edexcel igcse history revision checklist: paper...
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EDEXCEL IGCSE History Revision Checklist: Paper 2, Section B: China 1911-1989
Use this revision checklist to help you keep track of all the topics you need to revise for your exam. You need to have a confident grasp of the subject knowledge
about each event. Try revising facts and key features about each event and recalling the key points and details on paper. Try to answer at least one exam
question for each event. When you feel confident enough, progress onto the next event.
Key Question 1
Topics You should be able to: Checklist Exam Questions Checklist
Who ruled China
between 1911-1934?
The 1911 Revolution
Describe the causes, events and results of the 1911 Revolution.
Describe the roles of Sun Yat-sen and Yuan Shikai.
B.) Describe the key features of the 1911
Revolution (7 marks).
The May 4th Movement
1919
Describe what caused the May 4th Demonstrations.
Describe what happened.
Describe the effect of the movement on China.
B.) Describe the key features of the May 4th
Movement (7 marks).
China under the Warlords
1917-28
Describe why China became ruled by Warlords.
Describe how China was organised and ruled during the Warlord Period.
Recall the names of at least one Warlord.
Describe how the Warlord Period ended.
B.) Describe the key features of the Warlord
Period (7 marks).
Development of the KMT 1911-34
Describe how Sun Yat-sen founded the KMT
Describe how Sun Yat-sen re-established the KMT after 1919
Describe how Chiang Kai-shek emerged as leader of KMT
C.) In what ways did support for the Kuomintang (KMT) change in the years 1911-1949? You may use the following to help you with your answer (15 marks):
1911 Revolution 1911-17
Warlord Period 1917-28
War with Japan 1937-45
Civil War 1945-49
Emergence of the CCP 1921-34
Describe how, where, who and why the CCP was founded in 1921.
Describe Mao’s role in the early CCP.
Describe how the CCP developed in the 1920s.
C.) In what ways did support for the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) change in the years 1921-1949? You may use the following to help you with your answer (15 marks):
Shanghai Massacres 1927
The Long March 1934-35
War with Japan 1939-45
Civil War 1945-49
Northern March 26-28
Describe the causes, events and results of the Northern March 1926-28.
B.) Describe the key features of the Northern March (7 marks).
Shanghai Massacres
27
Describe the causes, events and results of the Shanghai Massacres in April 1927.
B.) Describe the key features of the Shanghai Massacre (7 marks).
Key Question 2
Topics You should be able to: Checklist Exam Questions Checklist
How and why did the
CCP gain power?
The Long March
1934-35
Describe the causes, events and results of the Long March.
B.) Describe the key features of the Long March (7 marks).
War with Japan
1937-45
Describe how, why and when the Japanese invaded China.
Describe the role of the CCP & Red Army during the War.
Describe the limitations of the KMT during the War.
B.) Describe the key features of the War
against Japan 1937-45 (7 marks).
Chinese Civil War
1945-49
Describe the causes of the Civil War 1945-49.
Describe the key phases and battles of the Civil War.
Explain the reasons for the success of the CCP.
B.) Describe the key features of the Civil
War 1945-49 (7 marks).
Key Question 3
Topics You should be able to: Checklist Exam Questions Checklist
How did Mao change China?
Mao’s Early Changes 1949-53
Describe the Political, Economic (industry & agriculture) and Social changes Mao made to China between 1949-53
B.) Describe the key features of the Agrarian Reform Law
(7 marks).
The First Five Year Plan 1953-57
Describe the changes in Agriculture under the Plan.
Describe the changes to industry under the Plan.
Describe the successes and failures of the Plan.
B.) Describe the key features of the First Five Year Plan
(7 marks).
The Hundred Flowers
Campaign 1956-57
Describe Mao’s motives behind the Hundred Flowers Campaign.
Describe what the Anti-Rightist Campaign was and how it changed China.
B.) Describe the key features of the Hundred Flowers Campaign (7
marks).
The Great Leap Forward
1958-62
Describe the changes in Agriculture under the Plan.
Describe the changes to industry under the Plan.
Describe the successes and failures of the Plan.
B.) Describe the key features of the Great Leap Forward
(7 marks).
Key Question 4
Topics You should be able to: Checklist Exam Questions Checklist
What was the Impact of the Cultural Revolution?
The Cultural Revolution 1966-69
Describe Mao’s motives for the Cultural Revolution.
Describe the key features of the Revolution including the Red Guards, education and the ‘cult of Mao’.
Describe the impact of the Cultural Revolution on China and Mao’s position.
B.) Describe the key features of the Cultural Revolution
(7 marks).
C.) In what ways did support for Mao and the CCP change in the
years 1934-70? You may use the following to help you with your
answer (15 marks):
Long March 1934-35
Civil War 1945-49
Great Leap Forward 1958-62
Cultural Revolution 1966-69
Key Question 5
Topics You should be able to: Checklist Exam Questions Checklist
How did China
change under Deng Xiaoping?
The Gang of Four
1960s-1970s
Describe who the Gang of Four were.
Describe how the Gang of Four were defeated.
B.) Describe the key features of the Gang of Four.
(7 marks).
Deng Xiaoping’s Changes
1979-1980s
Describe Deng’s changes to education.
Describe Deng’s changes to industry.
Describe Deng’s changes to farming.
Describe Deng’s changes to birth control
Describe Deng’s policy of Westernisation.
B.) Describe the key features of the changes in industry and agriculture under Deng Xiaoping.
(7 marks).
C.) In what ways did support for Deng Xiaoping change in the years 1958-89? You may use the
following to help you with your answer (15 marks):
o Great Leap Forward 1958-62 o Cultural Revolution 1966-69 o Deng’s Four Modernisations o Tiananmen Square Protests 1989
Key Question 6
Topics You should be able to: Checklist Exam Questions Checklist
How and Why did the Democracy Movement develop?
The Democracy Movement 1979-1989
Describe Deng’s opposition to political reform.
Describe the origins of the Democracy Movement.
Describe what the Democracy Wall Movement was.
Describe the role of Wei Jingsheng.
Describe the features and aims of University Protests.
Describe the reaction of Deng to Protests.
B.) Describe the key features of the
Democracy Movement (7 marks).
The Tiananmen
Square Massacre June 1989
Describe the causes, key events and effects of the Tiananmen Square Massacre.
B.) Describe the key features of the Tiananmen Square Massacre (7 marks).
1. What were the causes, events and results of the 1911
Revolution?
2. What was the May 4th Movement and why was
it significant?
6. What were the causes, events and
results of the Northern Expedition
1926-1928?
3. What happened during the Warlord Period?
4. How did the KMT change between 1894-1928?
Who ruled China
between 1911-1934?
5. How did the CCP change between 1921-1927?
1. What were the causes, events and consequences of the Long March? 2. How, why and when did the Japanese invade China?
6. Why did the Communists win the Civil
War?
3. What role did the CCP and Red Army play
during the Japanese invasion?
4. What were the limitations of the KMT during
the Japanese invasion?
How and why did the
CCP gain power?
1934-1949
5. What were the key events of the Civil War 1945-49?
1. What changes did Mao make to agriculture? 2. What changes did Mao make to industry?
7. What were the causes, key features and
effects of the Great Leap Forward?
4. What was ‘Thought Reform’ & the Three and
Five Antis Campaigns?
5. How did the First Five Year Plan change China?
How did Mao change
China 1949-1963?
6. What was the Hundred Flowers Campaign?
3. How did Mao change life for women?
1. What were Mao’s motives for the Cultural Revolution?
5. What was the impact of the Cultural
Revolution on Mao’s position?
4. What was the impact of the Cultural
Revolution on China?
What was the impact
of the Cultural
Revolution?
3. What was the impact of the Cultural Revolution on Deng
Xiaoping and Liu Shaoqi?
2. What were the key features of the Cultural
Revolution?
1. How were the ‘Gang of Four’ defeated? 2. How did Deng Xiaoping regain power?
7. What was Privatisation and
Westernisation?
3. What changes did Deng make to education?
5. What changes did Deng make to industry?
How did China
change under Deng
Xiaoping?
4. What changes did Deng make to agriculture?
6. Why did Deng introduce Birth Control?
1. How did the Democracy Movement
develop before the 1980s?
2. What caused the growth in the Democracy Movement?
5. What happened at Tiananmen Square?
3. How did University Students protest in 1986?
4. What were the key features and aims of the Democracy Movement?
How and why did the
Democracy
Movement develop?
B5: CONFLICT, CRISIS AND
CHANGE: CHINA 1911- 89 Revision Notes for Edexcel IGCSE History
By Mr. Budd - www.mrbuddhistory.com
Using this Revision Booklet Knowing and understanding the key events and facts from each topic is obviously essential. For Paper 2, Section B topics like China 1911-
1989, you need to be able to recall the key features of events and be able to focus on the idea of change: linking events and explaining
how and why changes occurred between them is an essential skill for Question C. Make sure you study the following list of key events and
changes as part of your revision.
1.) The 1911 Revolution: 10th October 1911
Causes What happened? Effects Long-term Causes
Decay of the Qing Government – The
Qing Emperors in the 19th century were
weak and corruption rife. Troop morale
was low leading to a series of defeats to
foreign powers. People lost confidence in
Manchu rule.
Role of Cixi – The Empress Dowager was
deeply unpopular & opposed reforms like
the Self-Strengthening Movement and
Hundred Days Reform.
Political Decentralisation – The provinces
of China were weakly controlled by Beijing.
Short-term Causes
Growth of Nationalist Movement – Sun
Yat-Sen founded the Tongmenghui in 1905
which coordinated anti-Qing protests
across China. Dr. Sun organised 8 uprisings
in 1907-11.
Immediate Cause
The Railway Problem –Protests broke out
when the government tried to nationalise
(take-over) regional railways in an attempt
to gain revenue and control local
authorities. This was strongly opposed by
provincial authorities esp. in Sichuan
because the gentry, landowners and
merchants had all invested money in
railways. Railway Protection Societies
were formed which the government tried
to suppress with force. This intensified
anti-Qing feeling and led to a series of
violent revolts across the country.
