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Temporal design

Citation for published version:Pschetz, L, Bastian, M & Speed, C 2016, Temporal design: Looking at time as social coordination. in DRS2016 Proceedings.

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Temporaldesign:lookingattimeassocialcoordination

LarissaPschetz*,MichelleBastian,ChrisSpeed

UniversityofEdinburgh,UK*[email protected]

Abstract:Designersare increasinglypayingattention toproblematicexperiencesoftime.Fromacritiqueofaccelerationtoanurgetoframepresentactionswithinmoreextendedfutures,designershavebeenanalysinghowdifferenttemporalperceptionsmayinfluencepracticesandhowtheycanbeinfluencedbydesign.Inthispaper,wearguethat inordertochallengeproblematicrelationshipstotime,designersshouldconsidertimeinradicallydifferentterms. Insteadofregardingtimelargely intermsof pace anddirection, they should start considering the complexityof aspects thatsustainthecoordinationofparticulargroups.WepresentthisapproachthroughtheconceptofTemporalDesign,whichendeavourstorevealactors,practicesandforcesthat determine social coordination within specific contexts. By surfacing thiscomplexity, temporal design would allow it to be discussed, possibly demystifyingproblematicexperiencesandenablingmoreinclusivewaysofunderstandingtime.

Keywords:temporaldesign;slowdesign;slowtechnology;speculative

1.IntroductionDesignischanging.Newmodelsofproductionandconsumption,togetherwithescalatingsocialandenvironmentalconcerns,areencouragingdesignerstolookmorecriticallyatcultural,socialandeconomicalpractices,andtheroleofartefactsandsystemswithinthiscomplexity.Intermsoftemporality,thisculturaltendencycanbeidentifiedinacritiqueofaccelerationandconsequentquestioningofdesign’straditionalsupporttoproductivity,efficiencyandtime-saving.Itcanalsobeidentifiedinthegrowinginterestinspeculatingaboutfutureconditionsthatmightresultfrompresentactions,especiallyregardingtheintroductionofnewtechnologies.

Inthispaper,werevisitthediscussionoftimeasasocialconstructandtheconversetendencytodescribetimeasobjective,universalised,externaltohumanpractices,andanindividualconcern.Wearguethatarangeofproblematicexperiencesoftimeemergefrom

LARISSAPSCHETZ,MICHELLEBASTIAN,CHRISSPEED

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thistendencyandthatdesignhasgreatpotentialtochangethem.First,however,designerswouldneedtothinkabouttimedifferently.Insteadoffocusingonfastandslowdesign(timeaspace)oronfuturespeculations(timeasdirection),weargueforabroadertemporalformofdesignthatwouldconsidertimeinitsroleofsocialcoordination.TemporalDesignwouldthereforebringthecultural,socialandeconomicaspectsoftemporalexperiencestothesurfacebylookingathowtheyshapethesocialcoordinationofparticulargroups.Byrevealingthiscomplexity,temporaldesignwouldopenupspacefordiscussingtheserelationships,possiblyallowingformoreinclusivetemporalorganisationstoemerge.

2.Reflectiveattitudestotimeindesign

2.1Timeaspace:slowdesignandslowtechnologyThenotionthatWesternindustrialisedsocietieshavebeenexperiencingincreasinglyproblematicrelationshipstotimehasbeenatopicofinterestacrossthearts,humanitiesandsocialsciences.Researchontimehaslongdrawnattentiontoaperceivedtemporalacceleration,oftenassumedasuniversalisedandassociatedwiththedevelopmentofnewtechnologies.Thisideaisequallywidespreadinpopulardiscourses,andmanyofusfeelitsimpactoneverydaylife,socialinteractions,andthenaturalworld.Fromattemptingtoreconfigureourbodiesthroughcaffeineandotherstimulants,toworkinglongerhourstomanagetherush,orwonderinghowacceleratedconsumptionandproductionisdamagingourenvironment,manyofuseventuallyexperienceasenseofpowerlessnessregardingthissupposedruleofacceleration.Manifestationsoftheslowmovement,includingslowfood,cittaslowandeventheslowuniversity,haveattemptedtocounteractthisconditionbypromotingopportunitiestooperateatadifferentpace.InDesign,theseattemptsaremanifestedinmovementssuchasSlowDesign(Strauss&Fuad-Luke,2009),SlowTechnology(Hallnas&Redstrom,2001)andDesignforSolitude(Fullerton,2010).

