edc lab manuel

P.S.R.ENGINEERING COLLEGE, SIVAKASI-626 140 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

YEAR: II SEMESTER: III

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS LAB- EE37

LAB MANUAL PREPARED BY

KANNAN.M HOD/EEE JEYANTHI.R SENTHILKUMAR.C

P.S.R.Engineering College, Sivakasi (EE37-Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab)

1

P.S.R ENGINEERING COLLEGE, SIVAKASI – 626 140

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

EE 37 – ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS LABORATORY

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

FIRST CYCLE

S. No.

EXPERIMENT NAME Page No.

1. Characteristics of PN Junction Diode 9

2. Characteristics of Zener Diode 15

3. Characteristics of CE Configuration 19

4. Characteristics of CB Configuration 25

5. Characteristics of Field Effect Transistor 31

6. Characteristics of Uni Junction Transistor 35

SECOND CYCLE

7. Characteristics of Silicon Controlled 39

Rectifier (SCR)

8. UJT relaxation oscillator 45

9. Characteristics Photo diode 51

10. Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifiers 55

11. Common Emitter amplifier 61

12. RC phase shift oscillator 67


2

Resistor values - the resistor colour code

Resistance is measured in ohms. The symbol for ohm is an

omega . 1 is quite small so resistor values are often given in

k and M .

1 k = 1000 1 M = 1000000 .

Resistor values are normally shown using colored bands.

Each colour represents a number as shown in the table.

.

Most resistors have 4 bands:

The first band gives the first digit.

The second band gives the second digit.

The third band indicates the number of zeros.

The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision)

of the resistor

This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands. So its value is

270000 = 270 k . On circuit diagrams the is usually omitted and the value is

written 270K.

Small value resistors (less than 10 ohm)

The standard colour code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show these

small values two special colours are used for the third band: gold which means

× 0.1 and silver which means × 0.01. The first and second bands represent the

digits as normal.

For example:

red, violet, gold bands represent 27 × 0.1 = 2.7

blue, green, silver bands represent 56 × 0.01 = 0.56

Tolerance of resistors (fourth band of colour code)

The tolerance of a resistor is shown by the fourth band of the colour code.

Tolerance is the precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For

example a 390 resistor with a tolerance of ±10% will have a value within 10% of

390 , between 390 - 39 = 351 and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10% of 390). A

special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:

silver ±10%, gold ±5%, red ±2%, brown ±1%.

If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is ±20%.

The Resistor Colour Code

Colour Number

Black 0

Brown 1

Red 2

Orange 3

Yellow 4

Green 5

Blue 6

Violet 7

Grey 8

White 9


3

STUDY OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)

The cathode ray oscilloscope is a type of most versatile electronic

measuring test equipment available. It provides a visual

presentation of any waveform applied to the input terminal. That

means it allows signal voltages to be viewed, as a two-dimensional

graph in the given span of time.

The Y- axis of the graph represents voltage and X- axis represents

time.

We can measure following parameters (quantities) using the CRO:

1. DC or AC voltage (peak voltage, frequency, pulse width,

2. Time (t=1/f),

3. Phase relationship (phase difference),

4. Waveform calculation (Rise time, fall time, on time, off-time

Distortion, delay time, etc.,)

We can also measure non-electrical physical quantities like pressure,

strain, temperature, acceleration, etc., by converting into electrical

quantities using a transducer.

Major blocks:

1. Cathode ray tube (CRT)

2. Vertical amplifier

3. Horizontal amplifier

4. Sweep generator

5. Trigger circuit

6. Associated power supply..

1. The cathode ray tube is the heart of the CRO providing visual

display of an input signal waveform. The CRT is enclosed in an

evacuated glass envelope to permit the electron beam to traverse in

the tube easily. The main functional units of CRO are Electron gun

assembly Deflection plate unit & Screen.

2. Vertical Amplifier amplifies the signal at its input prior to the

signal being applied to the vertical deflection plates. It is the main

factor in determining the bandwidth and sensitivity of an

oscilloscope. Vertical sensitivity is a measure of how much the

electron beam will be deflected for a specified input signal. On the

front panel of the oscilloscope, one can see a knob attached to a


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rotary switch labeled volts/division. The rotary switch is electrically

connected to the input attenuation network. The setting of the

rotary switch indicates what amplitude signal is required to deflect

the beam vertically by one division.

3. Horizontal amplifier amplifies the signal at its input prior to the

signal being applied to the horizontal deflection plates. Under

normal mode of operation, the horizontal amplifier will amplify the

sweep generator input. When the CRO is being used in the X-Y mode,

the horizontal amplifier will amplify the signal applied to the

horizontal input terminal. Although the vertical amplifier mush be

able to faithfully reproduce low-amplitude and high frequency

signal with fast rise-time, the horizontal amplifier is only required

to provide a faithful reproduction of the sweep signal which has a

relatively high amplitude and slow rise time.

4. Sweep generator and Trigger circuit (These two units) form the

Signal Synchronization unit of the CRO. Sweep Generator develops a

voltage at the horizontal deflection plate that increase linearly

with time.

5. Associated Power Supply: The input signal may come from an

external source when the trigger selector switch is set to EXT or from

low amplitude AC voltage at line frequency. When set for INT

(internal triggering), the trigger circuit receives its inputs from the

vertical amplifier.