An uprising in Wuchang was planned by
revolutionaries for 16th October 1911
however on the 9th October, a list of the
revolutionaries names were discovered so
the uprising was brought forward to the 10th
October 1911.
The uprising was unplanned and disorganised
however by the morning of the 11th October,
the entire city of Wuchang had been
captured.
A ‘Military Government of Hubei of Republic
of China’ was created led by Li Yuanhong,
the assistant commander of the New Army.
15 other provinces quickly declared their
independence from the Qing Dynasty.
On 1st November, the Qing government
appointed Yuan Shikai as the prime minister
of the imperial cabinet. He was the leader
of the Beiyang Army and the Qing
government’s last hope.
On 25th December 1911, Sun Yat-Sen
returned to China and was elected President
of the Chinese Republic. On 1st January 1912
the Republic of China was declared.
Yuan Shikai was offered the position of
President of the new Republic of China. In
return, Yuan was to persuade the Emperor
Puyi to abdicate which he did on 12th
February 1912. Yuan Shikai was inaugurated
as the Second Provisional President of the
Republic of China in Beijing on 10th March
1912.
End of Dynastic System –
revolution ended Qing
Dynasty and Imperial China
which had existed for over
2000 years. The Republic
was a new form of
government and a milestone
in Chinese history.
The Failure of Democracy –
Despite elections in Feb
1913 in which Sun Yat-Sen’s
Chinese Nationalist Party
(Kuomintang/KMT) won 43%
of the vote, real democracy
could not be established.
Yuan Shikai ignored the
constitution, became a
dictator and even tried to
restore the monarchy.
Lack of Social Improvement
– Little attention was paid to
the economy or social
reform so China still
remained weak.
Increased Foreign
Aggression – Although the
new Republic was recognised
by most of the world, many
foreign powers like Japan
still forced China to sign
unequal treaties like the
Twenty-One Demands in
January 1915. China was still
weak internationally.
Emperor Puyi Yuan Shikai
Sun Yat-sen
2.) May Forth Movement: May 4th 1919
Causes What happened? Effects
Long-Term Cause
New Culture Movement: this
movement sprang from the
disillusionment with traditional
Chinese culture following the
failure of the Chinese Republic to
address China’s problems. Led by
Scholars like Chen Duxiu, the
movement created a desire for
change across China.
Immediate Cause
Treaty of Versailles:
In 1917, China had joined WW1 on
the Allied side, with the condition
that all German spheres of
influence in China, like Shandong
province, be returned to China.
140,000 Chinese labourers were
sent to work for the British army
in France.
American advocacy of self-
determination at the Versailles
Conference was attractive to
Chinese intellectuals, so the failure
to award China Shandong province
was seen as a betrayal.
The May 4th Movement was the
name given to an explosion of
yearning for change and national
rebirth, particularly amongst young
students.
In 1919, news reached people in
China that the Allies at the
Versailles Peace Conference in
Paris were planning to allow Japan
to keep the German possessions
in Shandong province.
Students at Beijing University
began an explosive protest. On
Sunday 4th May, 3000 students
from 13 colleges assembled in
Tiananmen Square. They demanded
their government assert itself
against the Japanese.
They wrecked the house of the
government minister responsible
for the treaty. A city-wide student
union was then established devoted
to change – the May 4th
Movement. This was replicated
across China in cities like Shanghai,
Wuhan and Tianjin.
The rising tide of protest
prevented the Chinese delegation
from accepting the terms of the
treaty and China refused to sign
however Japan still had control
of Shandong.
Cultural Turning Point - the
movement proved that China’s
social classes could successfully
collaborate given proper
motivation and leadership.
Traditional Chinese values began
to be questioned and people
became more willing to support
change from the warlords.
Intellectual Turning Point - The
movement encouraged many
people to become more political
and also showed that Western-
style democracy was the wrong
path to take – it hypocritically
ignored China’s pleas for fairness.
This encourage many Chinese
intellectuals to turn to new
ideologies like Marxism and the
CCP was founded in 1921.
Chen Duxiu
3.) The Warlord Period: 1917-1928
How did it begin? What happened? How was it ended? In 1913 Yuan Shikai took over the
government. He dissolved the national and
provincial assemblies, and the House of
Representatives and Senate were replaced
with a ‘Council of State’. He had himself
elected President for 5-years and banned
the KMT. By 1914 he was dictator of
China.
Yuan reorganised the provincial
governments with each province supported
by a Military Governor as well as a civil
authority, giving each governor control of
their own army. This decentralised power
further.
On 12th December 1915 Yuan proclaimed
himself Emperor of the Chinese Empire
but badly miscalculated. Many of his
closest military supporters abandoned
him and the southern provinces of Yunnan,
Guizhou, Guangxi, Guangdong, Shandong,
Hunan, Shanxi, Jiangxi and Jiangsu all
declared their independence and began to
rebel. Yuan was forced to abandon the
empire on 22nd March 1916.
Yuan died on 5th June 1916. He was
replaced by his vice-president Li Yuanhong
who tried to rule China until 1st July 1917
when he fell victim to a coup by Yuan’s
commanders. Infighting amongst cliques in
the Beiyang government began and the
government quickly lost control of China
to warlords in the provinces.
An independent military government was setup
in Guangzhou by Sun Yat-Sen in 1917 based on
the old 1911 constitution. Sun was elected
President supported by other Southern
Provinces who again declared independence
from Beijing. Northern provinces supporting
the central government tried and failed to
capture the Southern Provinces.
Competing groups of warlords began to fight
battles all over China. Loyalties shifted
constantly but there was generally a
north/south divide between warlords in China
with further divisions within these regions.
Warlords came in all shapes and sizes. The
Christian General converted to Methodism,
banned foot-binding, opium and brothels and
wore a simple uniform. Zhang Zong Chang (the
Dogmeat General) of Shandong Province was
the opposite, keeping numerous concubines. His
troops were very brutal. Zhang Zuolin of
Manchuria was the most powerful ruling an
area the size of Western Europe.
Warlords taxed and squeezed cash from
peasants across China. The economy collapsed
as warlords simply printed money to pay for
their armies. This resulted in severe inflation.
Droughts in northern China in 1918, famines in
1920-21 and flooding in 1923-25 brought
misery to millions, weakening the control of
the warlords.
The anarchy of the
warlord period convinced
Sun Yat-Sen that he
needed an army if he was
ever to defeat them and
reunite China. This led to
Sun appealing to the
USSR for help.
The USSR established
the Whampoa Military
Academy in Canton
(Guangzhou) and supplied
arms to the KMT from
1923 onwards.
The USSR encourage the
KMT and CCP to join
forces to create the
‘United Front’.
In 1925, Sun Yat-sen
died at the age of 56
from liver cancer. He was
replaced by Chiang
Kiashek.
The Warlord Period
ended as a result of the
Northern Expedition of
the United Front from
1926-1928.
Yuan Shikai
4.) The Kuomintang: 1917-1925
Early Life 1894-1913 Re-establishment 1919-1925 Road to Victory 1925-1928
The Kuomintang (KMT) began
life as the ‘Revive China Society’
(Xingzhonghui), founded in 1894
by Dr. Sun Yat-sen, a
proponent of Chinese
nationalism and democracy.
In 1905, Sun joined forced with
other anti-Qing groups to form
the Tongmenghui (Revolutionary
Alliance) who planned and
supported the 1911 Revolution.
In August 1912, the Kuomintang
was formed with Sun elected as
Party Chairman. It was based on
3 principles: Nationalism,
Democracy and Social
Advance. The KMT won an
overwhelming majority in
elections to the National
Assembly in Dec 1912.
The KMT was banned by Yuan
Shikai in November 1913 and
Sun Yat-sen was forced to flee
to Japan.
In Shanghai in 1919 the KMT was
reformed & established its HQ in
Guangdong Province in 1920.
In 1923 the KMT accepted aid from
the USSR after being denied
recognition by Western Powers.
Soviet COMINTERN advisers like
Mikhail Borodin arrived with aid and
weapons, reforming the KMT along
the lines of the CPSU with a Leninist
structure. Some elements within
the KMT were landlords or from
the business classes so the KMT
remained wary of the growing CCP.
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
was instructed by the COMINTERN
to unite with the KMT to establish
the ‘United Front’ to fight the
warlords and reunite China.
At the KMT’s first party congress in
1924, Sun’s political theory was
adopted which included the Three
Principles of the People –
Nationalism, Democracy and People’s
Livelihood.
Sun Yat-sen died in 1925 and
was replaced by Chiang Kai-shek
who was the superintendent of the
Whampoa Military Academy in
Canton and had near complete
control of the military.
Chiang launched the Northern
Expedition in 1926 to defeat the
warlords of northern China and
unite the country.
In 1927 a split emerged in the
KMT. The left-wing under Wang
Jing Wei sided with the CCP and
disagreed with Chiang over
strategy. Chiang responded by
massacring Communists in
Shanghai and by the end of 1927,
had reunited the KMT under his
control.
Chiang finally took Beijing in
1928 and led a new unified
government based in Nanjing. It
was to last until 1937.
Chiang Kai-shek
Sun Yat-sen
Mikhail Borodin
5.) The Chinese Communist Party: 1921-Present
Early Life 1921-1927 Civil War & WW2 1927-1949 Ruling Party 1949-Present
The CCP had its origins in the
May 4th Movement which
encouraged many Chinese
intellectuals to turn to new
ideologies like
Marxism/Leninism.
The Party was co-founded by
Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu on
23-31st July 1921 in
Shanghai. Chen was elected
leader and the Party was
declared to be part of the
COMINTERN. The
COMINTERN provided
$5000 USD per year in
support.
Under pressure from the
USSR, the CCP joined with
the KMT in 1923, forming
the First United Front
against the Warlords.
Mao Zedong was a delegate
at the first Party
Conference but did not get
on with the CCP leadership of
Chen Duxui, disliking their
intellectualism and focus on
cities. In 1925 he was
excluded from the CCP
Central Committee and was
attracted to the Rural
Communism of Peng Pai.
In 1927, Chiang Kai-Shek turned on the
Communists massacring over 5000 in
Shanghai. By July, the KMT had expelled
all communists from the Party and the CCP
was forced to flee to the province of
Kiangsi.