SlowDesign(Strauss&Fuad-Luke,2009)celebratesslownessasananswertocriticalissuesindesign,suchasanoften-perceivedsupporttoconsumerism,arestrictivefocusonfunctionalism,thediminishmentofusers’engagementwithmaterials,alackofattentiontolocalidiosyncrasies,andtheneedtothinkinthelong-term.InSlowTechnology,Hallnas&Redstrom(2001)advancetheneedforaformofdesignthatemphasisesreflection,theamplificationofenvironments,andtheuseoftechnologiesthata)amplifythepresenceoftime;b)stretchtimeandextendprocesses;andc)revealanexpressionofpresenttimeasslow-paced.Importanthereistheconceptof“timepresence”:“whenweuseathingasanefficienttool,timedisappears,i.e.wegetthingsdone.Acceptinganinvitationforreflectioninherentinthedesignmeansontheotherhandthattimewillappear,i.e.weopenupfortimepresence”(Hallnas&Redstrom2001).Aslowtechnologywouldnotdisappear,butwouldmakeitselffelt.

Inbothcases,slownessiscelebratedasare-appropriationofthesensesandareconnectionwiththesurroundingcommunity.Thecomplexitiesaddressedbytheseproposals,however,haveoftenbeensimplifiedintoadichotomyoffastandslow.SlowTechnologyandSlow


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Design,whichareoftenusedinter-changeably,havebeenappropriatedinmainstreamdiscoursesasanti-technologyandasacallforareturntopre-industrialpracticesandmanuallyoperatedartefacts.Thisreactionreflectsanarrativeofindustrialtime(basedontheclock)asreplacingamore“natural”temporalorganisationbasedontasks(Thompson1967),whichhasbeenstronglycritiquedbyanumberoftheorists(e.g.Birth2012,GlennieandThrift2009,Ingold1999).Narrativesthatdescribetimeasuniformandevolvingthroughouthistorytowardsmoreacceleratedstateshavealsobeencritiquedfortheirpotentialtoreinforcesocialinequalities(Sharma2014)andforjustifyingtheappropriationofnaturalresourcesinunsustainableways(Bastian2012).

Thissimplificationandappropriationcanbeseeninarangeofprojectsandexhibitionsframedwithinthesemovements–e.g.theSlowTechexhibitionat2011LondonDesignFestival,whichfeaturedanti-technologyprojectssuchastheSocialBombthatoncethrownwouldforceeveryoneinaspacetotakeabreakfromsocialnetworkservices,andtheTakingTime:CraftandtheSlowRevolutionexhibition,whichpraisedtheslownessassociatedwithcraftskills.Theassociationofalternativeapproachestotimewitharejectionoftechnologyreinforcesdichotomiesthatdonotreflectthewaypeoplerelatetoartefactsandsystems(Wajcman2015).Asaresult,theseproposalsnotonlyriskbeinginterpretedasnostalgicorbackwardlooking,butalsoleavelittlespaceforintegratingmorecomplexaccountsoftime(particularlythosearisinginthesocialsciences)orfordiscussingmorenuancedrhythms,aswellasmorecomplexforcesandconsequencesrelatedtotemporaldecisions.Asaresult,insteadofchallengingdominantaccountsoftime,theseproposalsarguablyreinforcetheoverarchingnarrativeofuniversalisedacceleration.

Withasimilarmotivationbutdifferentattitude,BenFullerton(2010)proposestheconceptofDesignforSolitude,whichquestionsthevalueofconnectedness,sharingandconstantavailability.Fullertonadvocatestheencouragementofmomentsofisolation,aswellassinglemodaldevices.Similarly,PhoebeSengers(2011)reflectsonthewayslowerattitudescouldbepromotedby‘‘makingfewerchoices,accessinglessinformation,makingproductivitylesscentral,keepingourliveslessunderformalcontrol’’;shefurtherconsidershowthisattitudecouldbereflectedinthedesignofcommunicationtechnologies.Insteadofreinforcingdichotomies,Fullerton(2010)andSengers(2011)drawattentiontopracticesthatemphasisealternativeexpressionsoftime.

AstheoriginalvisionsforSlowDesignandSlowTechnologysuggest,theworldiscomprisedofmultipletemporalexpressions,whichplayimportantrolesinourlives,evenifdisregardedwithindominantaccountsofwhattimeis.However,reducingthiscomplexitytooquicklytoasimpledichotomybetweenfastandslowalsoreducesthepossibilitiesfordesignerstoworkwithtimeinwaysthatareinformedbycriticalscholarshipontheroleoftimeinsociallifeandthustobebetterabletoquestionnorms.


