LEARNING OBJECTIVES

What is motivation and how does it affect learning behaviors?

How do the behavioral, humanistic, cognitive, and social perspectives compare in the way they study and explain motivation and achievement processes in teaching-learning situations?

What roles do emotions play in learning? How can we maximize productive ones while minimizing unproductive ones?

How may one’s understanding of achievement motivation, attributions, and goal orientations be applied in education?

THEORIES OF LEARNING

EDS-103 3 MOTIVATION

http://meditativemutterings.files.wordpress.com

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 2

Module 3: Motivation EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

Module 3. Motivation

Knowing one’s learning style is not sufficient to explain the extent that a person will achieve his goal(s). Another important aspect that influences learning outcomes is motivation. A large amount of literature attests to the impact of motivation on learning, so let us allocate a segment of our course to look into how motivation shapes learning achievement outcomes.

Introduction

What arouses our desire to achieve? How do we choose our tasks and goals? To what ends do we direct our actions? What makes us persist with our pursuits? All these concern motivation. Motivation, without doubt, has much to do with successful learning. For both matters that we are student-learners and that this course is about learning, the topic of motivation can easily be appreciated as an essential component of our understanding. Poor understanding of the motivational aspects of learning leads to misconceptions that can impede the effectiveness of teaching-learning processes.

Consider, for instance, how some teachers quickly account poor performance of students to their lack of motivation. Yet, this may be a case of misconception. By definition, a student who chooses goals and exerts a certain amount of effort to achieve them is motivated. BUT, the teacher does not see the student as motivated because the student’s behavior does not conform to his/her expectations.

Again, the view that the one person can directly motivate another—just as a teacher ought to motivate her students—is inaccurate. Motivation comes from within a person. However, motivational theories can inform a person (e.g., the teacher) about effectively creating environments or situations that can influence other people’s behaviors (e.g., students’) according to what is deemed desirable.

(Sample situations excerpted from Houghton Mifflin’s Project-Based Learning Space)

Schunk (2012) defines motivation as “the process of instigating and sustaining goal-directed behavior” (p.346), and he quickly points out that this is definitely a cognitive postulation. However, three other perspectives explain motivated human behavior-- behavioral, humanistic, and social. Whichever the case may be, motivation is an explanatory concept that helps us understand why people behave as they do.

EDS 103 - THEORIES OF LEARNING

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 3

Module 3: Motivation EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

MOTIVATED BEHAVIORS IN REAL LIFE Watch this Motivational Video Identify the different ways that motivated behavior is manifested.

DRIVE THEORY Drive theory was among the earlier attempts to account for reasons behind behaviors. It was essentially a physiological theory and readily explained that behaviors are driven by immediate physiological needs.

For example, a person stranded in an island will be chiefly concerned with obtaining food, water, and protection from sun or rain. The drive behind his actions accordingly subsides as the objects of his survival needs (food, water, and protection) are acquired, i.e., the physiological deficits are reduced. Hence, drive (D) was the motivational force that energized and prompted people and animals into action, and behavior that obtained reinforcement to satisfy a need resulted in drive reduction.

Hull (1943, in Schunk, 2012) believed that behaviors are naturally motivated to satisfy primary needs, and learning represents one’s adaptation to the environment to ensure survival. (See Schunk, 2012, pp. 347-348).

THINK CRITICALLY • Can drive theory explain the motivated behaviors you saw in the video? • How may you describe the weakness(es) of drive theory as a general

explanation for human behaviors?

Theoretical Perspectives on Motivation

Students’ motivations to achieve or lack of it are determined by various factors. Because motivation is multi-faceted, several theoretical perspectives are needed to more fully understand it. How do we explain why or how students’ motivations differ from one another, despite being engaged in a common learning circumstance? In many cases, more than one theoretical interpretation is employed to sufficiently explain these differences. In addition, how many different approaches do teachers utilize when they design strategies for their

• Food • Water Need • Hunger

• Thirst Drive • Eating • Drinking

Drive-reducing behaviors

Drive theory: Behaviors are driven by immediate physiological needs

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 4

Module 3: Motivation EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

employee-

classrooms? Each theoretical perspective offers distinct alternative references to develop classroom strategies and techniques aimed at optimizing learning. In the following section, we explore four major perspectives on motivation—the behavioral, humanistic, cognitive, and social views.

BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE - USING REWARDS IN CLASSROOMS Like Skinner’s behavioral learning theory, the behavioral view of motivation emphasizes the effects of extrinsic reinforcers (e.g., rewards and punishments) as determinants of human behavior.