The CCP reacted by founding the ‘Red
Army’ and by reorganising the Party
according to democratic centralism,
forming a Politburo. By
In Oct 1934, surrounded by KMT troops,
the CCP was forced to flee on what
became known as ‘the Long March’. At the
end in Oct 1935, Mao Zedong had taken
over leadership of the Party.
In Dec 1936 at the Xi’an Incident, Chiang
was forced to agree a Second United
Front with the CCP against the Japanese,
who in July 1937 had begun their invasion
of mainland China. By the end of the war in
August 1945, the CCP controlled over 95
million people.
Both the CCP and KMT raced to accept the
surrender of Japanese held areas. By early
1946, civil war had broken out again. The
CCP had only 900,000 soldiers vs.
2.7million KMT troops but by Sep 1949,
most of China was under CCP control.
Chiang Kai-Shek fled to Taiwan.
The People’s Republic of China
(PRC) was declared by Mao on
1st October 1949. The ideology
of the PRC was founded on a
Sinification of Marxist-Leninist
principles and was officially
known as ‘Mao Zedong Thought’
or ‘Maoism.’
During the 1960s, the CCP
broke relations with the USSR
and begun a second ‘Cultural
Revolution’ in 1966 against
alleged ‘class enemies’.
Mao died in 1976, resulting in
a power struggle between
General Secretary Hua
Guofeng, Deng Xiaoping and the
Gang of Four. Deng became
leader of the CCP and
instigated a reform and process
of ‘Socialism with Chinese
charateristics’. This meant
China would be communist in
politics but capitalist in
economics.
Jiang Zemin succeeded Deng
after the 1989 Tiananmen
Square Protests. Hu Jintao
replaced him in 2002 and later
resigned in 2012 to be replaced
by Xi Jinping. All three leaders
would continue Deng’s
modernisation policies.
Deng Xiaoping
Hua Guofeng
Mao Zedong Li Dazhao
Chen Duxiu
Peng Pai
6.) The Northern Expedition: 1926-1928
Causes What happened? Effects After the death of Sun Yat-Sen in
1925, Chiang Kai-Shek became leader
of the KMT and was eager to destroy
the warlords and reunite China.
The Whampoa Military Academy in
Canton produced a National
Revolutionary Army (NRA) which was
superior to many warlords.
The NRA was 100,000 strong and
equipped with the latest Russian and
German weapons. Chiang personally
relied on the Russian Military advisor,
General Blyucher, known as Galen.
The NRA was supported by the
communist ‘Farmers’ Movement
Training Institute’ in which Mao
worked. Propaganda from this
institute persuaded many peasants to
serve as guides and labourers for the
NRA against their warlords.
The declared political objectives of
the NRA were: …to protect the
welfare of the people. We must
overthrow all warlords and wipe out
reactionary power so that we may
implement the Three Principles and
complete the National Revolution.’
The Northern Expedition was a
combined military operation by the
United Front (KMT & CCP) against the
rule of the warlord Beiyang
Government in Beijing as well as local
warlords.
It started in July 1926 and targeted
the three most notorious and powerful
warlords: Zhang Zoulin of Manchuria,
Wu Peifu in the Central Plain region and
Sun Chuanfang on the east coast.
By 10th October 1926, Wuhan on the
Yangtze had been captured and the
NRA had grown to 250,000. By 1927,
Nanjing and Shanghai had been
captured. This was achieved by a
combination of NRA military success,
communist propaganda and bribing many
warlords.
The United Front ended on 12th April
1927. Chiang Kai-Shek arranged the
massacre of over 5000 communists
with the help of the triad ‘Green Gang’
in Shanghai.
The KMT and NRA pressed on along and
by June 1928, Beijing had been
captured and Chiang setup a new capital
of unified China at Nanjing. It was
recognised by foreign powers.
The Communists were left with little
alternative to armed struggle against
the KMT. After the Shanghai
Massacre they were forced to flee to
Kiangsi Province, setting up a Soviet
which they were eventually forced to
abandon in 1934.
The Warlord problem was still not
fully resolved. Many warlords simply
formed an alliance with the KMT to
avoid being destroyed. They continued
to fight amongst themselves and
treated peasants badly – resulting in
continual resentment of Chiang’s new
KMT government.
Chiang Kai-Shek’s position was
strengthened. And he ruled as
dictator, similar to Hitler in Germany.
He was chairman of the military
committee and commander in chief,
prime minister and head of the KMT
party.
Chiang’s new regime was supported
by the army and enforced control
through a secret police called the
Military Bureau of Statistics. Most
social support came from rich,
commercial elites in the cities and
richer peasants and gentry in the
countryside.
General Blyucher or ‘Galen’
Chiang Kai-shek
7.) The Shanghai Massacre: 12th April 1927
Causes What happened? Effects The CCP Problem – In 1923 Sun
Yat-Sen concluded an alliance with
the USSR. This gave the KMT
financial and military support but in
return, the KMT had to cooperate
with the CCP. Sun agreed to let
individual Communists join the KMT
as long as their remained loyal.
Covert Communist activities soon
attracted opposition amongst many
right-wing KMT members.
The KMT Split – Since the death
of Sun in 1925, the KMT was
divided between the NRA and
Chiang Kai-Shek on the right and
KMT leader Wang Jingwei,
Communists and Soviet Agents on
the left-wing. Chiang was concerned
to protect the business interest of
many KMT supporters.
Attacks on Foreign Concessions -
Between Jan-Mar 1927, the left-
wing of the KMT and CCP forces
began attacking western interests
in Hankou and Nanjing. Chiang Kai-
Shek needed the support of
western powers in order to take
Shanghai. By April, Chiang and the
right-wing of the KMT became
determined to purge the party of
communist influence.
The massacre occurred on 12th April
1927 and was the violent suppression of
Communist Party organisations in
Shanghai by the KMT.
After capturing Shanghai, the CCP began
inciting huge protests and strikes,
demanding the return of international
settlements. Chiang immediately made
arrangements with representatives of
the commercial classes and Shanghai
underworld to purge the CCP.
On the morning of 12th April, heavily
armed members of Big-eared Du’s
Green Gang moved through the
international settlement to attack the
CCP union strongholds in the working-
class districts.
Du met with the leader of the big CCP
workers union to persuade him to change
sides but he refused and was beaten and
buried alive. Du’s men aided by General
Bai Chongxi’s troops, rounded up
Communists and beheaded or shot them.
Some were thrown alive into the fires of
locomotives at the South Railway Station.
Police put the death toll at 400 although
the American journalist Edgar Snow
estimated between 5000-10,000
deaths. CCP leader Zhou Enlai escaped.
Power Struggle – The KMT left-wing
government in Wuhan expelled Chiang
from the Party on 17th April. However
he simply declared a rival KMT
government in Nanjing. His financial
links with commercial interests in
Shanghai enabled him to gain more
influence, resulting in the Wuhan
Nationalist government collapsing.
Wang Jingwei fled to Europe.
End of USSR/KMT Cooperation –
Stalin recalled all Soviet advisors to
the KMT included Galen and Borodin.
Stalin switched his support to the
CCP, inciting the Autumn Harvest
Uprising in Nanchang in August 1927
and later in Canton – both were
complete failures. Over 300,000
people died in the ensuing anti-
Communist suppression.
CCP Forced to Flee – The CCP was
forced to flee from the Urban areas
of China, with many Communists like
Mao setting up soviets in Jiangxi and
Hunan provinces. This transformed
the Communist Party’s base of support
from the urban proletariat to the
rural peasantry. Old CCP leaders like
Chen Duxiu were discredited and lost
their leadership roles to Zhu De and
Mao, both leaders of the biggest CCP
army groups.
Big-eared Du
8.) The Long March: 1934-1935
Causes What happened? Effects
Growth of Jiangxi Base Area –
After the Shanghai Massacre, many
Communists regrouped in rural
areas. Communists like Zhu De and
Mao Zedong led Red Army/PLA
units in these areas. Zhou Enlai
arrived in 1932 and ousted Mao
from his military positions. In 1933
the rest of the leadership arrived,
along with German COMINTERN
agent Otto Braun. The CCP at this
time were led mainly by Zhou,
Braun and Bo Gu.
KMT Extermination Campaigns -
The growth of the base area began
to concern Chiang. Between 1930-
34 he launched 5 massive
extermination campaigns. They
were failures but over 1 million
civilians died with brutality on both
sides. The fifth campaign in
Summer 1933 was finally successful
due to the ‘blockhouse’ tactics of
German General Hans von Seeckt.
The KMT surrounded the Soviet
with over 500,000 troops, building
roads and 14,000 blockhouses which
slowly strangled the Soviet area.
Zhu, NOT Mao, was forced to make
the decision to abandon the Soviet.
Planned by Zhou Enlai, on the night of 16th October
1934, 80,000 Communists started to cross the Gan
River and break out westwards towards Guangxi
province.
Two corps led the break-out, one under Lin Biao, and
a smaller one of 13,000 under Peng Dehuai. Zhou had
negotiated with the warlord of Guangdong for safe
passage – The governor did not want to give Chiang an
excuse to interfere in his area.
In Dec 1934, the CCP faced a major defeat on the
Xiang River, on the border of Hunan. The CCP lost
most of their baggage and over half of their troops.
This forced the CCP to change direction westward into
Guizhou.
The Wu River was crossed on 7th Jan 1935 and the
city of Zunyi captured where a meeting was held. The
Zunyi Conference criticised Bo Gu and Otto Braun for
their mistakes (retreating in straight lines, carrying
too much equipment), and Mao was made a full member
of the Politburo.
Under Mao, the columns changed routes and split up,
trying to avoid KMT and warlord forces. On 25th May
1935 they crossed the Dadu River which would later
be turned into a propaganda event.
By Oct 1935, they had reached the communist base at
Yanan in Shaanxi province where they were safe.
They had: fought dozen of battles; crossed 24 rivers;
18 mountain ranges; 24 miles a day; 6000 miles in
total; 5000-6000 out of 85,000 had remained alive.
Survival – The Long
March had seemed like a
disaster but it enabled
the CCP to survive and
rebuild for the next 12
years. It was remote
enough to be safe from
Japanese attack.