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2.2Timeasdirection:future-orientedandspeculativedesignDesignhasalsotakenacriticalapproachtotimeinitsattempttoanticipatetheimpactsofpresentactionsinthefuture,particularlythoseconcerningtheintroductionofnewtechnologies.ThisattitudemaybegenerallyidentifiedinparticulardesignprojectsbutismostevidentinspeculativedesignmovementssuchasDesignFictions,CriticalDesignandDesignforDebate.

Sincedesignisoftenfocusedonyet-to-existinterventionsinagivencontext,itisoftensaidtobeinvariablyfuture-oriented(e.g.inDunne&Raby,2013).Thisorientationpresupposesatemporallinearitythatmayleadtoacultofwhatisnewandtoadisregardofthecomplexityofthepresent.Thepotentialreality,whichexistsinthedesignedartefactorsystem,isexpressedsometimesasabeliefintheinfluenceofdesign,orasasimplerepetitionofthenarrativeoflinearprogresspromotedbycontinuoustechnologicaldevelopment.Bothreinforcethenotionthatthesedevelopmentsare“inevitable”.Aslongtermeffectsofhightechnologicalinterventionsbecomemoreevident(e.g.infarming,energyproduction,wastemanagement,genetics,etc.),concernsregardingtheimpactofactionsextendeverfartherinthefuture,andtheneedtofindwaystoengageindiscussionsaboutthisimpactbecomeevermoreimportant.

OnewaydesignerschoosetoengageinthesediscussionsisthroughSpeculativeDesign,whichinitiatedasacallondesignerstostartspeculatinganddisseminatingideasabouthowalternativewaysoflivingmaybeconceived(Dunne,1999).ThecallhasinfluencedmovementssuchasCriticalDesign(DunneandRaby,2001),DesignFictions(Bleecker,2009)andDesignforDebate(DunneandRaby,2007).SpeculativeDesignartefactswouldembodycriticalissuesandallowpeopletoprojectthemselvesintoimaginedscenarios,inordertogeneratediscussionaroundthepotentialimpactofnewtechnologicaldevelopments(Kerridge,2009).Oncebroughtintothepublicrealm,theseobjectswouldelicitreactionsandpromptdialogue.JamesAuger(2013)maintainsthatthekeyfactorsinthesuccessofspeculativedesignprojectsarethe“carefulmanagementofthespeculation”.Ifthespeculationextendstoofarintothefuture,theaudiencemaynotrelatetotheproposal,whichwillresultinalackofpublicengagement.

Anintrinsiccontradictionoftheseapproaches,however,istheirfocusonthe‘‘future’’asthecontextinwhichcriticalissuesarise.Thisfocusimpliesthatcriticalissuesapproachedbyspeculativedesignprojectsarenotexpressedinthepresentcontext.Indeed,thisnegationhasrecentlybeencriticisedinspecificworks,suchasBurtonNitta’sproject‘‘RepublicofSalivation’’(2012),whichwasexhibitedasanexampleofspeculativedesignatMoMA-NY.Theprojectaimstoencouragediscussionofhowtheworldwouldreactinafuturescenarioofglobalfoodscarcity,buttheprojectfailstolookatthecomplexitiesofthecurrentfoodeconomy.Indeed,thefuturescenarioproposedbytheprojectresemblesthesituationinwhichmillionsofpeoplealreadyliveindevelopingcountries(Prado2013).Hereagain,insteadoflookingatthepresentasaheterogeneouscontext,thepresentisconsideredasuniformandfollowingalineartrajectorytowardthefuture.Aswithtime,attemptsto


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describehowtheworldisshouldbeexpandedinordertoavoidthesenarrowframings,expandingtheconsideredcontextbeyondone’sownsocio-economicgroup,cultureandgeographiclocation.

Design’sorientationtowardsthefuturemaythereforerestrictinsteadofexpanddesigners’understandingofthecomplexityofphenomenathatcometogethertodefinetemporalperceptions.ThisvisionissharedbymediatheoristDouglasRushkoff(2013),whosuggeststhatpeopleshouldstoplookinginto‘‘individualfutures’’,andshouldinsteadbecomemoreawareofwhat‘‘connectsthemtoeveryoneandeverythingelse’’inthepresent.

3.Temporaldesign:timeassocialcoordinationDespiteaclearsocialmotivation,thealternativeapproachestotimeindesigndescribedabovehavebeenconstrainedbydominantnarrativesoftime.Furthertheyhaveoftenonlyconsideredtimeintermsofpace,directionandflowratherthanthemorecomplexwaysthatitisinvolvedinsociallife(e.g.Greenhouse1996).Asmentioned,timeisoftenpresentedasasingleflowthathasbeencontinuouslyacceleratingthroughouthistorybasedonthedevelopmentofnewtechnologies.Insteadofasocialconstruct,itisconsideredtobeneutral,objectiveandexternaltohumanpractices.Thedominanceofthisexpressionoftenleadsustoconsiderproblematicexperiencesoftimeasanindividualconcern,somethingthatneedstobecopedwithonanindividualbasis.