REFLECT Recall a few instances when you were rewarded for good deeds and punished for wrongdoings. Did you feel encouraged to repeat the behaviors that were rewarded and avoid those that were punished?

Reinforcers The behavioral (or behaviorist, as some authors prefer) view argues that motivation is a consequence of effective reinforcers (reward or punishment, including any experience that is either positive or negative). This view broadly contends that reinforcers enhance the quality of work and encourage competence and diminish undesirable performance behaviors. Reinforcers can increase intrinsic motivation if they communicate that competence is increasing.

For instance, some students may enter a required math class with a feeling of delight, while others may feel that they have been sentenced to prison. Skinner suggests that such differences can be traced to past experiences. He would argue that the student who loves math has been

shaped to respond that way by a series of positive experiences with math. The math hater, in contrast, may have suffered a series of negative experiences.

(Sample situations excerpted from Houghton Mifflin’s Project-Based Learning Space)

However, critics of the behavioral perspective contend that learners become overly focused on the consequent pleasure of a reward or the avoidance of punishment (reinforcers) as their goal. In effect, the desire to learn and develop mastery is overturned by extrinsic motivators.

• Behaviorism is criticized on philosophical grounds, with critics suggesting that schools should cultivate intrinsic motivation, and using rewards sends students the wrong message about learning.

• Critics also cite research indicating that the use of rewards decreases interest in intrinsically motivating tasks.

• Critics also point out that, because behaviorism treats motivation and learning as identical, behaviorism provides an incomplete explanation for motivation.

Motivation is a consequence of effective reinforcers

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 5

Module 3: Motivation EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

teach-nology.com

HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE If the behaviorism emphasizes a “mechanistic” view of man (as merely responding to reinforcers), the humanist perspective views man as a “whole person” and considers all his physical, emotional, intellectual, and aesthetic needs. Thus, with a humanist view of motivation, the learner’s environment will, among other things, be characterized by a positive, nurturing climate.

• Because people's personal, social, and emotional needs precede their intellectual needs, humanistic views of motivation suggest that teachers treat students as people first and learners second.

• Humanistic views of motivation encourage teachers to treat students with unconditional positive regard by separating their behaviors from their intrinsic worth.

• Humanistic views of motivation encourage teachers to create safe and orderly classrooms where students believe they can learn and where they are expected to do so.

LET’S READ! HUMANISM AND OPEN EDUCATION Huitt, W. (2009). Humanism and open education. Educational Psychology

Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/affect/humed.html

This web article provides an overview of the history of the humanistic perspective, goals and principles of humanistic education, and a list of references for learning more about this topic.

Hierarchy of Needs Maslow proposed the principle of need gratification. He argues that needs lower in the hierarchy must first be satisfied before a new and higher need emerges. He proposed a five-level hierarchy of needs. Physiological needs are at the bottom

of the hierarchy, followed in ascending order by safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualization needs. Maslow also adds to the five basic needs cognitive needs (e.g., need to know and understand) and aesthetic needs (e.g., need for order, symmetry, or harmony).

LET’S READ! Humanistic orientations to learning. A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs at Learning Theories Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs at Deeper Mind

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 6

Module 3: Motivation EDS 103 – Theories of Learning Do you feel the need to first satisfy lower needs before higher ones come into play?

Actualizing Tendency Carl Rogers’ humanist view emphasizes that man naturally attempts to become self-actualized. Essential to self-actualization, he argues, is an unconditional positive regard for man.

LET’S READ! CARL ROGERS, CORE CONDITIONS AND EDUCATION What, according to Rogers, are elements of a humanistic learning experience? How do you foresee yourself as an actualized individual?

COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE "Whether you think that you can or you can't, you're usually right."

~ Henry Ford

The cognitive views of motivation stress that human behavior is influenced by people’s beliefs and expectations about themselves and their environment. Motivation theories express these influences; let us consider some:

• Expectancy X value theory: motivated behavior depends on the extent that the person expects to succeed coupled with the value that he gives to the consequence. Helping students set and monitor challenging but attainable goals can increase their beliefs about their capabilities of accomplishing specific tasks. Frequent assessment together with detailed feedback helps learners meet their needs to understand their performances.

• Self-efficacy theory: a person’s willingness and perseverance to engage in a task and accept its challenges rest on his belief about his ability to successfully perform the task.

READ: Overview of Social Cognitive Theory and of Self-Efficacy Pajares (2002). Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy. http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/eff.html This website provides an overview of how self-efficacy beliefs influence human functioning, how these beliefs are created, and how self-efficacy relates to achievement.