Propaganda Victory –
The march was vital in
helping the CCP gain a
positive reputation
amongst peasants due to
the determination and
good nature of the Red
Army. The ‘Eight Points
of Attention’ issued by
Mao instructed the army
to avoid harm or
disrespect to peasants.
Land redistribution along
the way also help gain
support.
Strengthened Mao’s
Position – Mao was hailed
as the great hero of the
March and was re-
established as the
unchallenged leader of
the CCP.
Zhou Enlai
Otto Braun
9.) War with Japan: 1937-1945
Causes of the War What happened? The KMT/CCP during the War
The Mukden Incident – In Sep 1931
the Japanese invaded the northern
province of Manchuria and renamed it
Manchukuo. Fearing a full-scale
invasion, Chiang did little to stop them
other than complain to the League of
Nations. He was more concerned with
the Communists, saying: ‘The Japanese
were a disease of the skin, but the
Communists were a disease of the
heart.’
Xi’an Incident - In 1936 he ordered
another extermination campaign
against the CCP base in Yanan. However
KMT troops led by Zhang Xueliang, the
warlord of Manchuria, refused to fight
the CCP. They wanted Chiang to focus
on the Japanese. To ensure this, in Dec
1936 Chiang was kidnapped at Xi’an by
Zhang’s troops and kept prisoner for 2
weeks. He was eventually released
when he agreed to form a Second
United Front.
Marco Polo Bridge Incident – On 7th
July 1937, a clash occurred between
Japanese and Chinese troops around
the famous bridge 10 miles west of
Beijing. By 26th July, China was given an
ultimatum to withdraw all forces from
Beijing. Chiang finally refused and war
was declared.
The Japanese swept the KMT
armies away for most of the
war – in Nov 1937 Shanghai
fell, Nanjing in Jan 1938,
Wuhan and Canton in Oct
1938, Hong Kong in 1941.
By 1941, the Japanese had
34/50 divisions in China and
had over extended themselves.
By declaring war on the USA in
December 1941, Chiang had
just secured a new ally against
the Japanese.
US supplies were flown to
Chiang’s capital of Chongqing
over the Himalayas by
following a route called ‘the
Hump’. The assistance of the
American air force also helped.
Despite the success of the
Ichigo Offensive of 1944,
Japan was finally forced to
surrender with the dropping of
the Atomic Bombs on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in
August 1945. The USSR had
also declared war and invaded
Manchuria on 8th August.
The KMT generally emerged weaker as a
result of the war:
The KMT appeared unpatriotic & unwilling
to attack Japan. Chiang took until 1937
to declare war & had retreated to
Sichuan. He was cut off from his main
industrial base.
KMT officials were corrupt and did little
to improve welfare problems. Rents
remained high, lack of medical care and
the economy was wracked by high
inflation.
Warlords remained able to do what they
wished doing little for their people.
KMT had little support in countryside,
being seen as the Party of bankers,
business and landowners.
However the CCP actually emerged stronger
from the war:
Quality of life for peasants was better:
land was redistributed to peasants, rents
and taxes were reduced.
Women’s lives improved: foot binding was
eradicated, new marriage laws introduced
and Women’s Associations set-up.
Red Army treated peasants well & were
military successful – 100 Regiments
Battle in 1940 paralysed Japanese
transport; by the end of the war
controlled 300,000 sq miles and over 95
million people.
Zhang Xueliang
10.) The Chinese Civil War: 1945-1949
Causes What happened? Reasons for CCP Victory
Long-Term: Chiang’s Conduct
during the War – Chiang’s
attacked the CCP, despite
their United Front. Chiang was
seen as unpatriotic whereas
the communists were seen as
true patriots. Corruption, low
morale & lack of trust between
generals further weakened the
NRA & Chiang’s prestige.
Nationalist-minded Chinese
were more impressed by the
CCP, making a renewed conflict
more likely.
Short-Term: A Divided
Country – At the end of War,
Japanese forces still
controlled much of China, the
KMT were strong in
southern/central China, the
CCP controlled most of
north/north-east China whilst
the USSR had invaded
Manchuria. The race was on to
occupy as much territory as
possible. US aircraft airlifted
100,000 nationalist troops into
northern China. In response,
the CCP moved into Manchuria,
receiving many captured
Japanese weapons from the
Red Army. Clashes soon broke
out between the NRA and PLA.
Immediate: Failure of
Mediation -The USA & USSR
wished to avoid civil war and
under US pressure, Chiang
agreed to peace talks. In Oct
1945, an agreement was
reached however both sides
were unwilling to give up
military control. Stalin
ordered the CCP to hand over
cities in Manchuria to the
KMT.
In 1946, the US sent General
George Marshall to mediate
again but talks broke down.
The CCP took control of
Harbin in northern Manchuria
and rural areas. By late 1946,
civil war had broken out.
Phase 1: Early Setbacks: July 46 – May 47
Military Factors –Manchuria was
well suited to guerrilla warfare
with its hills and forests. KMT
forces were slowly worn down,
reducing their numerical advantage.
They were also able to seize the
initiative by destroying KMT
railway lines, isolating them in
cities. The PLA led by Lin Biao also
became a formidable fighting
force. Intensive training and
political indoctrination enabled
them to adapt and absorb
nationalist deserters. Chiang also
made a serious error by
overstretching his best forces. The
NRA was also corrupt with poor
morale, lacking fighting spirit. Many
KMT commanders like Wei Lihuang
were even CCP spies, supplying
information to the PLA!
Political Factors – The CCP was a
peasant-based party and attracted
huge support with land reform.
They were adept at using
propaganda to spread support in
the cities. PLA troops were
indoctrinated and disciplined, going
out of their way to help peasants.
This was in contrast to the unruly
behaviour of KMT troops.
Economic Factors – The economy
under Chiang suffered from high
inflation with 3000% in Feb 1947,
reducing support further.
Foreign Support – The KMT failed
to make full use of US equipment
whilst the CCP was highly trained
and equipped by the USSR. The US
brokered ceasefire in 1946 even
prevented the CCP from being
wiped out in Harbin!
Role of Mao – Whilst Mao made
military mistakes, his cult of
personality and use of terror made
the CCP an efficient fighting force,
whilst Chiang’s weak leadership
allowed corruption to spread,
affecting KMT morale.
The KMT started the war with 2,800,000 troops
& 6000 artillery pieces however the CCP could
only muster 320,000 and 600. The KMT took the
initiative and captured larger cities, establishing
a ‘corridor’ of control through Manchuria. The
CCP were in full retreat and even lost their base
at Yanan. Chiang committed over half a million of
his best troops to capture Manchuria however he
failed to break through PLA defences in Harbin.
The PLA from their rural bases adopted Guerrilla
Warfare, ambushing KMT units and keeping them
locked down in cities by blowing up railway lines.
The KMT became isolated in the cities whilst the
CCP controlled all the countryside. Phase 2: Counter-Attack: May 47 – Nov 48
In May, Lin Biao decided launch a full-scale
assault on KMT positions. Despite not having an
airforce, the PLA inflicted serious losses on the
NRA which sapped the morale of troops.
In 1948, the PLA moved to a strategy of
conventional warfare with massed infantry
assaults. They captured Luoyang in April 48 and
made gains in Shandong, isolating the KMT. In
June they captured Kaifeng giving the CCP access
to the interior of China up the Yellow River. Jinan
(Shandong) was captured in Sep.
On 15th Oct, the key railway junction of Jinzhou
was captured, trapping KMT forces in Manchuria.
Changchun fell in Oct and Shenyang on 2nd Nov.
Manchuria was lost and Chiang had lost over
400,000 of his best troops. Phase 3: Final Stages: Dec 48 – Oct 49 Northern China was captured in two major
offenses. The first against the vital railway
junction of Xuzhou which lasted 65 days from
Dec 49 to Jan 49. Both sides committed over
600,000 troops each. The defeat of the KMT
was a major blow and cut off the rest of
northern China from Chiang. Tianjin was easily
captured first then Beijing on 31st Jan. The whole
of China north of the Yangzi was now under PLA
control.
In April, the PLA renewed the attack. Chiang’s
capital of Nanjing was captured on 23rd April
with Wuhan and Shanghai falling in late May.
The PLA then divided into two to attack the
south. Peng Dehaui struck westwards towards
Xian and Lanzhou, falling in August 49. Lin Biao
marched south, capturing Canton in Oct.
Chongquing was taken in November with Chiang
and the remnants of the KMT fleeing to Taiwan.
On 1st October 1949, Mao declared the creation
of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) with
himself as Chairman.
11.) Mao’s Early Changes: 1949-1953
Problems Changes
Political
The communists had to prove they
were capable of providing a strong
and effective government. 37 years
of warlords and war had produced
social disintegration and criminal
habits on a vast scale. There were
an estimated one million bandits in
1949. Thieves and gangsters
stalked the cities. Many women had
turned to prostitution as a means
of survival.
There was also many ex-
sympathisers with the KMT
regime who had not escaped to
Taiwan and some even launched
sabotage expeditions. Opposition to
the government had to be removed
or brought under control.
To strengthen control of China, the CCP turned China into a one-party state. All
other political parties were suppressed in a series of purges from 1950-1952.
Foreigners were also driven out and foreign businesses taken over or had their
assets frozen.
The basis of control was the ‘danwei’, a work or neighbourhood unit. It exercised
surveillance over its members and demanded active participation. The 1951
Movement for the Study of Mao Zedong’s Thought encouraged this. This
involved close study of his writings, combined with public self-criticism at Party
meetings. Special labour camps were set up for those who resisted and by 1953,
filled with over 1.5 million inmates. As many as one million opponents were
executed between 1949 and 1951, with over 65,000 killed in Guangzhou alone.
To gain further control, mass participation was encourage through mass
campaigns:
1950 Three Mountains Campaign – targeted feudalism, capitalism and imperialism.
1951 Three Antis Campaign – targeted party members and bureaucrats and
sought to combat corruption, waste and bureaucracy.
1952 Five Antis Campaign – targeted businessmen and sought to combat bribery,
tax evasion, fraud, theft and spying.
Economic
The Chinese economy had been
devastated by war. Production was
down 50% on pre-war levels and
food production down by 25%.
