyoungsterscontinuetotuneout.Teachers,forthemostpartintelligent,decentadults,con-tinuetoburnout.Thewasteoftime,energy,andpotentialiscolossalonbothsides.Itwasagiantleapbackwardswhenthecauseoffreeuniversalpubliceducationturnedintoamovementforcompulsoryschooling.(p.108)
McGhan (1997), a retired teacher of 33 years, writes,“Compulsoryschoolattendance isa19th-century ideathathasapparentlyout-liveditsusefulness”(p.135).Compulsorypublicschoolingisnotanaturalforce,notanimmovablefeatureofthelandscape.Wecreatedit.Wecanendit.
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Journal for the Education of the Gifted178
Gifted Education and the Meaning of Life: One Vision of Gifted Education
Ifgiftededucationisaboutanythingotherthanpromotingmoreefficientwaysofhelpingasmallgroupofgiftedchildrendevelopinstitutionallyapprovedtalentsandgetintogoodcollegesandgetgoodjobsandbecome“good”citizens,itisabouthelpingchildrenandadolescentsrealizethemselves.Thisismyvisionofwhatgiftededucationcouldbeifitwerefreedfromthestricturesofcompulsoryschooling.Iaskmyself:Whatelsearethedeepgoalsofgiftededuca-tion?Ifnotthedevelopmentoffreeminds,ofcreativepersonswhoknowthemselves,knowtheirstrengths,andcanusetheirintellec-tualtoolsandtheirsensibilitiesaccordingtotheirownphilosophyoflife,whatelsecantheybe?Anygoalofeducationotherthanthefreedevelopmentofthechildmeansusingchildrentoservesomegoalwehaveforthem—tobecomeleaders,yieldreturnsaspreciousnationalresources,preserveandcarryforwardcivilization,andsoon(cf.Grant&Piechowski,1999).
Educationforself-developmentisnotaboutacademicachieve-ment,socialization,schooling,careerpreparation,servingthenation,orjobtraining.Thetaskofeducationisthetaskofliving:findingorcreatingaselfandasenseoftheworldofthings,people,andotherbeings,andfindingmeaningfulwaysoffittingselfandworldtogether.Educationisaboutlivingoutone’spassionsandpurposesandcreatingacoherentlife,aworkableindividuality.Itispremisedontheperennialhumanistideathattheonlylifeworthlivingisone’sownlife,notacopyofsomeoneelse’s,notonemadeofanunexam-inedhodgepodgeofstufffromstate-mandatedcurriculaandtheyouthculturecreatedbypreventingchildrenfromfullyparticipatinginciviclife(cf.Decarvalho,1991;Goodman,1983;Maslow,1962;Rogers,1983).
Roeper(1990),thefirsteducatorinthefieldtoofferadetailed,coherent,andprincipledalternativetomainstreamgiftededucation,describesasimilarview.Herphilosophyofeducationforlifeisbasedonthebeliefinrespectingself-actualization,thegrowthandunique-nessofeachmemberofthecommunity,andtherealityofinterde-pendence.“Itisaconceptofself-actualizationforall,asopposedto
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Education Without Compulsion 179
theconceptofeducationforoutsidesuccesswheretheprimaryfocusisonwhatonecandoratherthanonwhooneisasahumanbeing”(p.1).
Thecommonviewofeducationas jobpreparationandasameanstosocialandfinancialadvancement,aswellaslearninghowtofitinandgetalong,isshallowandself-defeating.Itrobslifeofmeaningandvitalitywhileofferingthefalsepromisethatwewillgetthesethingslater.Roeper(1990)asks:
If[achild]learnsalltheso-calledbasicskillsandgoesobedi-entlyandsuccessfullythroughthesystemandentersapres-tigiouscollege,wills/hebehappy,wealthy,andwise?....Education...hasbecomeisolatedandalienatedfromlife.Ithasbecomebasedonnarrow,short-termgoals,whichwesomehowbelievewillfulfillmankind’spromises...weraiseilliterateswhenitcomestomasteringthescienceorartofliving....Wearereallyengagedinpreparationforcollege.(p.7)
Roeper(1990,1995)hasalreadyrevisionedgiftededucation.Thoughshedoesnotrejectcompulsoryschooling,herphilosophyisconsistentwithnoncompulsoryeducation.Morerecently,Schultz&Delisle(1997),whodescribeaneducationfortheGoodLife,“theprocessofself-examinationandreflection—makingsenseofone’sexistenceinrelationshiptoothersandbeingabletoliveconscience-free[withoutviolatingone’sprinciples]withtheresults”(p.99),ReynoldsandPiirto(2005),whoargueforbringingdepthpsychol-ogyintogiftededucation,andHeng(2003),whoarguesfora“cur-riculumofconscience,”haveadvancedviewsthathaveimplicationsforrejectingcompulsoryschooling.
Theideathatthegoalofeducationisindividualself-actualiza-tionisnotnewtogiftededucation.Ithasbeenapartofitsincethemiddleoflastcenturywhenhumanistpsychologistsfirstproposedtheconceptof self-actualization.Roeper’s (1990,1995)radicalalternativetomainstreamgiftededucationshowsthatcreatingone’sownlife,actualizingoneself,andstrivingforthegoodlifecannotbedoneinconditionsofunfreedom.WeseethisalsoinSchultzandDelisle(1997),whotryunsuccessfullytofitaviewofeducation
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Journal for the Education of the Gifted180
asthedevelopmentoftheSelfintotheconstraintsofcompulsoryschooling,whichtheytacitlyaccept.Theyargue,forexample,that“ifstudentsarenotinvolvedin[curriculumdevelopment],educa-tionbecomessomethingthatisdonetothem,notwiththem”(p.99).Ifthisistrue,howmuchmoreiseducationsomethingdonetostudentswhentheyarecompelledtoattendschool?Theessentialelementsofself-creation,choice,andfreedomarenecessarilyseverelylimitedincompulsoryschooling.Ifyourthinkingabouteducationbeginswiththeideaofeducationasself-actualizationorself-real-ization,youendwitharejectionofcompulsoryeducation.Ifyourejectcompulsoryeducation,youendupwithakeyconditionforself-realization—freedom.
Conclusion
Ifoneacceptstheargumentsandevidencepresentedabove,onecannolongeracceptgiftededucationinmostofitscurrentforms.(Ofcourse,theseargumentsapplyequallywelltotheeducationofallchildren.)Nothinginthenatureoflearning,democracy,orcreat-ingcommunitiesrequiresuniversalcompulsoryschooling.Universalcompulsoryschoolingisnotaneffectivemeansofaccomplishinganythingexceptfixedseat-timeexposuretostate-approvedideas,segregatedagegroupings,andhamperedrealizationsoffullandmeaningfullives.Itdoesnotandcannotprovideakeyconditionforself-realization.Ifeducationistoservetheindividual,itmustserveself-realization.But,thisisbutoneview.Endingcompulsoryedu-cationwouldallowmanydifferentvisionsofeducationtoflourish.Giftededucationwouldbemuchricher,diverse,andsignificantifmoreeducatorsbegantothinkaboutandcreatewaystoservegiftedchildrenthatdidnotrequireforce.
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