Major Blocks in a Practical CRT:

A CRO consists of a cathode ray tube (CRT) and additional control

knobs. The main parts of a CRT are:


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i. Electron gun assembly.

ii. Deflection plate assembly.

iii. Fluorescent screen.

Electron Gun Assembly: Cathodes, intensity grid, focus grid, and

accelerating anode together known as electron gun. The electron

gun generates a sharp beam of electrons, which are accelerated to

high velocity fired along the cathode ray tube. This focused beam of

electrons strike the fluorescent screen with sufficient energy to cause

a luminous spot (light) on the screen.

Deflection plate assembly: This part consists of two plates in which

one pair of plates is placed horizontally and other of plates is placed

vertically. The signal under test is applied to vertical deflecting

plates. The horizontal deflection plates are connected to a built-in

ramp generator, which moves the luminous spot periodically in a

horizontal direction from left to right over the screen. Horizontal

and vertical deflecting plates control the path of the electron beam.

An electric field between the first pair of plates deflects the electrons

horizontally, and an electric field between the second pair deflects

them vertically. If no deflecting fields are present, the electrons

travel in a straight line from the hole in the accelerating anode to

the center of the screen, where they produce a bright spot. In

general-purpose oscilloscopes, amplifier circuits are needed to

increase the input signal to the voltage levels required to operate the

tube because the signals measured using CRO are typically small.

There are amplifier sections for both vertical and horizontal

deflection of the beam. These two deflection plates give stationary

appearance to the waveform on the screen. CRO operates on voltage.

Since the deflection of the electron beam is directly proportional to

the deflecting voltage, the CRT may be used as a linear measuring

device. The voltage being measured is applied to the vertical plates

through an iterative network, whose propagation time corresponds

to the velocity of electrons, thereby synchronizing the voltage

applied to the vertical plate with the velocity of the beam.

Synchronization of input signal: The sweep generator produces a

saw tooth waveform, which is used to synchronize the applied

voltage to obtain a stationary applied signal. This requires that the


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time base be operated at a submultiples frequency of the signal

under measurement. If synchronization is not done, the pattern is

not stationary, but appears to drift across the screen in a random

fashion.

Internal synchronization: This trigger is obtained from the time

base generator to synchronize the signal.

External synchronization: An external trigger source can also be

used to synchronize the signal being measured.

Auto Triggering Mode: The time base used in this case in a self-

oscillating condition, i.e., it gives an output even in the absence of

any Y-input. The advantage of this mode is that the beam is visible

on the screen under all conditions, including the zero input. When

the input exceeds a certain magnitude then the internal free

running oscillator locks on to the frequency.

Control Grid Regulates the number of electrons that reach the

anode and hence the brightness of the spot on the screen. The

control grid, which has a negative potential, controls the electron

flow from the cathode and thus controls the number of electron

directed to the screen. A cathode containing an oxide coating is

heated indirectly by a filament resulting in the release of electrons

from the cathode surface. Once the electron passes the control grid,

they are focused into a tight beam and accelerated to a higher

velocity by focusing and accelerating anodes. The high velocity and

well-defined electron beam then passed through two sets of

deflection plates. An evacuated glass envelope with a phosphorescent

screen which glows visibly when struck by electron beam

OPERATION:

The four main parts of the oscilloscope CRT are designed to create

and direct an electron beam to a screen to form an image. The

oscilloscope links to a circuit that directly connects to the vertical

deflection plates while the horizontal plates have linearly

increasing charge to form a plot of the circuit voltage over time. In

an operating cycle, the heater gives electrons in the cathode enough

energy to escape. The electrons are attracted to the accelerating

anode and pulled through a control grid that regulates the number

of electrons in the beam, a focusing anode that controls the width of


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the beam, and the accelerating anode itself. The vertical and

horizontal deflection plates create electric fields that bend the beam

of electrons. The electrons finally hit the fluorescent screen, which

absorbs the energy from the electron beam and emits it in the form

of light to display an image at the end of the glass tube.

PRACTICE PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the CRO. Turn the AC-GND-DC to GND. Check if a

horizontal trace appears after the CRO warms up. Set the trace

centrally in position on the screen.

2. Become accustomed to the operation of the oscilloscope. Move the

focus, intensity, and position controls to see the effects produced.

MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY:

3. Connect the signal generator output to one vertical input of the

CRO.

4. Set the function generator in sinusoidal mode and adjust the

amplitude of the signal so that it just about fills the screen.

5. Set the signal generator dial at any particular frequency and

move the dial until you have only a few complete cycles across the

CRO face in the horizontal direction.

6. Measure the period T of the signal. To do so, measure (in divisions

& subdivisions) the horizontal distance between two successive

peaks and multiply this distance b button which is the scale of the

time axis. Record your data.

7. This gives the period T of the AC signal; its frequency is then

f = 1/T.

MEASUREMENT OF VOLTAGE:

8. Use the volts/div selector to convert vertical readings on the

oscilloscope into actual voltages.

9. In measuring the voltage, always measure the value from the

center of the trace to its peak. This "peak voltage" is half the peak-

to-peak voltage, which is the full height of the trace on the CRO

screen.