Manchuria has been devastated and
the economy racked by rapid
inflation. Agriculture was
dominated by richer landowners
who controlled the peasants.
The economy was brought under control by a series of short-term measures:
The state nationalised major banks, railways and heavy industry.
In 1951 a People’s Bank was opened which replace private banks and controlled
the issuing of money. It fixed the prices of goods to control inflation.
Food shortages were dealt with by making farmers sell 20% of grain at fixed
low prices to the government.
The Communist had been committed to land reform since 1921 but arguments
occurred within the Party on how to proceed. Many favoured extreme redistribution
schemes by Mao favoured moderate reforms:
June 1950 Agrarian Reform Law – Attempted to speed up the process of
land reform even though Mao was resistant to targeting wealthy peasants due
to their productivity. CCP members were sent to villages to organise peasants
against the landlords in ‘People’s Court’s’. Peasants were encouraged to
denounce the landlords and many were beaten or executed. Mutual-Aid Teams
(10 families) were also setup that pooled labour and equipment.
By 1952 land reform had transformed China. 40% of land was redistributed
with 60% of the population benefiting. However between 750,000 – 1 million
landlords had been killed.
Social
Most of the population were
peasants who could not read or
write. Chinese people did not want
change. Many distrusted modern
ideas, especially on women’s rights.
Many women benefited from the 1950 Marriage Law which declared women have
equal rights and forbade arranged marriages, dowries, concubinage, child
marriage. Women’s property rights were also asserted and divorce became
available on equal terms. Prostitution was declared illegal with all houses
registered and visitor lists kept by street committees. Opium addiction was also
targeted with poppy fields uprooted and dealers shot.
12.) The First Five-Year-Plan: 1953-1957
Area Reasons for Change Changes
Agr
icultu
re
Mao’s long-term aim was to transform
China into a socialist country. He
believed this would take 15 years. In
agriculture, he envisaged grouping
together small, privately owned farms into
much larger, collective farms. He believed
this would make farms more productive
and able to feed China’s growing industrial
population.
However, Mao also recognised that
peasants had long been exploited by the
landlords and wanted nothing more than
their own small farms. He knew peasants
showed a ‘spontaneous tendency towards
capitalism.’ He was unwilling to lose their
support during the war with the KMT, but
by 1953, Mao felt that his position was
secure enough, and the economy stable
enough, to press ahead with rapid
collectivisation of farming.
1951 – The first cautious steps towards more cooperative forms of
farming. Mutual-aid teams group 10 or more households together
to share labour, tools and animals.
1952-3 – Lower-Stage Cooperatives were introduced. These were
groups of 30-50 households who pooled land as well as labour. By
working together, peasants were able to get rid of the old system
of strip farming, which released more land for cultivation, cut down
travel time and enabled peasants to share the cost of new
machinery. Peasants still owned their private plots within the
cooperative and any profits were shared between all households.
1955 – Higher-Stage Cooperatives were introduced which
consisted of 200-300 households. Families were not paid rent for
their land and only received wages for labour. Equipment, land and
animals were now property of the cooperative except for a small
plot (5%) kept for private use.
Success? By 1957, 97% of all peasants land had been collectivised.
CCP control in the countryside was strengthened and Mao declared
it a success – however, during the Five-Year Plan, agricultural
production had only risen by an estimated 3.8%.
Ind
ustr
y
Industrialisation was necessary in order to
‘build socialism’ but Mao also believed that
China should be self-sufficient in food
and manufactured goods. Foreign-owned
businesses were nationalised and foreign
trade was to be kept at a minimum.
Industrial development was therefore an
absolute priority.
The Plan was focused on increasing the
capacity of heavy industry such as iron,
steel, energy, transport, communications,
machinery and chemicals. The production
of consumer goods was a low priority due
to scare resources and money. The plan
was to be aided by over 10,000 Soviet
advisors and 13,000 Chinese students
were educated in Russia.
The government tried to persuade people to save money in State
banks through ‘patriotic savings’ campaigns, which helped fund
investment. By deliberately limiting the supply of consumer goods,
the government ensured that workers had little to spend their
money on, further increasing savings.
Success? The Plan set ambitious targets for all key sectors of the
economy, and most targets were achieved and even exceeded (see
table below). There was greater job security and incomes and living
standards even rose in cities.
Failures? However there were failures: Workers lacked skills and
were not trained for industrial work; emphasis on quantity rather
than quality; serious bureaucratic delays and competition for scarce
resources; lack of consumer goods.
Industrial Sector 1952 (actual) 1957 (target) 1957 (actual) 1957 (% target)
Coal (million tonnes) 68.50 113.00 130.00 115%
Steel (million tonnes) 1.35 4.12 5.35 129.8
Cement (million tonnes) 2.86 6.00 6.86 114.3%
Electrical Power (billion kWh)
7.26 15.90 19.34 121.6%
Locomotives (units) 20 200 167 83.5%
Trucks (units) 0 4000 7500 187.5%
Insecticide (tonnes) 600 70,000 61,000 87.1%
Machine Tools (units) 13,734 12,720 28,000 220.1%
Bicycles (thousands) 80 555 1,174 211.5%
13.) The Hundred Flowers Campaign: 1956-1957
Causes What happened? Effects Historians have drawn sharply different
conclusions about Mao’s motives in launching the
100 Flowers Campaign:
1.) Serious Error of Judgement - One school of
thought argues that he genuinely encouraged free
speech and criticism but was shocked by the
reaction and then clamped down on his critics.
Jonathan Spence argues: ‘…a muddled and
inconclusive movement that grew out of conflicts
within the Communist Party leadership. At its
centre was an argument about the pace and type
of development that was best for China.’
2.) Trap to Expose Anti-Communist Elements –
This school of thought believes that the Campaign
was a deliberate plan by Mao to flush out critics
of the government and CCP. Jung Chang and John
Halliday argue: ‘He cooked up a devious plan. Few
guessed that Mao was setting a trap and that he
was inviting people to speak out so that he could
then use what they said as an excuse to victimise
them.’
Despite the debate, what is clear is that Mao was
influenced by a number of considerations:
The CCP was now securely in control and felt
able to relax its grip of free speech.
The First-Five-Year Plan had been achieved
but serious problems of waste and chaos in
planning, esp agriculture, had led to debate
with the CCP. Mao wanted to speed up
economic change but faced opposition in the
Politburo.
He also believed the greatest danger facing
the CCP was growing ‘bureaucratism’. He
thought Party officials were becoming too
alienated from the masses and serving the
needs of the organisations they worked for
rather than themselves.
In February 1957, Mao made a
speech on the subject of ‘On
the Correct Handling of
Contradictions among the
People’, in which he repeated
his early call to ‘Let a hundred
flowers blossom, let a
hundred schools of thought
contend.’ He meant that free
speech was healthy and should
be encouraged.
The speech was published
widely and Mao supported it
with a 3-week train journey
through eastern China,
spreading this message.
In April the Politburo were
persuaded by Mao to sanction
the campaign and it was
officially launched in May,
unleashing a torrent of
criticisms that attacked the
communist system.
In the press, magazines, at
rallies and on posters,
intellectuals attacked the
regime for treating people as
their obedient subjects and for
developing into a new,
privileged, bureaucratic class
that was out of touch with the
people. At Beijing University,
students created a ‘democracy
wall’ that was covered with
posters critical of the
communist party. Even Mao
himself began to be
criticised.
This was too much for Mao who,
in June 1957, suddenly cracked
down on his critics. A full-scale
counter-attack on intellectuals
was launched. In the ensuing
‘anti-rightist’ campaign, perhaps
as many as 500,000 intellectuals
were branded ‘rightists’ and
subjected to persecution.
Some were sent to labour camps,
others to the countryside for
‘re-education’. Many were driven
to suicide by the severe mental
pressure they were subjected to.
Some were sacked from their
jobs and a few students were
shot in public.
Silenced Criticism for a
Generation - As a result of this
wave of persecution,
independence of thought was
systematically crushed;
intellectuals in China would never
trust Mao or the CCP again and
intellectual life was stultified.
Party Unity was Strengthened –
Mao’s position became
unchallengeable which enabled
serious problems in the Great
Leap Forward to go unchecked by
the Party. A popular saying at the
time was: ‘After the Three-Antis
no one wants to be in charge of
money; after the anti-rightist
campaign no one opens their
mouth.’
14.) The Great Leap Forward: 1958-1962
Mao’s Motives What happened & Why did it fail? Results of the GLF Political Context - Mao
believed mass mobilisation
could be used to take China
very quickly from the stage
of Socialism to fully
developed Communism
without the need for more
bureaucracy. A success like
this would further
consolidate his political
power. Propaganda could be
used to encourage peasants
to work harder. Mao’s regime
also lacked checks and
balances to stop him: nobody
had the courage to stand up
to him!
Economic Context – The
First Five Year Plan boosted
industrial production by
18.7% but agriculture lagged
at 3.8%. Unless agriculture
could be improve,
industrialisation would be
held back. Surplus food
would free peasants to work
in factories.
Ideological Context - Mao
wanted to ‘decentralise’
control away from the
centralised State
bureaucracy to local Party
cadres as he feared the
revolution was becoming
bogged down in bureaucracy.
The GLF would be a way to
‘continue the revolution’.
International Context – Mao
wanted China to become a
great power, free of foreign
influence, including the
USSR. Khrushchev’s
‘peaceful coexistence’ policy
with the USA scared Mao
and enforced the belief that
China had to stand alone. The
GLF was in part, an assertion
by Mao of Chinese
independence from the
USSR.
In January 1958, Mao launched the Great Leap Forward
which was his Second Five Year Plan. China was to be
transformed into a leading industrial power, overtaking
Britain in 7 years and the USA soon after.
Mao quickly got caught up in the euphoria of his
belief that communist rule could finally unlock China’s
vast potential. In Autumn 1957, he declared China would
produce 40 million tonnes of steel by the 1970s. By
Autumn 1958 he raised this to 100 million by 1962 and
700 million by early 1970!
