Clark Atlanta University

Education for Every ManWho Can Be Educated? by Milton SchwebelReview by: Edgar G. EppsPhylon (1960-), Vol. 30, No. 2 (2nd Qtr., 1969), pp. 205-206Published by: Clark Atlanta UniversityStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/273895 .

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LITERATURE OF RACE AND CULTURE LITERATURE OF RACE AND CULTURE

spent a lifetime attempting to adjust and adapt religious orthodoxy so that he might become a consistent reformer. Though some of his ideas (as in his argu- ment for the pre-existence of souls) appear absurd today, others seem especially relevant. For example, as his great-grandson John Beecher has observed, Edward Beecher's concept of organic sin, with its emphasis on white America's collec- tive guilt for black slavery, strikingly parallels recent condemnations of the white racism that pervades the United States.

Professor Merideth has treated a difficult subject in a comprehensive and readable manner. All in all, The Politics of the Universe is a worthy addition to the ever-growing literature on pre-Civil War religion and reform.

L. Moody Simms, Jr. Illinois State University

EDUCATION FOR EVERY MAN

WHO CAN BE EDUCATED? By Milton Schwebel. New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1968. 277 pp. $6.50.

This book is a challenge to American educators. The author, who is Dean of the Graduate School of Education at Rutgers University, states that there is no longer an issue as to who should be educated; the question now has become, who can be educated? The right answers cannot be gotten until the right questions are framed, and the questions must grow out of the conditions that give rise to the problems. The conditions are: (1) children who grow up in ghettos do not achieve as well as others; (2) the quality of education given to lower-class children is inferior; (3) nobody expects these children to do as well as others; (4) when children are backward in learning, the difficulty is attributed to them rather than to the system; (5) power groups that control education resist change because they assume that strengthening ghetto education will result in weakening suburban education; (6) educational have-nots are demanding educa- tion equal to that of the best suburbs. Thus, the issue is joined, the conflict open and sometimes violent (e.g., New York City).

"Underlying all the conflict is the issue of educability." According to Schwe- bel, the American school system is founded upon the erroneous belief that the approximate level of lifetime ability is measurable in childhood. The position developed in this book is "that the prevailing theory of educability is unfounded." In the prevailing theory, we must expect a small elite, a high proportion of mediocrity, and a small but still sizable backward group as part of the spectrum of mankind.

Schwebel contends that this kind of thinking must be eliminated if we are to convert the schools into effective instruments for the education of all children.

In attempting to make his case, Schwebel first examines Western theories of educability ranging from Plato and Aristotle to contemporary Soviet thought (chapter ii). He then examines the development of free education in America (chapters iii and iv). He concludes that most European and American educators have accepted some form of elitist education designed to sort out those who have the ability to profit from higher education (usually considered to be 20 percent or fewer). Thus, quality education for the masses has never been seriously attempted and educators have no theories or techniques upon which to base such an undertaking.

Part 2 of the book is an examination of the determinants of educability. Re- views of existing knowledge about biological, psychological, social and educa- tional determinants of educability are presented in chapters v-viii. Schwebel

spent a lifetime attempting to adjust and adapt religious orthodoxy so that he might become a consistent reformer. Though some of his ideas (as in his argu- ment for the pre-existence of souls) appear absurd today, others seem especially relevant. For example, as his great-grandson John Beecher has observed, Edward Beecher's concept of organic sin, with its emphasis on white America's collec- tive guilt for black slavery, strikingly parallels recent condemnations of the white racism that pervades the United States.

Professor Merideth has treated a difficult subject in a comprehensive and readable manner. All in all, The Politics of the Universe is a worthy addition to the ever-growing literature on pre-Civil War religion and reform.

L. Moody Simms, Jr. Illinois State University

EDUCATION FOR EVERY MAN

WHO CAN BE EDUCATED? By Milton Schwebel. New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1968. 277 pp. $6.50.

This book is a challenge to American educators. The author, who is Dean of the Graduate School of Education at Rutgers University, states that there is no longer an issue as to who should be educated; the question now has become, who can be educated? The right answers cannot be gotten until the right questions are framed, and the questions must grow out of the conditions that give rise to the problems. The conditions are: (1) children who grow up in ghettos do not achieve as well as others; (2) the quality of education given to lower-class children is inferior; (3) nobody expects these children to do as well as others; (4) when children are backward in learning, the difficulty is attributed to them rather than to the system; (5) power groups that control education resist change because they assume that strengthening ghetto education will result in weakening suburban education; (6) educational have-nots are demanding educa- tion equal to that of the best suburbs. Thus, the issue is joined, the conflict open and sometimes violent (e.g., New York City).

"Underlying all the conflict is the issue of educability." According to Schwe- bel, the American school system is founded upon the erroneous belief that the approximate level of lifetime ability is measurable in childhood. The position developed in this book is "that the prevailing theory of educability is unfounded." In the prevailing theory, we must expect a small elite, a high proportion of mediocrity, and a small but still sizable backward group as part of the spectrum of mankind.

Schwebel contends that this kind of thinking must be eliminated if we are to convert the schools into effective instruments for the education of all children.

In attempting to make his case, Schwebel first examines Western theories of educability ranging from Plato and Aristotle to contemporary Soviet thought (chapter ii). He then examines the development of free education in America (chapters iii and iv). He concludes that most European and American educators have accepted some form of elitist education designed to sort out those who have the ability to profit from higher education (usually considered to be 20 percent or fewer). Thus, quality education for the masses has never been seriously attempted and educators have no theories or techniques upon which to base such an undertaking.