8

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Forward Bias Condition Reverse Bias Condition

Diode IN4001 (0 – 50mA) MC Diode IN4001 (0 – 500μA) MC

A K + - K A + -

(0-30V) +

+ RPS + - I kΩ RPS + - I kΩ

- (0-30V) - (0 – 30V) MC

(0 – 2V)MC

TABULATION:

Forward Bias

Sl.No Vf (V)

If (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Reverse Bias

Sl.No Vr (V)

Ir (µA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

V

A

V

A


9

1. CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

AIM:

To draw the voltage – current characteristics of PN junction

diode under forward and reverse bias condition and to determine

cut in voltage, reverse saturation current and forward dynamic

resistance.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO. NAME OF THE EQUIPMENT TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

(NO.S)

1 Diode IN 4001 1

2 Resistor 1 kΩ 1

3 Voltmeter MC (0 – 2V)

(0 – 30V)

One from

each

4 Ammeter MC

(0 – 50mA)

(0 - 500μA)

One from

each

5 Regulated Power Supply (0 – 30V) 1

6 Bread Board 1

7 Connecting wires Required

FORMULA USED:

DC (or) Static Resistance, (Rf) = Vf / If Ω

AC (or) Dynamic Resistance, rf = ΔVf / Δ If Ω

Where,

ΔVf – Change in Voltage in forward bias condition in Volts

ΔIf - Resulting Change in current in forward condition in

Amps


10

MODEL GRAPH:

V-I characteristics of PN junction diode

V Vs I


11

THEORY:

A PN junction diode conducts only in one direction. It is an

example of unilateral element. The V-I characteristics of the diode

are curve between voltage across the diode and current through the

diode. When external voltage is zero, circuit is open and the

potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore, the

circuit current is zero. When P-type (Anode is connected to +ve

terminal and N type (cathode) is connected to –ve terminal of the

supply voltage, is known as forward bias. The potential barrier is

reduced, when diode is in the forward biased condition. At some

forward voltage, the potential barrier altogether eliminated and

current starts flowing through the diode and also in the circuit. The

diode is said to be in ON state. The current increases with increasing

forward voltage.

When N-type (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal and P-type

(Anode) is connected to the –ve terminal of the supply voltage is

known as reverse bias and the potential barrier across the junction

increases. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and

a very small current (reverse saturation current) flows in the

circuit. The diode is said to be in OFF state. The reverse bias current

is due to minority charge carriers.

An ideal PN junction Diode is a two terminal polarity sensitive

device that has zero resistance (diode conducts) when it is forward

biased and infinite resistance (diode doesn’t conduct) when it is

reverse biased. Due to this characteristic, the diode finds number of

applications as 1. Rectifiers in DC power supply, 2. Switch in digital

circuits, 3. Clamping, Clipping circuits network used in TV Receiver,

4. Demodulation (detector) circuits.


12


13

PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the anode and cathode terminals of an IN4001 diode

(or equivalent silicon diode such as BY126) and test it using a

multimeter. Set up the circuit on breadboard as shown in

figure.

2. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By varying the input voltage

the ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted down for

forward bias condition.


the ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted down for

reverse bias condition.

4. Plot all the readings curves on a single graph sheet.

RESULT:

Thus the forward and reverse V-I characteristics of a diode

were obtained and the characteristics curves were plotted.


14

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Forward Bias Condition Reverse Bias Condition

IZ9.2 (0 – 50mA)MC IZ9.2 (0 – 50mA)MC

A K + - K A + -

+

+ RPS + - RPS + -

- (0 – 30V) 1 kΩ - (0 – 30V) (0 – 10V) MC 1 kΩ

(0 – 2V) MC

TABULATION:

FORWARD BIAS

Sl.No Vf (V) If (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

V

A

V

A

REVERSE BIAS

Sl.No Vr (V) Ir(mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.


15

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE

AIM:

To obtain the forward and reverse V–I characteristics of a

Zener diode and to plot the characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:


(NO.S)

1 Zener Diode 9.2 V 1

2 Resistor 1 kΩ 1

3 Voltmeter MC

MC

(0 – 2V)

(0 – 10V)

One from

each

4 Ammeter MC (0 – 50mA) 1


6 Bread Board 1


THEORY:

A zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially

made to operate in the break down region. A p-n junction diode

normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But if the reverse

bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting

heavily. This voltage is called Break down Voltage. High current

through the diode can permanently damage the device to avoid

high current, In Zener diode the reverse breakdown occurs at low

voltages, so the flow of heavy current can be avoided. Once the diode

starts conducting it maintains almost constant voltage across the

terminals whatever may be the current through it, i.e., it has very

low dynamic resistance. It is used in voltage regulators.


16

MODEL GRAPH:

V-I characteristics of Zener diode

V Vs I


17

PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the anode and cathode terminals of the Zener diode.


in steps and the ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted

down for forward bias condition.


in steps and the ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted

down for reverse bias condition.

4. Plot all the readings on a single graph sheet.

RESULT:

Thus the forward and reverse V-I characteristics of the Zener

diode were obtained and the characteristics curves were plotted.


18

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

Input Characteristics

Sl.No. VCE1 (V) = _____ V VCE2 (V) =_____ V

IB (μA) VBE (V) IB (μA) VBE (V)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Output Characteristics

Sl.No.

IB1 (μA) = ______ μA IB2 (μA) =_____ μA IB3 (μA) =_____ μA

VCE (V) IC (mA) VCE (V) VCE (V) IC (mA) VCE (V)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.