Often,thewayintothinkingabouttimeinmorecomplexandlesslinearwaysinvolvesaturntophilosophy.WhethertheinfluencecomesfromHeidegger,Bergson,Deleuze,Benjaminorelsewhere,muchofcontinentalthoughtprovidesimportantwaysofchallengingthedominanceoflineartimeandtuningintothenon-linearityofsubjectivetimeandhistoricaltime.However,heretoowewouldarguethatthereisaproblematicfocusontheindividual(intheoverarchinginterestinthesubjectiveexperienceoftime)andanarrowculturalcontext(intheneglectofnon-westernapproachestotimeandhistory).Further,theartefactsusedtotelltime,suchasclocks,arelargelyunderstoodbythesephilosophersasbeingoutsideofthephenomenologicalremitandareuncriticallyunderstoodassignallingan‘objective’or‘universal’time(seeBastianforthcoming).

Thusindevelopingatheoreticalframeworkwhichcouldsupportanunderstandingoftimeasmultiple,heterogeneousanddeeplyentangledwithinvarioussocialformations(whichmaybediscreteoroverlapping),workinthesocialsciences,particularlyanthropologyandsociology,hasproventobemoreuseful.Suchapproachesenableustoaskdifferentquestionsaboutwhattimeisandhowitworks.Ratherthanseeingtimeasaflowbetweenpast,presentandfuture(whetherthisbelinearornonlinear),itbecomespossibletoaskhowtimeoperatesasasystemforsocialcollaboration(SorokinandMerton1937),howitlegitimatessomeand‘manages’others(Greenhouse1996),orhowitworkswithinsystemsofexclusion(Fabian1983).Wethusmovefromtimeasflowtotimeassocialcoordination.


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WiththisinmindweproposeTemporalDesignasashiftwithindesigntowardsapluralistperspectiveontime.TemporalDesignattemptstoidentifyandchallengeexpressionsofdominantnarrativesoftime,asitrecognisesthateverydayrhythmsarecomposedofmultipletemporalities,whicharedefinedbybothdirectandindirectfactors.Italsoseekstoempoweralternativenotionsthatareneglectedbythesenarratives.Itsuggeststhatdesignersshouldstartlookingattimeassomethingthatemergesinrelationtoacomplexityofcultural,social,economicandpoliticalforces.

Temporaldesignerswouldthereforeobservetimeinthesocialcontext,investigatingbeyondnarrativesofauniversaltimeandlinearprogression,andbeyondsimpledichotomiesoffastandslow.Thisisnottosimplynegatedominantnotionsbutacknowledgingthattheyco-existwithseveralotherexpressionsinallaspectsoflife.Thereisamultiplicityoftemporalitieslatentintheworld.Designerscanhelptocreatetoolsthatdisclosethem,alsorevealingtheintricaciesoftemporalrelationshipsandnegotiationsthattakeplaceacrossindividuals,groups,andinstitutions.Theywouldthenconsideranetworkoftimesthataccommodatesthemultiplicityoftemporalitiesintheeveryday,thenaturalworld,andinintersectionsbetweentheserealms.

TemporalDesigncouldthereforeinvolve:

• Identifyingdominantnarratives,includingtheforcesandinfrastructuresthatsustainthemorwhichtheyhelptosupport;

• Challengingthesenarratives,e.g.byrevealingmorenuancedexpressionsoftime;

• Drawingattentiontoalternativetemporalities,theirdynamicsandsignificance;• Exposingnetworksoftemporalities,soastoillustratemultiplicityandvariety.

Theapproachwouldbringseveralbenefits:

• Acknowledgingthatslowandfastrhythmsco-occurandareofteninterdependentwouldchallengetheassumptionofuniversalacceleration,

• Acknowledgingthatthetimesofsomearemoreinvestedinthanothers,wouldenablechallengestotemporalinequalities.

• Acknowledgingthatthenaturalworldhasmultiplerhythmswouldchangetheassumptionthatitthereforeprovidesastablebackgroundforhuman-made‘progress’(McKibben,2008).

4.Temporaldesign:interventionsInordertoexploretheTemporalDesignapproachwedevelopedthreedesigninterventions,namely,theFamilyClock,thePrinterClockandTimeBots.