Part 2 of the book is an examination of the determinants of educability. Re- views of existing knowledge about biological, psychological, social and educa- tional determinants of educability are presented in chapters v-viii. Schwebel

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PHYLON PHYLON

concludes that mental deficiencies are preventable or modifiable. "Man makes illiteracy, ignorance, and stupidity. He can change them." (p. 193) Whether the determinants are biological, psychological, social, or educational, "society must assume ultimate responsibility for the performance of children who fail in school or who drop out. The society is no less responsible for scholastic failures than for malnutrition, high infant mortality, and racism." (p. 202)

"Who can be educated?" Schwebel answers "Every man." With the excep- tion of the "brain damaged" (estimated to be about V2 to 1 percent of current newborn infants) there is no known reason to believe that the rest of our chil- dren cannot do the work of an academic high school and of a college. In other words, more than 90 percent of the population could have I.Q. scores of 105 or better if optimum environmental and educational conditions could be devised. Are such conditions possible? The author thinks the answer is yes. It would require: (1) a clear mandate to make the schools first rate, and this mandate must include money; (2) change in school board composition (more local con- trol); (3) educational leaders with convictions about the educability of children and the courage to carry out thorough-going changes in the entire system; (4) improvement in teaching; (5) improvement in teacher education; (6) a new approach to instruction built on an open ended conception of educability; (7) a broadened concept of the school-community schools; (8) more concerned parents.

This book is, of course, based on materials the author selected to buttress his argument that American educational policies are basied on a false philosophy. Since I share most of his biases, I can find little to disagree with in this book. I would add to his presentation a strong plea for black scholars to turn their energies to the task of seeking effective theories and techniques of education for black children.

Edgar G. Epps Tuskegee Institute Tuskegee Institute, Alabama

RACE AND EMPLOYMENT IN ENGLAND

The Coloured Worker in British Industry. With Special REFERENCE TO THE MID- LANDS AND NORTH OF ENGLAND. By Peter L. Wright. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968. xviii, 245 pp. N.P.

Until recently, research into race relations in Britain has tended to concen- trate upon the community rather than upon the industrial environment; thus the superficial conclusion voiced in Gallup polls and at racial meetings has been that the employment of Negro immigrants, as opposed to housing and social adjustment, raised no serious problem. In a time of full employment and sharp housing shortages, it is easy to see how such a verdict was reached. But the 1957- 1958 recession had far-reaching effects upon employment prospects for colored immigrants, and full employment no longer obtained.

Dr. Wright's research was completed in 1961 for the British Institute of Race Relations to provide much-needed information concerning the employment of colored immigrants in Britain. Using three methods (the non-directive study, the directive interview survey, and the questionnaire survey) in the research, Dr. Wright analyzes the attitudes of managers to immigrant employees and vice versa, of white workers to colored employees, and of the different colored groups -Asian, African, and West Indian-to each other. He also emphasizes the im-

concludes that mental deficiencies are preventable or modifiable. "Man makes illiteracy, ignorance, and stupidity. He can change them." (p. 193) Whether the determinants are biological, psychological, social, or educational, "society must assume ultimate responsibility for the performance of children who fail in school or who drop out. The society is no less responsible for scholastic failures than for malnutrition, high infant mortality, and racism." (p. 202)

"Who can be educated?" Schwebel answers "Every man." With the excep- tion of the "brain damaged" (estimated to be about V2 to 1 percent of current newborn infants) there is no known reason to believe that the rest of our chil- dren cannot do the work of an academic high school and of a college. In other words, more than 90 percent of the population could have I.Q. scores of 105 or better if optimum environmental and educational conditions could be devised. Are such conditions possible? The author thinks the answer is yes. It would require: (1) a clear mandate to make the schools first rate, and this mandate must include money; (2) change in school board composition (more local con- trol); (3) educational leaders with convictions about the educability of children and the courage to carry out thorough-going changes in the entire system; (4) improvement in teaching; (5) improvement in teacher education; (6) a new approach to instruction built on an open ended conception of educability; (7) a broadened concept of the school-community schools; (8) more concerned parents.

This book is, of course, based on materials the author selected to buttress his argument that American educational policies are basied on a false philosophy. Since I share most of his biases, I can find little to disagree with in this book. I would add to his presentation a strong plea for black scholars to turn their energies to the task of seeking effective theories and techniques of education for black children.

Edgar G. Epps Tuskegee Institute Tuskegee Institute, Alabama

RACE AND EMPLOYMENT IN ENGLAND

The Coloured Worker in British Industry. With Special REFERENCE TO THE MID- LANDS AND NORTH OF ENGLAND. By Peter L. Wright. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968. xviii, 245 pp. N.P.

Until recently, research into race relations in Britain has tended to concen- trate upon the community rather than upon the industrial environment; thus the superficial conclusion voiced in Gallup polls and at racial meetings has been that the employment of Negro immigrants, as opposed to housing and social adjustment, raised no serious problem. In a time of full employment and sharp housing shortages, it is easy to see how such a verdict was reached. But the 1957- 1958 recession had far-reaching effects upon employment prospects for colored immigrants, and full employment no longer obtained.

Dr. Wright's research was completed in 1961 for the British Institute of Race Relations to provide much-needed information concerning the employment of colored immigrants in Britain. Using three methods (the non-directive study, the directive interview survey, and the questionnaire survey) in the research, Dr. Wright analyzes the attitudes of managers to immigrant employees and vice versa, of white workers to colored employees, and of the different colored groups -Asian, African, and West Indian-to each other. He also emphasizes the im-

206 206

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