19

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT) IN

COMMAN EMITTER (CE) CONFIGURATION

AIM:

To obtain the input and output (V – I) characteristics of a BJT

in Common Emitter Configuration and to plot the characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:


(NO.S)

1 Bipolar Junction

Transistor

SL 100 1

2 Resistor 1 kΩ,

33 kΩ

One from

each

3 Voltmeter MC (0 – 2V)

(0 – 30V)

One from

each

4 Ammeter MC

(0 – 500μA)

(0 – 100mA)

One from

each


6 Bread Board 1


FORMULA USED:

Input Impedance = ΔVEB / Δ IB Ω

Output Admittance = Δ IC / ΔVCE mho

Current Gain = Δ IC / Δ IB

Voltage Gain = ΔVCE / ΔVEB


20

MODELGRAPH:

Input Characteristics: Output Characteristics:

VBE Vs IB VCE Vs IC

*** Note – VCE1 < VCE2 < VCE3 Similarly IB1 < IB2 < IB3

BJT PIN DIAGRAM


21

THEORY:

A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals are

emitter, base, collector. In common emitter configuration, input

voltage is applied between base and emitter terminals and output is

taken across the collector and emitter terminals. Therefore the

emitter terminal is common to both input and output. The input

characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve. This

is expected since the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is

forward biased. As compared to CB arrangement IB increases less

rapidly with VBE

. Therefore input resistance of CE circuit is higher

than that of CB circuit. The output characteristics are drawn

between Ic and VCE at constant IB. the collector current varies with

VCE unto few volts only. After this the collector current becomes

almost constant, and independent of VCE

. The value of VCE

up to which

the collector current changes with VCE

is known as Knee voltage. The

transistor always operated in the region above Knee voltage, IC

is

always constant and is approximately equal to IB

.

PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the Emitter, Base and Collector terminals of the

transistor given and set up the circuit on breadboard as shown

in figure.

2. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By keeping the output

voltage (Collector Voltage) constant and varying the input

voltage (Base Voltage) ammeter and voltmeter readings are

noted down.


22


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3. Wire the circuit as shown in figure.

4. By keeping the input current (Base Current) constant and

varying the output voltage (Collector Voltage) ammeter and

voltmeter readings are noted down.

5. The above procedure shall be repeated for different output

voltage and input current and readings can be taken.

6. VI characteristics curves were drawn.

RESULT:

Thus the input and output (V-I) characteristics of a transistor



24

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

Input Characteristics

Sl.No VCB 1(V) =_____ V VCB2 (V) =______ (V)

VBE (V) IB (mA) VBE (V) IB (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Output Characteristics

Sl.No IE1 (mA) = _____ mA IE2 (mA) = ______ mA IE3 (mA)= _______ mA

VCB (V) IC (mA) VCB (V) IC (mA) VCB (V) IC (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.


25

4. CHARACTERISTICS OF BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT) IN

COMMAN BASE (CB) CONFIGURATION

AIM:

To obtain the input and output (V-I) characteristics of a BJT

in Common Base Configuration and to plot the characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:


(NO.S)

1 Bipolar Junction

Transistor

SL 100 1

2 Resistor 1 kΩ 2

3 Voltmeter MC

MC

(0 – 2V)

(0 – 30V)

1

1



6 Bread Board 1


FORMULA USED:

Input Impedance = ΔVEB / Δ IE Ω

Output Admittance = Δ IC / ΔVCB mho

Current Gain = Δ IC / Δ IE

Voltage Gain = ΔVCB / ΔVEB


26

MODEL GRAPH:

Input characteristics: output characteristics:

VEB (V) Vs IB(mA) VcB (V) Vs Ic(mA)

BJT PIN DIAGRAM


27

THEORY:

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal

semiconductor device capable of amplifying an ac signal. The three

terminals are called the emitter, the base, and the collector. The

device is made up three “layers” of p-type and n-type semiconductor

material. BJTs consist of a thin base layer (either P- or N-type)

sandwiched between two layers of the opposite type material. Thus,

BJTs are either NPN or PNP. They are somewhat like two

interconnected, back to- back diodes, with two diode junctions.

In CB configuration, the base is common to both input (emitter)

and output (collector). For normal operation, the E-B junction is

forward biased and C-B junction is reverse biased. The input

characteristics are plots of IE

versus VBE

at constant values of VCB

. These

characteristics will look like diode characteristics, particularly if

the collector is shorted to the emitter and the emitter-base junction

is forward biased. The output characteristics, often called the

collector characteristics, are plots of IC

versus VCB

at constant values

of IE.

PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the Emitter, Base and Collector terminals of the

transistor given and set up the circuit on breadboard as shown

in figure.

2. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By keeping the output

voltage (Collector Voltage) constant and varying the input

voltage (Emitter Voltage) ammeter and voltmeter readings are

noted down.


28


29

3. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By keeping the input current

(Emitter Current) constant and varying the output voltage

(Collector Voltage) ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted

down.

4. The above procedure shall be repeated for different output

voltage and readings can be taken.


RESULT:

Thus the input and output (V-I) characteristics of a transistor

in CB configuration were obtained and the characteristics curves

were plotted.