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Figure1 ArtefactsdesignedtoexploretheconceptofTemporalDesign:theFamilyClock(left)thePrinterClock(centre)andTimeBots(right).

4.1FamilyClock:exploringtemporalityattheinterfaceofeverydaylifeTheFamilyClockproposesareflectiononhowschedulesareinterwovenbyfamilies:whatarethetensions,hierarchiesandpowerrelations,andhowdofamilymemberslearntonegotiateandagree(ornot)oncommonrhythms?Italsopresentsacritiqueofthenotionofflexitime,whichisoftenthesolutionofferedinthecontextofnewtechnologicaldevelopments.Theinterventionwasbasedonaphysicalclockdesignedsothatthefacerepresentedthelengthofadayand,ratherthanisochronichours,itindicatedthevariousappointmentsofeachmemberofaspecificfamily.Theclockwasaccompaniedbyadedicatedsmartphone/tabletapplicationthatcouldbeusedbyfamilymemberstosettheclockbackorforwardaccordingtoindividualconstraintsandthedesiredpaceoflife.Forexample,ifachildwashungrytheycouldmoveupdinnertime.Thechangeseachindividualmadewererecordedinadatabase,transmittedtotheclock,andsynchronisedonalldevicesofthefamily.Thetwoclock-handsindicated,nothoursandminutes,buttimeinintervalsof5min(shorthand)andspeed(longhand).Thelonghandregularlymovedatthespeedofonetickpersecond,butwouldaccelerateordecelerateaccordingtohowoftenfamilymemberschangedtime.Ifanappointmentwassetback(egmovingdinnerfrom6pmto5pm),thelonghandmovedfaster(toreachthedesiredappointmentmorequickly),andifsetforward(e.g.movingthetriptoschoolfrom9amto10am)itwouldmoveslower(totakelongertoreachtheappointment),eventuallycatchingupwithstandardclocktime.Theclockwashostedbythreefamilies(theClarkes,theMillersandtheWilsons)foraperiodof1-3weeks,wheretheywereaskedtointeractwithitindifferentsituations,followedbyinterviews.

4.2PrinterClock:responsesPerceptionsoftheclockdifferedsignificantlyacrossthefamilies.WhiletheClarkesemphasisedthewayitseemedtoconnectthemmoreclosely,theMillersconsidereditparticularlydisruptiveandtheWilsonswereconcernedaboutitsapparentlackoffunction.Theresponseshowevershowedacoherenceofperceptionswithineachfamily,whichillustrateshowtheseperceptionsarerehearsedandlearnedintheeveryday.ThisechoesSorokinandMerton’sclaim,thattimeisbestunderstoodasasystemofcoordination.


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Issuesofefficiencyappearedinallinterviews.Mostoftheparticipantsreportedtofeel“stuck”whenaskedaboutwhentheywouldusetheclocktoinfluencesomeonetodosomethinglater.Feelingasenseoftime-pressurewasdescribedasaconstraint,anissueofcontempt,orareasonforprideorassimpleresignation,dependingonhowincontrolparticipantsfelt.Timewasthusboundupwithnotionsofcontrolandmorality.WhileCharlieW(13)wouldsettheclockbacktogivehimselfmoretimetocompletetasksandthusappearmoreefficient,hestillfeltthatchangingthetimewassomehowunethical:“becauseIhavetobematureaboutschoolandnotimmaturespeedinguptimetogetthroughthelessonbutmaturetogettolearnsomething.”Herethenweseetimelinkingupwithsensesoflegitimacyandofwhatitmeanstobesuccessfulwithinaparticularsocialgroup.Structuredtimeanddisciplinewerealsooftenassociatedwithsuccess.EthanM(35-45)consideredthatmoreflexibleschoolstructureswouldfailtoengagestudents,andPaulaM(35-45)thoughtshewouldn’tgetthingsdoneifshehadamoreflexibleworkschedule.Asenseofcomfortprovidedbyscheduleswasalsopointedoutbydifferentparticipants,as“yousortofknowyouaremeanttobethereatthattime,youdon’thavetodecidetobethereatthattime,youjustarethereatthattime,soitiseasythinking”(CharlieW,13).