• Goal orientation theory: learners pursue different goals in school—e.g. mastery (learning) goals, performance goals, social goals, and the goals that learners set define the values they associate with the task and the nature of learning outcomes. Research indicates that mastery (learning)-focused goals lead to more sustained motivation and higher achievement, while performance-focused goals enhance competitive behaviors.

• Attribution theory: learners seek explanations (attributions) for their successes and failures. Did I succeed (or fail) because of my effort, ability, luck, or the nature of the task

Learners with an incremental view of ability are more likely to set learning-focused goals, whereas learners with an entity view of ability are more likely to set performance-focused goals.

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 7

Module 3: Motivation EDS 103 – Theories of Learning (easy/ difficult)? Effort attributions have been found to have more positive influences on learning behaviors and outcomes.

• Self-determination theory: man has a natural basic need for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

Accomplishing challenging tasks helps students meet their need for competence, which helps explain the intrinsically motivating effects of challenge.

Involving students, giving them choices, using assessments that emphasize learning, and providing detailed feedback all increase perceptions of autonomy.

A genuine commitment to student learning and holding students to high standards increases feelings of relatedness.

Teachers with self-determination theory in mind make performance expectations clear and achievable (feeling of competence); they allow students to exercise choice and some degree of control and autonomy (feeling of control and capacity for self-determined choices).

• Self-worth theory: people differ in the achievement behaviors because of differences in their need for achievement—a desire to attain goals and experience success on account of one’s competence. People with a high need for achievement seek moderately challenging tasks from which they anticipate a feeling of pride in the accomplishment; belief in a reasonable chance of success outweighs the anxiety about possible failure. In contrast, people with low need for achievement tend to choose easier tasks and avoid challenging ones because of an overwhelming fear of failure and anticipation of shame. The motivation to achieve on subsequent tasks depends on experiences of prior success that impact on a person’s self-worth.

SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE The social perspective emphasizes observation, imitation, and vicarious reinforcement (expecting to receive the same reinforcer that we see someone else get for exhibiting a particular behavior) as sources of motivated behavior. Individuals who are admired motivate others towards the same behaviors or to strive towards similar goals. The success of encourage expectations that same or similar experiences and benefits can be attained. Motivation is improved when one’s sense of self-efficacy is elevated by either vicarious (observed experience of others) reinforcement and direct (actual personal experiences) reinforcement.

How have you been influenced by the behaviors or achievements of other people you respect?

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 8

Module 3: Motivation EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

Achievement Motivation; Intrinsic-Extrinsic Goal Orientation

Extrinsically motivated learners engage in learning activities as a means to obtain externally-referenced goals, such as reward, recognition, or praise. In contrast, intrinsically motivated learners pursue learning for learning’s sake; their goal is learning itself. Challenge, control, interest, novelty, curiosity, aesthetics, and a host of other similar reasons drive intrinsic motivation. Students may pursue one type of goal or the other or in various combinations of both--learners can be high in both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, low in both, or high in one and low in the other. Learners' motivation also depends on context, and their motivations can change over time. Motivations vary, depending on context and can change over time.

WHAT’S YOUR ORIENTATION? • In what kinds of goals are you

more intrinsically motivated than extrinsically motivated, and vice versa?

• Can you name tasks where you pursue both intrinsic and extrinsic goals at the same time?

Affect and Motivation

IN VIDEOS Below are a couple of videos that give a glimpse about how influential emotions are in shaping our desire and behaviors to pursue goals.

WHY CAN'T I MOTIVATE MYSELF TO STUDY? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bfpa834-yY0&feature=related HOW DO YOU FIND YOUR PASSION AND HOW DO YOU PURSUE IT http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zSu-YbxxbVw&feature=related

What motivational principles can you derive from the videos?

SELF-EFFICACY According to self-worth theory, the ability to achieve is strongly valued in our society, and people's self-worth is strongly linked to their perceptions of their ability. Some learners will procrastinate, blame others, and engage in other self-handicapping behaviors to protect their perceptions of high ability.

Anxiety reduces performance primarily by filling working memory space with thoughts about failure and the negative consequences of that failure. Research indicates that one of the primary problems for test-anxious students is that they don’t understand the content very well to start with. With increased understanding, failure decreases, which in turn lessens fear of lowered performance.

"All learning has an emotional base."

-- Plato

"If I have the belief that I can do it, I shall surely acquire the capacity to do it even if I may not have it at the beginning."