30

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

Transfer Characteristics

Sl.No VDS1(V) =____ (V) VDS2(V) = _____ (V)

VGS (V) ID (mA) VGS (V) ID (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Drain Characteristics

Sl.No VGS1(V) =_____ V VGS2(V) =_______ V

VDS (V) ID (mA) VDS (V) ID (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.


31

5. CHARACTERISTICS OF FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR

AIM:

To obtain the Drain and Transfer (V-I) characteristics of FET

and to plot the characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:


(NO.S)

1 FET BFW10/11 1

2 Resistor 1 kΩ 2

3 Voltmeter D.C (0 – 5V)

(0 – 100V)

One from

each

4 Ammeter D.C (0 – 50mA) 1

5 Regulated Power Supply D.C (0 – 30V) 2

6 Bread Board 1


THEORY:

A FET is a three terminal device, having the characteristics of

high input impedance and less noise, the Gate to Source junction of

the FET s always reverse biased. In response to small applied voltage

from drain to source, the n-type bar acts as sample resistor, and the

drain current increases linearly with VDS

. With increase in ID

the

ohmic voltage drop between the source and the channel region

reverse biases the junction and the conducting position of the


32

MODEL GRAPH:

Transfer Characteristics Drain Characteristics

VGS(V) Vs ID(mA) VDS(V) Vs ID(mA)

JFET PIN DIAGRAM


33

channel begins to remain constant. The VDS

at this instant is called

“pinch of voltage”. If the gate to source voltage (VGS) is applied in

the direction to provide additional reverse bias, the pinch off

voltage ill is decreased.

PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the terminals of the FET given and set up the circuit on

breadboard as shown in figure.

2. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By keeping the Gate Source

voltage constant and varying the Drain Source voltage, ID

readings are noted down.

3. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By keeping the Drain Source

voltage constant and varying the Gate Source voltage, ID

readings are noted down.

4. The above procedure was repeated and ammeter and voltmeter

readings were noted.


RESULT:

Thus the Drain and Transfer (V-I) characteristics of the FET



34

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

Sl.No

VBB1 = VBB2 =

VE (V) IE (mA) VE (V) IE (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.


35

6. CHARACTERISTICS OF UNI JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

AIM:

To obtain the V-I characteristics of a UJT and to plot the

characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:


(NO.S)

1 Uni Junction Transistor 2N2646 1

2 Voltmeter MC (0 – 30V) 2



5 Bread Board 1


THEORY:

A Uni-Junction Transistor (UJT) is an electronic

semiconductor device that has only one junction. The UJT Uni-

Junction Transistor (UJT) has three terminals emitter (E) and two

bases (B1 and B2). The base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of

silicon. The emitter is of p-type and it is heavily doped. The UJT, is a

simple device that is essentially a bar of N type semiconductor

material into which P type material has been diffused somewhere

along its length. The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between

the two bases. This causes a potential drop along the length of the

device. When the emitter voltage is driven approximately one diode

voltage above the voltage at the point where the P diffusion

(emitter) is, current will begin to flow from the emitter into the


36

UJT PIN DIAGRAM


37

base region. Because the base region is very lightly doped, the

additional current (actually charges in the base region) causes

(conductivity modulation) which reduces the resistance of the

portion of the base between the emitter junction and the B2

terminal. This reduction in resistance means that the emitter

junction is more forward biased, and so even more current is

injected. Overall, the effect is a negative resistance at the emitter

terminal. This is what makes the UJT useful, especially in simple

oscillator circuits.

PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the terminals of the transistor given and set up the

circuit on breadboard as shown in figure.

2. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By keeping the Base – Base

voltage (VBB

) constant and varying the Emitter Voltage

ammeter readings are noted down.

3. The above procedure shall be repeated for different VBB

and

current readings can be taken.


RESULT:

Thus the V-I characteristics of the UJT were obtained and the

characteristics curves were plotted.


38

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

Sl.No Vf(V) If(mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.


39

7. CHARACTERISTICS OF SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)

AIM:

To obtain the Voltage - Current characteristics of Silicon

Controlled Rectifier and to plot the characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:


(NO.S)

1 SCR TYN616 1

2 Resistor 1 kΩ

10 kΩ/10 W

One from

each

3 Voltmeter D.C (0 – 300V) 1

4 Ammeter D.C (0 – 100mA) 2


6 Bread Board 1


THEORY:

A Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is 3 terminals consisting of

four semiconductor layers forming a PNPN structure. It has three PN

junctions namely J1

, J2

and J3.

There are three terminals called

Anode, Cathode and the gate. The SCR resembles the diode

electrically, since it conducts the current in one direction only,

when forward biased. However the SCR is different from diode

because it has an additional gate terminal. This gate is used to

turn “ON” the device.


40

MODEL GRAPH:

V-I Characteristics of SCR

*** VBO – Break Over Voltage

IHO – Holding Current

IL – Latching current

IG – Gate current


41

When the anode is more positive with respect to the cathode,

junctions J1&J3 are forward biased and the junctions J2 is reverse

biased. Only a small leakage current flows through the device. The

device is said to be in the forward blocking state or off state or cut-

off state.

SCR Schematic Symbol SCR Block Construction

When the anode to cathode voltage is increased to break over value,

the junction J2 breaks down and device starts conducting (ON

state) the anode current must be more than the value known as

latching current in order to maintain the device in the ON state.