Agriculture – High-Level Cooperatives were to be
incorporated into even larger units called ‘people’s
communes’. Communes held over 20,000 people and
would become the basic unit of rural society. Workers
were organised into platoons and by the end of 1958,
700 million people (90%) lived on 26,578 communes. Mao
aimed to ‘communise’ the peasants by abolishing the
private lives of peasants and take away private plots of
land. Work was organised military style and children
looked after in kindergartens.
Industry – Communes also had to aid industrial
production by building 600,000 ‘Backyard Furnaces’ to
produce iron and steel. Metal implements of all kinds
were melted down into pig iron.
Why did it Fail?
Mao ignored economic realities - Economic laws could
ignored as ‘bureaucratic’ or ‘revisionist’. The speed with
which communes were established and the exaggerated
production figures which local officials – anxious to
avoid being labelled ‘rightists’ – reported to the
government caused Mao’s confidence to grow, further
inflating already impossible targets.
Anti-Rightist Campaign – Had purged China of crucial
experts and scared officials into telling Mao what he
wanted to hear. Targets were inflated to ensure
survival.
Waste & Inefficiency – Military training & factory
work took peasants away from food production, leaving
grain to rot. Farming tools were even melted down to
produce steel!
Failure of Commune System – Peasants resented being
forced to give up land and private lives. There was no
incentive to work hard and many peasants hoarded grain
due to lack of food.
Natural Disasters – In 1960 north & central China
faced droughts and the Yellow River dried up. Flooding
hit southern China.
Split with USSR – In 1960 the USSR withdrew its
technical advisors, leaving China short of technicians.
Food production actually
slumped - Too many peasants
were forced into industry. In
1958 there was a good harvest
of 375 million tonnes of grain
recorded but closer to 200
million. Nevertheless, Mao set
an even more fantastic figure
– 430 million for 1959. The
harvest of 1959 was a
disaster with only 170 million
tonnes produced. In 1960, it
was only 143 million. By
summer 1959, food shortages
hit cities.
The Great Famine –
Inefficiencies combined with
floods and droughts and
between 1959 and 1962, over
20 million people died of
starvation!
Industrial Production
Slumped - 11 million tonnes of
Steel was produced by 1958
however only 9 million was of
acceptable quality and most
was left to rust. They also
required too much fuel,
leading to a lack of fuel for
trains. People could not work
fast enough, often falling
asleep at machines.
Overworked machines even
broke down. Targets remained
set at impossible high levels
which were not met and
Backyard Furnaces were
abandoned in 1959.
Mao Steps Down – Mao took
part of the blame and stepped
down as China’s head of state.
He was still Chairman of the
CCP but China was now
controlled by President Liu
Shao-chi, Prime Minister Zhou
Enlai and General Secretary
Deng Xiaoping. They reversed
many of Mao’s policies,
reducing communes in size and
returning some private plots
of land.
15.) The Cultural Revolution: 1966-1969
Causes What happened? Effects Power Struggle – After the GLF
Mao’s own political position was
weakened whilst his economic policies
had been rejected. One aim was to
defeat his opponents, regain political
supremacy and ensure his economic
policies were accepted.
Economic Arguments - From 1962 –
1966 the leaders of the CCP argued
with one another about which road
they should follow in developing
China. Moderates led by President
Liu Shao-chi and General Secretary
of the CCP Deng Xiaoping, wanted to
introduce more incentives to get
peasants working hard like wages and
private plots. By 1962, 20% of farm
land had actual reverted to private
ownership. They also wanted a new
class of skilled managers to plan the
economy. Mao totally opposed these
policies and retained his faith in mass
mobilisation.
Purify Communism – Ideologically,
Mao was upset by the direction of
the CCP. Incentives undermined the
ideal of communist equality. In 1962
he launched the Socialist Education
Movement to get people back on the
right road. Chinese culture and
education were also criticised by Mao
for producing ‘high and might
bureacrats’. Culture had to change to
reflect the ideological purity of
Maoism.
New Support – The PLA led by Lin
Biao supported Mao from 1965. Lin
reformed the PLA, emphasising
loyalty to Mao through the issuing of
the famous Little Red Book. Mao
began to rely on the army as a
counterweight to the ‘revisionists’.
Mao’s wife, Jiang Qing was also a
powerful supporter, in charge of
cultural change.
In early 1965 Mao began scheming against
his ‘revisionist’ rivals, using his allies to place
attacks in newspapers. On 16th May 1966, Mao
persuaded the Politburo to issue a circular
which launched the Cultural Revolution:
‘Representatives of the bourgeoisie have
sneaked into our party. They are a bunch of
country-revolutionary revisionists. Some these
people have already been exposed. Others have
not.’
Mao then publically announced his return to
political life with a 15 km swim in the Yangtze
and gave a speech to the CCP in Beijing,
launching the Cultural Revolution with an attack
on the Four Olds – old culture, old ideas, old
customs and old habits. On 18th August, Mao
gave the first of eight giant rallies, calling on
Red Guards to attack the four olds and root out
revisionists.
The Red Guards were groups of young people
and students who were encouraged to do Mao’s
bidding. They formed under the slogan: ‘We are
the critics of the old world; we are the
builders of the new’. They were given the
right to travel free on railways and the Police
and PLA were ordered not to interfere. They
soon used violence to achieve their aims:
shaving hair off girls with western style
haircuts, burning libraries and museums,
attacking foreign embassies. By 1967 there was
anarchy as the Red Guards split into rival
factions, with over 400,000 deaths.
Red Guards were inspired by the Cult of Mao.
Mao was worshipped as a new emperor, with
workers forced to worship his portrait and read
his sayings in the Little Red Book. 740 million
copies were printed in 1966-69. They were even
inspired to attack Party leaders like Liu Shao-
chi who was physically attacked and expelled
from the Party in 1969.
By Sep 1967, Mao attempted to restore
order. The PLA was used to quell the fighting
and over five million young people were sent to
the countryside for compulsory re-education.
By 1969, law and order had been restored.
Mao Triumphant – The 9th
Party Congress in April 1969
confirmed Mao’s thought as
the guiding ideology in China.
Liu Shaoqi was denounced as ‘a
hidden traitor and scab’ and
died of medical neglect. All
rivals had been demoted or
killed although Zhou Enlai and
Deng Xiaoping had survived by
not opposing Mao.
Army most Powerful
Institution – Lin Biao was
named as successor to Mao
and over half of delegates
wore army uniforms. The army
composed 45% of the 279
members in the new Central
Committee. The 25-man
Politburo contained 9 serving
soldiers and 3 former
marshals.
Education Disrupted – During
the Revolution, some schools
were close for up to 2 years
and the exam system was
abolished.
Deaths – 500,000 have been
estimated to have been killed,
mostly through torture and
beatings. Millions more were
sent for re-education through
hard labour.
Industrial Output – Dropped
by 14% in 1967 and fell in
1968. Incentives were stopped
and technicians dismissed.
Culture – Culture and the arts
had suffered heavily in the
four olds campaign and under
Jiang Qing, became agitprop
(propaganda pretending to be
art).
16.) The Gang of Four: 1969-1978
Growing Power Struggle Rise of the Gang of Four Fall of the Gang of Four
After the Cultural Revolution, Mao developed
a suspicious hostility to the power of the
army and removed many of Lin Biao’s
supporters. In retaliation, Lin drew up a plan
to overthrow Mao in 1971 but was discovered.
He tried to escape in an aircraft but died
when it in the Mongolian desert.
After Lin’s death, Mao’s health began to fail
and there was a growing power struggle
between right-wing moderates and left-wing
radicals for control of the CCP.
The Left – led by Mao’s wife Jiang Qing and
3 radical politicians from Shanghai, known as
the Gang of Four: Zhang Chunquiao, Yao
Wenyuan and Wang Hongwen. They were
supported by the Communist Youth League,
and control press and radio.
The left believed in Maoism and wanted to
continue the political struggle against
‘revisionists’. They put all their energy into a
series of campaigns against bourgeois and
outdated ideas like the 1973 Anti-Confucius
Campaign.
The Right – led by Prime Minister Zhou Enlai
& Deputy Prime Minister Deng Xiaoping who
had been rehabilitated by Mao who wanted to
balance the factions within the CCP. The right
was supported by the CCP and PLA, who were
eager to end political arguments. They
supported Zhou’s plan for Four
Modernisations of China’s industry, farming,
defence and science.
In 1976, the right suffered a
setback when Zhou Enlai
died and was succeeded by
Deng. Thousands went to
Tiananmen Square to pay
their respects, laying
wreathes and posters. On 5th
April 1975 visitor found all
the wreaths removed.
10,000 people rioted in
support of Zhou and Deng,
followed by over 200
arrests.
There were similar protests
in other cities like Shanghai
however the left blamed
Deng and removed him from
the Party and government.
He was replaced by a minor
official called Hua Guofeng
who was nicknamed ‘the
helicopter’ due to his rapid
rise to power.
The Gang of Four now
seemed in control of the CCP
when Mao died on 9th
Septemeber 1976.
When Mao died, Hua Guofeng
succeeded to all the top positions in
government. Whilst he now controlled
the CCP and army, he lacked real status
of his own and the Gang of Four
prepared to manipulate him out of
power.
He was rescued by the army. There
was evidence that they had plotted
against Hua and on the night of 6th
October 1976, the Gang of Four were
arrested. Their supporters were also put
in prison.
They were hated and many demanded
severe punishments. The CCP used the
press, radio and newspapers to attack
the Gang of Four and in the winter of
1980-81, they were put on trial and
found guilty – sentenced to long prison
terms.
Over the next three years, the
moderates led by Deng Xiaoping gently
eased Hua from power, and in 1980,
from office. Under Deng, China began a
period of moderate policies, carrying out
the Four Modernisations of Zhou Enlai.
The Cultural Revolution was finally
over. In 1981 the Central Committee of
the CCP announced that Mao had been
70% correct and 30% mistaken. The
CCP could not condemn its Chairman
without fatally undermining its own
legitimacy.
Zhou Enlai
Deng Xiaoping Zhang Chunquiao
Yao Wenyuan
Wang Hongwen
Jiang Qing
17.) Changes under Deng Xiaoping: 1978-1980s
Area Reasons for Reform Reforms
Ind
ustr
y
The economy had suffered hugely
under Mao and the Gang of Four.