Mahatma Gandhi

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 9

Module 3: Motivation EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

SELF-EFFICACY ACCORDING TO EXPERTS Below are a couple of excellent manuscripts written by psycholigists renowned as experts on self-efficacy.

Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71-81). New York: Academic Press. (Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed.], Encyclopedia of mental health. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998). http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/BanEncy.html

Pintrich, P. & Schunk, D. (1996). The Role of Expectancy and Self-Efficacy Beliefs.In Motivation in Education. In Theory, Research & Applications, Ch. 3. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/PS.html

“FLOW” – OPTIMUM AROUSAL Psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi's famous investigations of "optimal experience" have revealed that what makes an experience genuinely satisfying is a state of consciousness called flow. During flow, people typically experience deep enjoyment, creativity, and a total involvement with life. According to him, this positive state can be controlled by ordering the information that enters our consciousness.

Flow is associated with the development of mastery and the experience of deep absorption and concentration in one’s engagement with a task. The task associated with flow is generally optimally challenging (neither to easy nor too hard), relevant, and enjoyable.

The metaphor of flow is one that many people have used to describe the sense of effortless action they feel in moments that stand out as the best in their lives. Athletes refer to it as "being in the zone," religious mystics as being in "ecstasy," artists and musicians as "aesthetic rapture.

-- Hal E. Hershfield, Ph.D. http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/199707/finding-flow

WATCH AND LISTEN TO THE MAN HIMSELF: MIHALY CSIKSZENTMIHALYI!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HwngIuplE5g&feature=related

file from the Wikimedia C

"Self-confidence is the first requisite to great undertakings.”

~ Samuel Johnson

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 10

Module 3: Motivation EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

MOTIVATION IN VIDEOS First, enjoy the videos. Then try to identify the principles of motivation implied in each. What topics did you understand better by watching the videos? What new ideas were you able to gather?

Motivation and Learning Tony Robbins Why we do what we do, and how we can do it better Anthony Robbins - Motivates you in 20 minutes TED Talks

Tony Robbins Explains How To Focus

Motivation in Distance Education

To gain some understanding of motivation in distance education, let us study the journal article by Hartnett, St. George, and Dron (2011). Access the file for free at http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/1030/1988.

A REFLECTIVE STUDY OF MOTIVATION IN DISTANCE EDUCATION Allow the following to guide you through a reflective study of the journal article of Hartnett, St. George, and Dron (2011). Read the Abstract. The paper calls attention to two prominent views about online learners’ motivations. What are they? What theoretical framework did they researchers use for this study. As we learned in this unit, what is the principal assumption of this theory?

Briefly describe four patterns of extrinsic motivation (p. 23). Cite examples preferably from personal experience that would elaborate each.

What research question did the authors try to address? (p. 24) What procedure did they use and what kinds of data did they get to answer this question? (Methods p. 24)

Consider the 1st paragraph in page 32. Reflect about motivation in microteaching circumstances.

Consider paragraph 2 in page 32. Do you feel that your own goals and interests align with the topics in this course (EDS 103)?

Consider paragraph 3 in page 32. Assess the range of your personal motivations for distance learning. Do you find that your motivations are also multidimensional? How so?

Consider paragraph 4 in page 32. In what ways do you find the various aspects of your own motivations to have counterbalancing effects?

Study the conclusion. What were the major conclusions posited by the authors? What recommendations did they make, if any? What conclusions can you make about the nature of your own personal motivations?

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 11

Module 3: Motivation EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

Self-assessment

PRINCIPLES BEHIND SUGGESTIONS FOR MOTIVATING STUDENTS The following suggestions for teaching with motivation in mind appears in Project-Based Learning Space (http://college.cengage.com/education/pbl). Identify principles from the motivation theories that apply to each. 1. Use behavioral techniques to help students exert themselves and work toward remote

goals. 2. Make sure that students know what they are to do, how to proceed, and how to determine

when they have achieved goals. 3. Do everything possible to satisfy deficiency needs -- physiological, safety, belongingness,

and esteem. a. Accommodate the instructional program to the physiological needs of your students. b. Make your room physically and psychologically safe. c. Show your students that you take an interest in them and that they belong in your classroom. d. Arrange learning experiences so that all students can gain at least a degree of esteem.

4. Enhance the attractions and minimize the dangers of growth choices. 5. Direct learning experiences toward feelings of success in an effort to encourage an

orientation toward achievement, a positive self-concept, and a strong sense of self-efficacy. a. Make use of objectives that are challenging but attainable and, when appropriate, that involve student input. b. Provide knowledge of results by emphasizing the positive.