Once SCR starts conducting, it behaves like a conducting diode and

gate has no control over the device. The device can be turned off

only by bringing the device in below a value known as holding

current. The forward voltage drop across the device in the ON state is

around one volt. When the cathode voltage is made positive with

respect to the anode voltage junction J2 is forward biased and the

junction J1 and J3 are reversed biased. The device will be in the

reverse blocking state and only small leakage current flows through

the device. The device can be turned on at forward voltage less than

break over voltage by applying suitable gate current.


42

SCR PIN DIAGRAM


43

The SCR can be used in motor speed control, phase control, light-

dimming control, heater control, battery charger, inverters, static

switchers, rectifier power supplies and relay control.

PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the terminals of the SCR given and set up the circuit on

breadboard as shown in figure.

2. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By keeping the Gate voltage

constant and varying the Anode and Cathode Voltage,

ammeter readings are noted down.

3. The above procedure shall be repeated for different Gate voltage

and current readings can be taken.


RESULT:

Thus the V-I characteristics of a SCR were obtained and the

characteristics curves were plotted.


44

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATOR

TABULATION:

S.No. Charging Time,

tc(ms)

DisCharging Time,

td(ms)

Amplitude,Vc(V)


45

8. UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATOR

AIM:

To construct the UJT oscillator and obtain the characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:


(NO.S)

1 UJT 2N2646 1

2 Resistor 15 kΩ

220 kΩ, 33Ω

One from

each

3 Capacitor 0.1 μF 1

4 CRO 1

5 Bread Board 1


FORMULA USED:

Charging time of capacitance,

T = RC ln [(E - E0)/E - EC]

E - Supply voltage

E0- Initial capacitor voltage

Ec-Capacitance voltage

THEORY:

The Relaxation UJT oscillator consists of UJT and a capacitor

which is charged through a RE as the supply voltage VBB is switched

ON. The voltage across the capacitor increases exponentially and

when the capacitor voltage reach the peak point voltage Vp, the UJT

starts conducting and the capacitor voltage is discharged rapidly

through EB1 and R1. After the peak point voltage of UJT is reached, it

provides negative resistance to the discharge path which is useful in

the working of the relaxation oscillator. As the capacitor voltage

reaches zero, the device then cuts off and capacitor CE starts to


46

MODEL GRAPH:

UJT PIN DIAGRAM


47

charge again. This cycle is repeated continuously generating a saw

tooth waveform across the capacitor.The inclusion of external

resistors R2 and R1 in series with B2 and B1 provides spike

waveforms. When the UJT fires, the sudden charge of current

through B1 causes drop across R1, which provides positive going

spikes. Also, at the time of firing, fall of VEB1 causes I2 to increase

rapidly which generates negative going spikes across R2. By

changing the values of capacitance CE or resistance RE, the frequency

of the output waveform can be changed as desired, Since these

values control the time constant RECE of the capacitor changing

circuit. The frequency of oscillation can be obtained by assuming

that the capacitor is initially uncharged.

f= 1/T = 2.3 RE CE log 10 [1/(1-ȵ)]

Where, ȵ is intrinsic stand-off ratio

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. Positive biasing voltage is given to the Emitter and Base-2

terminal.

3. The charging and discharging time of capacitor is observed from

the output waveform of CRO.

4. Positive output waveform of B1 and B2 are obtained.

RESULT:

Thus the UJT relaxation oscillator circuit was constructed and

the output waveforms were noted. The corresponding graphs are

drawn.


48

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Forward Bias Condition

TABULATION:

Forward Bias

Sl.No V (V) I (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Reverse Bias Condition

Reverse Bias

Sl.No V (V) I (µA)

Dark Bright

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.


49

9. CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTO DIODE

AIM:

To obtain the forward and reverse VI characteristics of a

photo diode and to plot the characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:


(NO.S)

1 Photo Diode 1

2 Resistor 1 kΩ 1

3 Voltmeter D.C (0 – 2V)

(0 – 30V)

One from

each

4 Ammeter D.C (0 – 50mA)

(0 – 250μA)

One from

each


6 Bread Board 1


FORMULA USED:

Variable resistance used, rR = VD / ID Ω

THEORY:

A photo Diode is a two terminal PN junction device which

operates in a reverse bias. It has small transparent window, which

allows light to strike the PN junction. A photo diode differs from a

rectifier diode in a sense that its reverse current increases with the

light intensity at the PN junction. When there is no light incident

the reverse current is almost negligible and is called the dark

current. An increase in the amount of light energy produces an


50

MODEL GRAPH:

V Vs I


51

increase in the reverse current for a given value of reverse bias

voltage. This device is a low noise, high speed and operates over a

wide temperature range. The application for this photo diode

includes remote control, light curtains, data transmission and

measurement & control.

PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the terminals of the Photo Diode given and set up the

circuit on breadboard as shown in figure.

2. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By varying the input

voltage, the ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted down

for forward bias condition.

3. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By varying the input

voltage, the ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted

down for reverse bias condition


RESULT:

Thus the forward and reverse V-I characteristics of a Photo

Diode were obtained and the characteristics curves were plotted.