Figure2 FamilyClockprototypeandimplementation

Whiletheclockhighlightedattitudestodominanttemporalnarratives,italsoplayfullyencouragedparticipantstosubvertthem.LilyM(7)proposedchangingtimeconstantlysothatshedidn’thavetogotoschool,andherandhersisterAliceM(10)suggestedusingittomaketheirparentsgotobedsooner,sothattheycouldwatchTVuntillate.Changingparentalscheduleswasalsoastrategyforinvestingmoreresourcesinsupportingthechildren’stime.RobC(12)andEmilyC(16)suggestedputtingtheclockforwardsothattheywouldmissthebus,andtheirmumwouldhavetogivethemalifttoschool.Whenaskedaboutwhentheymightusetheclocktocreatea“funny”situation,however,onechildadmitted,“itwasquitehardtothinkononeswhichweren’tabitcruel”(EmilyC).Ineachoftheseexamples,timebecomesmuchmorethanasenseofflow,andinsteadweseehowitcanbeusedto‘manage’others,inwaysthatcanbeempoweringforsomeanddetrimentaltoothers.


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Theinterventionencouragedparticipantstoconsiderhowtheirtimesrelatetothetimesofothers,butmostimportantlyitallowedthemtoreflectonwhatitmightmeantochallengethedominantaccountoftimeasexternalandobjectiveandinsteadseeitopentotransformation.SallyCexplainedtheclockasa“sortofamoreimaginativething,thathelpedyouimaginewhatitwouldbelikeifyoucouldchangetime”andEmilyCdescribeditassomethingthat“madeyouthinkabouttime.”Thatis,“Ilikedthinkingaboutit.Normallyyouwouldn’tthinkaboutwhenyouwouldliketospeeduptimeandwhenyouwouldliketogobacktowhatwasgood.Itmademethinkabouttheday,whathappened,andwhatyouwouldliketochange”(EmilyC).Evenso,othersfeltlittleagencyinrelationtochangingthewaysthattimeworks,acceptingitas“howtheworldisnowadays”(TomW(45-55)).

4.3PrinterClock&TimeBots:exploringtemporalityinschoolsTheothertwointerventions,thePrinterClockandtheTimeBots,werecarriedoutwith4thgradepupils(9-10years)oftwoschoolsintheUK.Incomparisontofamilyscheduling,theenvironmentoftheschoolofferedtheopportunitytoengageperceptionsthatwerelesshabituatedandmorelooselytiedtoeachother.

4.3.1PrinterClockThePrinterClockaimedtoexposenetworksoftemporalitiesinordertoshowtheirmultiplicity,butalsotocreatewhatwecall‘temporalempathy’withinthecontextoftheclassroom,bypresentingtimethroughactivitiescarriedoutbythestudents.Thestudentsinitiallyreceivedkitscontainingasmallclockandadisposablecamera,andwereinvitedtousethismaterialtodocumenttheirroutinesoveraperiodof2-5days.Importantly,theclockwasfeaturedsomewhereineachphotograph,whichlaterallowedustoidentifywhenitwastaken.Approximately400imageswerecollectedineachschool.Theseimageswerethentime-stamped,andusedtobuildupthedatabaseuponwhichthePrinterClockwoulddraw.

Figure3 PrinterClockinterventionprocess:buildingthetimeline(left),tryingtheclock(centre)andfinalone-to-oneinterviews(right).

ThePrinterClockresembledagrandfatherclock,composedofaregularclockface(initiallyobscured),acordsubstitutingforthependulum,aprinter,andacomputerthatstoredthe


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children’spictures.Pullingthecordactivatedthecomputer,whichlituptheclockfaceandprintedapicturethatwastakenatthatparticulartimeinthepast.Whenlookingataclock,individualsoftenthinkabouttheirownactionsandwhattheyneedtodonext.WiththePrinterClock,thefragmentedpastexperiencesofotherspresentthemselvesasthetime-readingsandinvitethechildrentoestablishconnectionsbetweentheirownpresentandsomeoneelse'spast.Movingfromaquantitativetimetoaqualitativeone,thePrinterClocktellstimethroughtheactivitiesofothersandthevarietyofpicturesrevealsthemultiplicityofrhythmswithinthatgroup.

4.3.2PrinterClock:responsesThePrinterClockwasplacedinthemainhallofeachschool.Duringthesession,studentsranovertotheclockandkeptpullingthecordtoseewhatandwhowouldappearinthenextpicture.Theclockwasrapidlytakenoverbysomestudents,whoeagerlylookedinsidetheclocktocatchthefirstglimpseoftheprint,andthenshoutedthenameofthechildinthepicture.Othersobservedtheclockfromafar.Theclock-facewasignoredbytheonesincontrol,withthepicturesthatcarriedthetimeeffectivelyreplacingit.Thepeakmomentofexcitementwaswhenchildrenwerefacedwiththeirownpictures.