6. Try to encourage the development of need achievement, self-confidence, and self-direction in students who need these qualities.

a. Use achievement-motivation training techniques. b. Use cooperative-learning methods.

7. Try to make learning interesting by emphasizing activity, investigation, adventure, social interaction, and usefulness.

Open Thread Discussions

The forum is open for any related discussion and must not be limited to the following suggestion/s. You may generate your own questions/ discussion threads. Keep in mind, this discussion is non-graded, so there’s nothing to fear but everything to gain.

• Is intrinsic motivation primarily cognitive or affective? Is motivation to learn primarily cognitive or affective? Explain.

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 12

Module 3: Motivation EDS 103 – Theories of Learning • "When understanding increases, poor performance decreases. In time, fear of failure

and the anxiety it produces will also decrease." Using motivational theories as a basis, explain how the anxiety will be decreased.

• Examine and provide an explanation for the figure below (which also appears in the section on FLOW).

MOTIVATIONAL PRINCIPLES QUOTES Assess some of these motivational quotes. You may look up and use other options of your own, if you wish.

The task: What principles from motivation theory are embedded in the quotes? Or, How would motivation theory explain why the idea will drive a person to achieve?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CNu0g57l7RQ&feature=related

Guide for your e-Journal

For your e-journal entries, you may use the following as guides, but feel free to express other thoughts (and feelings) about learning as they have been stimulated by the topics in this chapter. Keep in mind that learning is very personal and your e -Journal should be reflective of those personal learning events.

Describe the circumstances behind learning situations wherein you were (a) highly motivated to pursue your goal and (b) strongly unmotivated to achieve at all. Use motivation theories to help you understand or explain why your motivations differ in each of the circumstances.

file from the Wikimedia Commons

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 13

Module 3: Motivation EDS 103 – Theories of Learning Reflect on your own experiences of flow. What were important features of the task that

facilitated the experience? What was it like for you to experience flow?

DYADIC ASSESSMENT OF PERSONAL MOTIVATIONS Together with a classmate, examine each other’s goals and your motivations that

emerged during your Reflective study of Motivation in Distance Education. It could be more productive to focus on learning goals (or tasks) that you think are not directed towards optimum outcomes.

Using theoretical lenses, why do you consider your goals and motivations not optimal? What strategies can you make to modify your motivations? (Pay attention to using theories for this task.)

Write about this activity in your eJournal. How did you find the “experience” of working about a motivational issue with a friend?

Essential Readings

Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71-81). New York: Academic Press. (Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed.], Encyclopedia of mental health. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998). http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/BanEncy.html

Hartnett, M., St. George, A., & Dron. J. (2011). Examining motivation in online distance learning environments: Complex, multifaceted and situation-dependent. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 12(6), 20-38. http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/1030/1954 (free access)

Huitt, W. (2009). Humanism and open education. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/affect/humed.html

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review, 50, pp. 370. http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs at Learning Theories. http://www.learning-theories.com/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs.html#more-30

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs at Deeper Mind. http://www.deepermind.com/20maslow.htm (©2009 by George Norwood)

Pajares (2002). Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy. Retreived month day, year, from http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/eff.html

Pintrich, P. & Schunk, D. (1996). The Role of Expectancy and Self-Efficacy Beliefs.In Motivation in Education: Theory, Research & Applications, Ch. 3. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/PS.html

Smith, M. K. (1999). Humanistic orientations to learning. In Encyclopedia of Informal Education. http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-humanistic.htm

Smith, M. K. (2004). Carl Rogers, core conditions and education. In Encyclopedia of Informal Education. http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-rogers.htm

Lou Juachon, Ph.D. / UPOU 14

Module 3: Motivation EDS 103 – Theories of Learning

References

Gage & Berliner. (1998). Educational psychology (6th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Co. Santrock, J.W. (2010). Chapter 13: Motivation, Teaching, and Learning. In Educational

psychology (pp. 436-475). NY: McGraw-Hill. (pdf file to be provided) Schunk, D.H.. (2012). Chapter 8: Motivation. In Learning theories: An educational perspective

(6th ed., pp.345-398). MA: Pearson.

Supplementary Resources

Houghton Mifflin. Project-Based Learning Space. http://college.cengage.com/education/pbl Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. (2008). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience.

Media Clips

Motivational Video. Why Can't I Motivate Myself To Study? How Do You Find Your Passion and How Do You Pursue It Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi! Motivation and Learning Tony Robbins Why we do what we do, and how we can do it better Anthony Robbins - Motivates you in 20 minutes TED Talks Tony Robbins Explains How To Focus Motivational Quotes Marathon Heart