52

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Full Wave Rectifier:

Step-down Transformer

(12 – 0 – 12V)

P

D1 D2

230 V, 50 Hz

1 Φ Supply

D3 D4 C

1 kΩ CRO

N PY SY

TABULATION:

Input voltage (Vm):________ Time in mS: _________

Rectifier

Without Filter With Filter (small value)_______ μF With Filter( large value)_______ μF

Vm (V) T

(mS) Vm (V)

VRipple T (mS) Vm

(V)

VRipple T (mS)

Charging Discharging Charging Discharging

Half Wave

Rectifier

Full Wave

Rectifier


53

10. HALF WAVE AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

AIM:

To construct half wave & full wave rectifier circuits using

diodes & observe the input & output wave forms with & without

filter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:


(NO.S)

1 Diode IN 4001 4

2 Resistor 1 kΩ 1

3 Capacitor 100 μF,33 μF One from

each

4 Transformer Step-down 230 V /

(12 – 0 – 12) V

1

5 CRO with Probe 1

6 Bread Board 1


THEORY:

HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:

Figure shows a basic half-wave diode rectifier circuit. During

the positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is forward-

biased for all instantaneous voltages greater than the diode cut-

in voltage Vγ. Current flowing through the diode during the

positive half-cycle produces approximately a half sine wave of

voltages across the load resistor, as shown in the Figure. To simplify

our discussions, we will assume that the diode is ideal and that the


54

MODEL GRAPH:

Vin (V)

Vm

Input Voltage

0 Time

Vout (V) Output of Half Wave Rectifier without filter

0

Time

Vm Output of Half Wave Rectifier with filter VRipple

0

Time

Vm Output of Full Wave Rectifier without filter

0

Time

Vm Output of Full Wave Rectifier with filter

0

Time


55

peak input voltage is always much larger than the Vγ of the diode.

Hence, we assume that the zero of the rectified voltage coincides

with the zero of the input voltage. On the negative half-cycle of the

input voltage, the diode is reverse-biased. Ignoring the reverse

leakage current of the diode, the load current drops to zero,

resulting in zero load voltage (output voltage), as shown in

Figure. Thus, the diode circuit has rectified the input ac voltage,

converting the ac voltage to a dc voltage.

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER:

Figure shows a full-wave bridge rectifier with a load resistor

RL and an input sine wave derived from a transformer. During the

positive half-cycle of the input voltage, diodes D2 and D3 are

forward biased and diodes D1 and D4 are reverse biased.

Therefore, terminal A is positive and terminal B is negative, as

shown in Figure. During the negative half-cycle, diodes D1 and D4

conduct, and again terminal A is positive and terminal B is

negative. Thus, on either half-cycle, the load voltage has the same

polarity and the load current is in the same direction, no matter

which pair of diodes is conducting. The full-wave rectified signal is

shown in Figure, with the Vo being the output voltage. Since the

area under the curve of the full-wave rectified signal is twice that

of the half-wave rectified signal, the average or dc value of the

full-wave rectified signal, Vdc, is twice that of the half-wave

rectifier.


56


57

PROCEDURE:

1. Circuit connections were given as per the circuit diagram.

2. Input waveform’s magnitude and frequency was measured

with the help of CRO.

3. Supply is switched ON and the output waveform was obtained

in the CRO.

4. Output waveform’s magnitude and time period was

measured.

5. Graphs were plotted for Half wave and Full wave rectifier

outputs.

RESULT:

Thus the output of Half wave and Full wave rectifiers were

obtained and the curves were plotted.


58

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

S.No

Frequency,

f (Hz)

With CE

Vo (V) Gain (dB)


59

11. COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

AIM:

To obtain the frequency response of Common Emitter amplifier.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:


(NO.S)

1 Bipolar Junction

Transistor

BC107 1

2 Resistors 47 kΩ,10 kΩ,

2.2 kΩ,820 Ω ,

680 Ω

One

from

each

3 Capacitors 22 μF, 10 μF ,

15 μF

One

from

each

4 AFO with probe 1

5 CRO with probe 1


7 Bread Board 1


FORMULA USED:

Gain in dB = 20 log (Vo / Vi)

THEORY:

The CE amplifier provides high gain &wide frequency

response. The emitter lead is common to both input & output

circuits and is grounded. The Emitter-Base circuit is forward


60

MODEL GRAPH:


61

biased. The collector current is controlled by the Base current

rather than emitter current. The input signal is applied to base

terminal of the transistor and amplifier output is taken across

collector terminal. A very small change in base current produces a

much larger change in collector current. When +VE half-cycle is fed

to the input circuit, it opposes the forward bias of the circuit which

causes the collector current to decrease, it decreases the voltage

more –VE. Thus when input cycle varies through a -VE half-cycle,

increases the forward bias of the circuit, which causes the collector

current to increases thus the output signal is common emitter

amplifier is in out of phase with the input signal. The input AC

signal is applied across the base-emitter terminals and the output

signal is taken across the collector – emitter terminals. The emitter

base junction of a transistor is forward biased by the VBB

supply. The

collector base junction is reverse biased by the VCC

supply. Each

capacitor acts like a switch, The band width of the amplifier is

calculated from the graph using the expression,

3 dB Bandwidth, BW=f2-f1

Where,

f1 is lower cut-off frequency of CE amplifier, and

f2i s upper cut-off frequency of CE amplifier

which is open to a direct current but shorted to an alternating

current. Because of this, a blocking capacitor blocks the direct

current. This action isolates DC bias from an AC signal in the

circuit. A common emitter amplifier has the following important

characteristics

Its input resistance is in the range of 1 kΩ to 2 kΩ, which

is considered to be moderately low.