Whenaskedtochooseatimetobeprinted,participantsmostlymadethischoicebasedonanactivitythattheyparticularlyenjoyed,oftenreferringtotimeindexicallyviatheactivitybeforethentranslatingitintoclock-time:“probablywhenI’mdoingkarate,thatwouldbearoundhalfpasttwelve”(D1).Thesecondmostfrequentstrategywastopickaregularappointmentintheirschedules;suchasthetimetheylefthometogotoschool.Anotherstrategywasbasedonacombinationofnumbers,e.g.03:09torepresentthe3rdofSeptember,oraluckynumber.Thesestrategiesshowtherichnessofassociationspromptedbyclock-time.Activities,tasks,schedules,quantitiesandnumberswereallexpressedinthechildren’schoices.

Overallthechildrenlookedforidentificationintheprintedimages.Therewasasenseofsatisfactionwhentheprintedpicturemetthisexpectation,andaconverseattitudeofdisdain,sometimesprecededbysurprise,whenthisexpectationwasnotmet-e.g.expressedbynotwantingtokeeportalkabouttheimage.Thesearchforfamiliaritywasachievedinafewcases,butinmostcasesparticipantswerefacedwithactivitiesoffellowstudentswithwhomtheywerenotsofamiliar,oractivitiesthattheywouldnotnotice,astheseactivitiesdidnotdirectlyappealtothem.Theywerethereforetakenoutoftheircomfortzone,anditisinthisdislocationthatashiftfromasenseofanindividualtime(whichwasuncriticallymappedontouniversaltime),tounexpectednetworksoftimestakesplace.

Thedocumentationofroutinesinvitedthestudentstoreflectonthemultiplicityofpracticesthatshapetemporalityinsidetheschoolcommunity,makingthesociallayeringoftimemoreperceptible.Farfrombeingrestrictedtotimetables,buzzersandtimedtasks,schooltimeisafusionofpersonaltimes,rhythmsandtemporalforces(Adam1995).Asclock-timegains


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moreimportanceinthestudents’lives,thiskindofactivitycouldencouragethemtocontinuetoconsideralternative,non-quantifiablenotionsoftimeaspartoftheirtemporalcontexts.

4.3.3TimeBotsWhilethePrinterClockfocusedonemphasisingtheembodiedandsituatednatureoftime,pointingtothemeshofactivitiesandcharactersthatcometogethertocreatetime,theTimeBotsdrewattentiontopersonalrhythmsandhowtheyplayedoutwithinthecontextoftheclassroom.Theaimwastochallengetheideathattheworldisinastateofconstantaccelerationbyinvitingchildrentoreflectonthemultiplespeedsoftheirday.Incontrasttotheslowmovement,whichassumesaccelerationasauniversalisedconditionandattemptstocounteractthisconditionbypromotingopportunitiestoslowdown,theintentionherewastoinvitethestudentstoexplorethevariantspeedsatwhichtheylivedtheirlives.

TheTimeBotsconsistedofsmall3-wheeledrobotsthatcouldbeprogrammedwiththehelpoftokenstorunasslow,mediumorfastina5-stepsequence,representingfeelingsaboutspeedin5periodsoftheday.Theinterventionstartedwithaseriesofwarmingupquestionsabouthowthestudentsfeltaboutspeed,describingactivities,people,placesandobjectsconsideredasslow,mediumandfast,andmarkingthemonaform.Theywerethenaskedtofocusonaregularweekdayanddescribetheirfeelingsofaccelerationinfiveperiods,andmarktheirthoughtsonanotherdedicatedform.Afterthisreflection,theTimeBotsweredistributedanddecoratedtocreateasenseofpersonalidentification,andeachchildrecordedtheirfeelingsofspeedupontheirbots.Thebotswerefinallyreleasedaltogetherintoapen,runningoverthe5speedsinacontinuousloop,soastoenactthecollectiverhythmoftheclassroom.

Figure4 TimeBots:decorationandfinalperformance.

4.3.3TimeBots:responsesReportedexperiencesofthespeed,evenofseeminglysimilarsituations,variedgreatlyamongparticipants.Similaractivities,places,peopleandobjectswereconsideredasfast,mediumandslow,orallatonce,dependingonthesituationandthepeopleinvolved,themoodofparticipants,timeofday,etc.Further,activitiesandplacesthatmightintuitivelybe


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associatedwithspeedweresometimesconsideredslow(e.g.athletics,thehighstreet,etc.).Particularsensesofspeedwerenotintrinsicallyrelatedtospecificactivities,people,placesandobjects,butwereconstructedbyeachparticipantbasedontheirownpersonalexperiences.Itwashoweverstillpossibletoidentifysomebiastowardsinterpretingexperiencesthroughdominantnarrativesoftime,particularlyinthe“activities”topic,whereslownesswasfrequentlyassociatedwithdispleasureandboredom,whileaccelerationwasassociatedwithpleasureandenjoyment.Inthecaseofpeople,however,slownesswasnotonlyassociatedwithinefficiency“[heisslow]becausehekindofcan’treallybothergettingtoworktogetpaidandhelivesathomeanddoesn’tpaythebills”(R2),butalsowithpleasure“mygrandma...Ilikethatsheisslow”(A2),andtranquillity“becauseC3isreallypeacefulshenevershoutsoranything”(S2),andbusynesswasassociatedwithbothaccelerationandslowness.