Many machines were old-fashioned
and many Chinese factories were old-
fashioned and inefficient, running at
a loss.
The economy was also too
micromanaged by Beijing. In one
area, there were 2 million pairs of
shoes piled up in warehouses. Nobody
was buying them because the style
was old-fashioned, yet factories were
still producing them because the
managers were under order to do so.
In 1979 a new and ambitious Ten-Year Plan was introduced. New
factories were built and workers were paid bonuses for extra output.
People were free to own their own businesses. Record numbers of
consumer goods, such as bicycles, watches and sewing machines were
produced. Foreigners were encouraged to visit China and invest their
money, even from the USA.
There was far less control from the centre. Factory managers were
told to run their factories profitably and to produce what people wanted
to buy. Many switched to consumer goods.
Deng also created ‘Special Enterprise Zones’ (SEZ) and ‘open’ coastal
sites. The SEZs were to encourage western firms to establish
themselves in areas such as Shanghai and Guangdong, through the
promise of cheap land and local labour. These foreign businesses were
expected to train Chinese personnel and to give priority to using Chinese
raw materials.
Agr
icultu
re
The cooperative farms were failing
to produce enough food. In 1982
China had to import 13.7 million tons
of grain to feed its population.
The size of peasant plots was increased. A Responsibility System for
commune land was started in 1978, by which families were given
responsibility for cultivating areas of land within their commune. They
signed contracts promising to produce fixed amounts of food for sale to
the state, and were allowed to sell any surplus at market for profit.
By 1983 China had 44,000 markets as farmers could sell their produce
privately. The income of agricultural workers tripled between 1977
and 1983.
Educ
ation
Under Mao, students were admitted
to university if they had a good
political, not academic, record.
Examinations were boycotted
because they were seen as creating
an unequal society.
Deng restored tough examinations for university places. Success in
academic subjects once again became essential.
Special key schools for the best students were set up to provide China
with the skills needed to prosper. Moreover, the time spent on political
education and manual labour was reduced.
Birth
Con
trol
During the Cultural Revolution, birth
control programmes were abandoned
and the birth rate spiralled out of
control. It was estimated that by the
year 2000, China’s population would
be 1.282 billion. Moreover, a 1982
census of the population showed that
¾ of the population worked in
agriculture and that population was
increasing by 12 million a year. China’s
economic growth would be slowed if
this carried on unchecked.
In 1979 he introduced the ‘one-child’ family policy with massive
publicity. It was a series of measures designed to discourage couples
from having more than one child.
The minimum age for marriage was set at 20 for women and 22 for
men;
Couples had to get the consent of their commune and take a written
test in family planning;
Those with only one child were given generous family allowances and
more rations;
Single children found it easier to get into higher education whilst
their parents got priority housing;
People who were willing to be sterilised got extra cash and holidays.
West
ern
isation
Under Mao, China was virtually
closed off from the world. Foreign
influences and trade was limited and
during the Cultural Revolution, many
foreign embassies were attacked.
This improved in 1972 when US
President Nixon visited China leading
to a thaw in relations. Deng
recognised that China lagged in
economic development in comparison
to the West.
The 1978 ‘Open Door’ Policy was designed by Deng to open up China to
world capitalism and western influences. On TV, the Chinese were able
to see the Pope or US President. They could buy foreign books in
translation and listen to foreign music. There was more entertainment
and less political meetings. In communist newspapers, the Chinese could
read about the darker side of life in China such as industrial accidents,
crime and Party officials who had used their power for their own ends.
Deng realised that economic recovery would be helped by Western
technology and expertise. He sent students abroad to study engineering
and technology. He encourage foreign companies to set up projects in
China in partnership with state-owned Chinese businesses. These ranged
from textiles and hotel construction to oil prospecting.
18.) The Democracy Movement: 1979-1989
Deng’s Opposition to Reform Rise of the Democracy Movement Growing Opposition
and Unrest
Although Deng believed in
economic reform and
Westernisation, he was a
communist hardliner and was
very conservative towards
political change. He believed
that China had gone through too
much in the Cultural Revolution
and needed a rest from political
argument. Deng believed
popular democracy would
undermine his economic
reforms.
This was expressed in 1980 by
the National People’s Congress
which condemned the view that
people had a right to speak
freely and even criticise the
government.
He was influenced by his ‘four
cardinal principles’:
Keeping to the Socialist
road
Upholding the people’s
democratic dictatorship
Upholding leadership by the
CCP
Upholding Marxism-Leninism
and Mao Zedong Thought
In addition, Deng wanted to
restore the authority and
control of the CCP after the
disasters of the GLF and
Cultural Revolution. He wanted
to show that the CCP was still
capable of governing China.
The ‘Democracy Wall’ movement began in early
1979. Wall posters began to appear in the Avenue
of Eternal Peace, near Tiananmen Square. It was a
common meeting place for students who often
attached small letters and posters onto walls. Some
were political graffiti whilst others expressed anti-
government and anti-Party feelings.
Many Chinese suffered during the Cultural
Revolution but struggled to benefit from Deng’s
reforms. Wei Jingsheng was one such person. He
was a writer who on 25th March 1979, published an
article called ‘Democracy or New Dictatorship’
which attacked Deng.
The attack shocked Deng and in Summer 1979, the
government tore down the posters. Wei was
brought to trial and sentenced for 15 years
imprisonment.
Wei was viewed as the first ‘martyr’ of the
movement who saw in Deng’s reforms the
opportunity to modernise the political system as
well as the economy. It urged Deng to adopt
Democracy and accused the CCP of corruption.
In 1986, major disturbances broke out in
universities in Hefei, Wuhan and Shanghai.
Thousands followed Fang Lizhi who was a professor
at Hefei and demanded open government and
democracy. On 5th Jan 1987 students at Beijing
University burnt copies of local CCP newspapers
and protested against ‘conservatives’.
Deng generally tolerated the movement unless he
was personally attacked. The punishment of Wei
Jingsheng was a warning and insisted that genuine
Democracy was not an option for China.
Opposition grew
throughout the mid
to late 1980s.
The Democracy
Movement was
disappointed at
his rejection of
democracy and
repression of
student
demonstrations.
Many economic
reforms proved
to be very
disappointing.
Inflation had
risen as had
unemployment.
The growing
population and
rural to urban
migration led to
severe
overcrowding in
the cities.
Students felt
that Deng and
the CCP had
failed to
deliver.
Many also
resented the
lack of jobs
and the fact
that top jobs
often went to
members of the
CCP.
Wei Jingsheng Fang Lizhi
19.) The Tiananmen Square Massacre: June 1989
What happened? Effects
The events of 1989 were a culmination of tension that had been building up for over
10 years:
Death of Hu Yaobang – Hu was the General Secretary of the CCP and died on 15th
April 1989. He had been sympathetic to the democracy movement but had been
removed in Jan 1987 for supporting protests. Large crowds gathered in Tiananmen
Square for his memorial. 3 students tried to give a petition to Premier Li Peng.
He refused it which sparked off sit-ins and boycotts of university classes.
Students from 40 universities joined protesters in Tiananmen Square with
transport workers giving them free travel.
Hunger Strike – By mid-May, a group of 300 students went on hunger strike and
they refused government calls to end it. They were receiving worldwide publicity
for international journalists. USSR leader Gorbachev was also visiting Beijing and
protesters believed the authorities wouldn’t dare to crush the protest during the
visit.
Zhao Ziyang – On the 6th day of the hunger strike, General Secretary Zhao asked
students in tears to end the strike, promising to resolve all issues. He was
dismissed from his post with Deng deciding that force would be used and declared
martial law. Protests continued.
Further Support – When news broke of the continuing protests, many thousands
returned to the square. Residents in Beijing blocked the roads leading to
Tiananmen Square to prevent troops from entering. Troops hastily withdrew to the
outskirts of the city.
Troops Move In – By 2nd June 1989, 350,000 PLA soldiers and crack troops
supported by tanks surrounded the Square and controlled all routes in, ignoring
protests of local people.
The Massacre – At 10PM on the night of the 3rd June, shots were fired at
demonstrators and by midday, the occupation was over. Tanks were even used to
drive at groups of students. Some groups of students were marched away and
imprisoned. No one knows the real number of casualties although it includes PLA
soldiers beaten to death by angry crowds and could be well in the thousands. The
government imposed a news blackout but information leaked out.
In the weeks that
followed,
demonstrators who
escaped were rounded
up and imprisoned.
Ringleaders were given
heavy sentences.
CCP officials that had
supported the
protests were
dismissed whilst those
who opposed the
demonstrations were
promoted.
The government
admitted that 23
students had been
killed accidentally.
The massacre marked
the end of the
democracy movement
in China. At the 14th
Party Congress of the
CCP in Oct 1992, the
dictatorship of the
Communist Party was
confirmed – no
criticism was allowed
to be permitted.
Political reform would
not be allowed.
B5: Conflict, Crisis and Change: China
1911-1989 – Exam Questions
Section C topics are split into three questions. The wording and pattern of the questions will always be
the same so remember the three types of questions you have to deal with: a) Take information from a
source b) Describe the key features of an event c) an essay on change . Possible topics include:
You only have about 45 minutes to answer all three sub-questions. The amount of marks for each
questions should help you judge how much to write. For Question a) give 5 minutes, Question b) 10
minutes, Question c) 30 minutes. Grade boundaries are at end of document.
China 1911-1934
The causes, events and results of the 1911 Revolution, China under the Warlords, The May the Forth Movement, Sun
Yat-Sen, Chiang Kai-Shek and the Kuomintang, Mao Zedong and the emergence of the Chinese Communist Party, The
Northern March and the Shanghai Massacres.
The Triumph of Mao and the CCP 1934-1949
The events and importance of the Long March 1934-35, War with Japan 1937-1945, Role of the CCP, Red Army and
failures of the KMT during the war, Key features of the Civil War 1945-1949, The battle of Huai-Hai, Reasons for the
success of Mao and the CCP.
Change under Mao 1949-1963
Changes in agriculture and Industry, first Five Year Plan, attack on landlords, the Agrarian Reform Law, cooperatives
and collectives. Changes in the role of women, political changes including Thought Reform, the Three and Five Antis
Campaigns. The Hundred Flowers campaign, Reasons for, key features and effects of the Great Leap Forward.
The Impact of the Cultural Revolution
Mao’s motives for the Cultural Revolution, Key features, the Red Guards, education, the ‘Cult of Mao’, Impact on China
and Mao’s position.
Changes under Deng Xiaoping
The Rise of the Gang of Four, Hua Guofeng, Changes under Deng, education, birth control, agriculture, industry,
privatisation and westernisation,
The Development of the Democracy Movement
Deng’s opposition to political reform, origins of the Democracy Movement 1979, The ‘Democracy Wall’ movement, Wei
Jingsheng, Features and aims of the University Protests 1986, Reaction of Deng, Tiananmen Square Protests 1989.
Question A (3 marks)
‘What does source X tell us about…?’
1. What does this Source tell us about the importance of the Long March?
2. What does this Source tell us about the treatment of teachers during the Cultural
Revolution?
3. What does this Source tell us about the first Five Year Plan?
4. What does this Source tell us about actions of the CCP during the Japanese invasion?
Question A requires you to extract three points of information from the source. It’s only worth 3 marks so
complete it as quick as you can! It is a simple comprehension task, you do not need to infer from the source.
Ensure you understand the focus of the question. What points of information do you need to pick out?
Highlight three points from the source and describe them.
DO NOT include your own knowledge! It’s not needed and won’t get you a better mark!
“For twelve months we were under daily bombing from the skies, whilst on land we were
pursued by a huge force. We met untold dangers when marching across eleven provinces. The
Long March has shown the world that the Red Army is an army of heroes. The Long March also
tells the 200 million in the eleven provinces that only the road of the Red Army leads to
freedom.” From a speech by Mao Zedong in December 1935.
“I ran inside the school and saw a row of teachers with black ink poured over their heads
and faces. Hanging on their necks were placards with words such as ‘class enemy’. Beatings
and torture followed. I have never seen such tortues before; they were even made to eat
insects. The head teacher was savagely beaten. He had his eyes closed and his mouth full
of ink and blood.” From an eyewitness account of the Cultural Revolution, written in
1972.
“The Five-Year Plan seemed to be a great success. The city of Foshan was a good example of
the rapid industrial development. It was a city of 700,000 people, four times bigger than it
had been in 1949. It had three underground mines as well as another three petrol refineries
under construction. There was building work all over the city. Communities of people were
laying huge steel girders over river beds.” From a British reporter in China, writing in 1954.
“From 1937, the CCP made clear that its policy was to drive out the Japanese, and this
attracted more and more support. The Eighth Route Army acted independently, often
behind enemy lines. It set up a network of command posts in villages across China. Its
behaviour won increasing support for the CCP. It also created a network of support for the
CCP throughout China.” From a modern textbook.
5. What does this Source tell us about the Great Leap Forward?
Mark Scheme
1 Factor 1 mark
2 Factors 2 marks
3 Factors 3 marks
Exam Questions – Question B (7 marks)
1. Describe the key features of either the Cultural Revolution or the democracy movement of
1979-1989.
2. Describe the key features of either the First Five Year Plan in China or the Great Leap
Forward.
3. Describe the key features of either the changes in Industry and agriculture under Deng
Xiaoping or the treatment of the Gang of Four.
4. Describe the key features of either the Long March or the Hundred Flowers Campaign.
5. Describe the key features of either the War against Japan 1937-1945 or The Civil War 1945-
1949.
6. Describe the key features of either the Agrarian Reform Law or Deng’s Modernisations.
7. Describe the key features of either the Anti-Rightist Campaign of 1957 or Long March.
8. Describe the key features of either Mao Zedong Thought or The Great Leap Forward.
9. Describe the key features of either the changes in Industry and agriculture under Mao
Zedong or the Democracy Movement.
Question B will always give you a choice of two topics. You will need to use your knowledge to describe the
key features of this event. Spend about 10 minutes answering this question. Try to pick out two key
features and link them for full marks. Remember, a key features can be any part of that event – causes,
events, effects/results etc…
Describe at least two key features and write a paragraph on each. Make sure you pick significant
features of each event.
Make a link between the key features. How did one led to the other? This led to, as a result etc…
Conclude by stressing the links between the two features.
“Now our enthusiasm has been aroused, we shall be able to do things we have never done
before. When our nation has such great energy we shall catch up with Britain in fifteen years.
We shall produce 40 million tons of steel annually, whereas at the moment we only produce just
over five million.” From a speech by Mao Zedong, January 1958.
10. Describe the key features of either the 1911 Revolution or China under the Warlords.
11. Describe the key features of either May 4th Movement or the Shanghai Massacres.
12. Describe the key features of either the Northern March or the early Kuomintang.
Mark Scheme
Level Descriptor Mark
Level 1
Simple or generalised statements of key features – The candidate makes
statements which lack any supporting contextual knowledge or makes
unsupported generalisations.
e.g. Mao tried to build up heavy industry. He introduced communes.
1-2
1 for one simple
statement or 2
for two or more
Level 2
Developed statements of key features – The candidate supports their
statements with relevant contextual knowledge.
e.g. Expansion in heavy industry and help of Soviet Union. Small scale industrial
development – backyard furnaces.
3-5
3 for one
developed
statement, 4-5
for two or more
Level 3
Developed exposition of key features – An exposition of more than one factor
supported by selected knowledge. One explained factor should be marked at
the top of Level 2.
e.g. As Level 2. Could include more details of reasons for and effects of either
the First Five Year Plan or GLF.
6-7
6 for two or more
factors, 7 for
answers which
show links
between factors
Exam Questions – Question C (15 marks)
1. In what ways did Mao Zedong change the organisation of agriculture and industry in
China in the years 1949-1962? You may use the following to help you with your answer: Land
Reform, Collectivisation, The First Five Year Plan 1953-57, The Great Leap Forward 1958-62.
2. In what ways did threats to the Chinese Communist Party change in the years 1934-
1989? You may use the following to help you with your answer: The Long March 1934-35, The
Hundred Flowers Campaign 1956-57, The Gang of Four, The Democracy Movement.
By Question C will require you to write an essay about change over a period of time. You MUST show
change, either by comparing the situation before and after the development or by showing how it
developed during the period. Remember that this is the highest scoring question so give a detailed and
extensive response. 30 minutes should be enough. Don’t forget to use the four scaffolding points given to
you!
Focus on the question! It’s about change so write about changes!
You can add your own points or use the scaffolding points – just stay focused.
Write a paragraph for each event/factor. Give the change then explain it.
Try to link the factors together for full marks.
YOU MUST conclude by giving a judgement on the extent of change for full marks.
3. In what ways did agriculture and industry change in the years 1952-1957? You may use
the following to help you with your answer: The First Five Year Plan, Attacks on the Landlords,
The Agrarian Reform Law, Collectivisation.
4. How did the treatment of opponents of the CCP change from 1949 to 1989? You may use
the following to help you with your answer: Attacks on the ‘Rightists’, The Hundred Flowers
Campaign, The Cultural Revolution, The Democracy Movement
5. In what ways did support for Mao and the Chinese Communist Party change in the years
1934-1970? You may use the following to help you with your answer: The Long March 1934-
35, The Civil War 1945-49, The Great Leap Forward 1958-62, The Cultural Revolution 1966-
70.
6. In what ways did the Democracy Movement develop in the years 1979-1989? You may use
the following to help you with your answer: One Hundred Flowers Campaign, Democracy Wall
1979, University Protests 1986, Tiananmen Square Protests 1989
7. In what ways did support for the Kuomintang (KMT) decline in the years 1937-1949? You
may use the following to help you with your answer: The Long March 1934-35, The War with
Japan 1937-45, The Civil War 1945-1949, USA withdrawing Support
8. In what ways did support for Deng Xiaoping change in the years 1958-1989? You may use
the following to help you with your answer: The Great Leap Forward 1958-1962, The Cultural
Revolution 1966-1969, Deng’s Four Modernisations, The Tiananmen Square Protests 1989
Mark Scheme
Level Descriptor Mark
Level
1
Simple or generalised statements of change – The candidate makes
statements which lack any supporting contextual knowledge or makes
unsupported generalisations.
e.g. The Long March was to get away from the Kuomintang.
1-4
Low Level 1 (1-2) repetition of the
provided stimulus material with no
development
High Level 1 (3-4) for unfocused
description.
Level
2
Developed Statements of change – Developed statements using the
stimulus and/or additional material. Mostly relevant and accurate but
with an implicit focus on the question.
e.g. As Level 1. More details of the events of the Long March and its
importance.
5-8
Low Level 2 (5-6) mainly narrative or
one stimuli only.
High Level 2 (7-8) develops 2 or more of
stimuli or other relevant information.
Level
3
Developed explanation of change – Developed explanation of more
than one factor from stimulus and/or additional material and is able
to make links between some factors. The answer mainly focuses on
the question.
e.g. Level 2 but greater focus on changes in threats from outside the
Party 1934-35 to inside the Party with the Hundred Flowers and
Gang of Four. Could link threats from Hundred Flowers and
Democracy Movement.
9-12
Low Level 3 (9-10) considers a variety of
factors but links implicitly
High Level 3 (11-12) considers a variety
of factors and links explicitly.
Level
4
A sustained argument – This considers the inter-relationship
between a range of factors from the stimulus and/or additional
13-15
Low Level 4 (13-14) addresses the inter-
relationship between various factors.
material and makes judgements on the extent of change and/or
continuity.
e.g. Main change from outside threats to threats once in power.
Continuity in years 1949-1989 in way in which threats were
repressed.
High Level 4 (15) addresses the extent
of change and/or continuity.
Grade Boundaries for June 2012
Please use these grade boundaries only as a rough estimate of working at grade.
Boundaries are subject to change by Edexcel. If you are working solidly at Level
2 then that is equivalent to a C. If you are achieving high level 3 consistently,
you are working at A/A* level.
Grade Total Marks from Exam Average Marks
Needed per Topic
A* 78 19.5
A 68 17
B 58 14.5
C 48 12
D 38 9.5
E 29 7.25
F 20 5
G 11 2.75
U 0+ 0+