Intheformswhereparticipantsmarkedhowtheyfeltabouttheirdays,thethreespeedswererelativelybalancedinallstages.ThespeedsprogrammedintotheTimeBotswereadmittedlytoopersonalandsubjectiveforotherstoconnectthemtotheirowners,andtheownerofeachrobotwasmostlyrecognisedbyitsdecoration.Astherobotsraninsidethepen,however,thechildrencouldobservetherepresentationoftheirownrhythmsandparticularlythevarietythatcomposedthepolyrhythmsoftheclassroom.ThenetworkofrhythmscreatedbytheTimeBotsinthepenenabledauniqueglimpseintothecombinedsubjectiveexperiencesoftimeofthosestudents.TheTimeBotsinteractedwitheachotheronadifferentlevel,revealingthesubjectivetimescapeofthegroup.

Thevarietyofspeedspointedtotherichnessoftemporalexperienceswithinthegroup.Whiletherepetitionofdominantnarrativesofspeeddemonstratesthedifficultyofbreakingwithapervasivecultureoftime,overallthechildrendidnotexperiencetheir21stcenturylivessolelyasaccelerated.Insteadtheyexploredtheoccurrenceofmultiplerhythms.Therecognitionofthismultiplicitychallengestheassumptionthatsociallifeismonopolisedbyasingletemporalexpression,andtheassociationofslownesswithfamiliarityandtranquillitychallengestheidealisationofalwaysdoingmore.Accelerationmighthavebecomeanormativemodelembeddedinourlanguage,butspeedisexperiencedinmultiplevariations.

5.ClosingreflectionsAsdiscussedabove,designersarestartingtolookbeyondproductionandconsumption,adoptingamorecriticalpositiontowardscultural,socialandeconomicpractices.Intermsoftime,theyareincreasinglyinterestedinexploringproblematictemporalexperiencesthatarethoughttoincreasinglycompromisethequalityoflifeinWesternindustrialisedsocieties.Theseexperiencescanoftenberelatedtodominantaccountsthatdescribetimeasobjective,universalised,attachedtotechnologicaldevelopmentsandincreasinglyaccelerated.Nevertheless,anumberofdesignmovementshaveattemptedtolookatalternativescenarios.Theirdevelopments,however,haveoftenbeenappropriatedandhave


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evenreinforcedthesamenarrativethattheyattemptedtocriticise.Byassumingthataccelerationisauniversalisedcondition,thisnotionisreinforcedandthemultipletemporalexpressionsmanifestedineverydaylifearedisregarded.TemporalDesignattemptstocounteracttheseeffectsbydrawingattentiontosocialpracticesoftime.Timeisasocialprocess,tacitlydefinedthrougheverydaypractices.Itisrehearsed,learned,designed,created,storied,andmade.Thisaspecthoweverisoftenoverlookednotonlybydesigners,butalsobysocietyingeneral.Designerscanhaveakeyroleinunlockingthehegemonicnarrativesthatrestrictculturalunderstandingsoftimeandinopeningupnewwaysofmaking,livingandthinkingtime.Perhapsthroughdesignwewillallbeabletorealisethemultiplicityofphenomenathatcometogethertodefinetime,possiblyfeelingmoreempoweredtochangeattitudesandlikeSallyC“imaginewhatitwouldbelikeifyoucouldchangetime.”

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AbouttheAuthors:

Larissa Pschetz is an interaction designer and lecturer at theUniversityofEdinburgh.Sheisinterestedinelectronics,datastories,socio-technologicalnarratives,andtemporaldesign.

Michelle Bastian is a Chancellor’s Fellow at the University ofEdinburgh. Her research focuses on the role of time in socialpracticesofrelationalityandinterconnection.

Chris Speed is Professor of Design Informatics within EdinburghCollege of Art, University of Edinburgh. Chris is Co-Director of theDesign Informatics Research Centre that is home to researchersworking across interaction design, temporal design, anthropology,softwareengineeringandcryptocurrencies.

edinburgh research...

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