62

BJT PIN DIAGRAM


63

Its output resistance is about 50 kΩ and is considered to

be moderately large.

It produces very large power gain and is of the order of

10000 or so

It produces phase reversal of the input signal.

The common emitter amplifier is the most widely used amplifier of

its large voltage and power gains. In addition to this, its input

and output resistances are suitable for most of the applications.

PROCEDURE:

1 Identify the Emitter, Base and Collector terminals of the

transistor given and set up the circuit on breadboard as

shown in figure.

2 Wire the circuit as shown in figure.

3 Using AFO the sinusoidal input with constant magnitude is

supplied

4 The frequency of the input increases gradually and the output

is obtained.

5 Using a CRO the output waveform is obtained.

RESULT:

Thus the Common Emitter amplifier circuit is constructed and

the amplified input signal is obtained and the graph was plotted.


64

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

Sl.No Output in volts Time, T (ms) Frequency, f (Hz)

1.

Amplitude=_____V

Theoretical output frequency :-_________Hz

Practical output frequency :-_________Hz


65

12. RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

AIM:

To design and set up an RC phase shift oscillator using BJT and

to observe the sinusoidal output waveform.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO. NAME OF THE

EQUIPMENT TYPE RANGE

QUANTITY

(NO.S)

1 Transistor BC547 1

2 Resistors 47kΩ,

10kΩ,2.2kΩ,680Ω

one from

each

3 Resistor 4.7kΩ 3

3 Capacitors 1µF,22µF one from

each

4 Capacitor 0.01 µF 3

5 CRO

6 RPS (0 – 30V) 1

7 Bread Board 1


FORMULA USED:

Output frequency, 62

1

RCfo

THEORY:

An oscillator is an electronic circuit for generating an AC

signal voltage with a DC supply as the only input requirement. The

frequency of the generated signal is decided by the circuit elements

used. An oscillator requires an amplifier, a frequency selective

network and a positive feedback from the output to the input.


66

MODEL GRAPH:

BJT PIN DIAGRAM


67

The Barkhausen criterion for sustained oscillation is Aβ = 1 where A is

the gain of the amplifier and β is the feedback factor (gain).The unity

gain means signal is in phase. ( If the signal is 1800

out of phase and

gain will be -1). RC-Phase shift Oscillator has a CE amplifier followed

by three sections of RC phase shift feed-back Networks. The output of the

last stage is return to the input of the amplifier. The values of R and C

are chosen such that the phase shift of each RC section is 60º.Thus The

RC ladder network produces a total phase shift of 180º between its

input and output voltage for the given frequency. Since CE Amplifier

produces 180 º phases shift. The total phase shift from the base of the

transistor around the circuit and back to the base will be exactly 360º

or 0º. This satisfies the Barkhausen condition for sustaining

oscillations and total loop gain of this circuit is greater than or equal

to 1, this condition used to generate the sinusoidal oscillations.

PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the pin details of BC107 Transistor (or equivalent

silicon Transistor such as BC108/547) and test it using a

millimeter. Set up the circuit on breadboard as shown in

figure.

2. A 12V Supply Voltage is given by using Regulated power supply

and output is taken from collector of the Transistor.

3. By using CRO the output time period and voltage are noted.

4. Plot all the readings curves on a single graph sheet.

RESULT:

Thus the RC phase shift oscillator using BJT was obtained and

the output waveform was plotted.


68

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

1. Define depletion region of a diode?

2. What is meant by transition & space charge capacitance of a

diode?

3. Is the V-I relationship of a diode Linear or Exponential?

4. Define cut-in voltage of a diode and specify the values for Si and

Ge diodes?

5. What are the applications of a p-n diode?

6. Draw the ideal characteristics of P-N junction diode?

7. What is the diode equation?

8. What is PIV?

9. What is the break down voltage?

10. What is the effect of temperature on PN junction diodes?

2. Characteristics of Zener Diode

1. What type of temp? Coefficient does the zener diode have?

2. If the impurity concentration is increased, how the depletion

width effected?

3. Does the dynamic impendence of a zener diode vary?

4. Explain briefly about avalanche and zener breakdowns?

5. Draw the zener equivalent circuit?

6. Differentiate between line regulation & load regulation?

7. In which region zener diode can be used as a regulator?

8. How the breakdown voltage of a particular diode can be

controlled?

9. What type of temperature coefficient does the Avalanche

breakdown has?

10. By what type of charge carriers the current flows in zener and

avalanche breakdown diodes?

3. Characteristics of CB Configuration

1. What is the range of α for the transistor?

2. Draw the input and output characteristics of the transistor in

CB configuration?


69

3. Identify various regions in output characteristics?

4. What is the relation between α and β?

5. What are the applications of CB configuration?

6. What are the input and output impedances of CB

configuration?

7. Define α(alpha)?

8. What is EARLY effect?

9. Draw diagram of CB configuration for PNP transistor?

10. What is the power gain of CB configuration?

4. Characteristics of CE Configuration

1. What is the range of for the transistor?

2. What are the input and output impedances of CE

configuration?

3. Identify various regions in the output characteristics?

4. what is the relation between and

5. Define current gain in CE configuration?

6. Why CE configuration is preferred for amplification?

7. What is the phase relation between input and output?

8. Draw diagram of CE configuration for PNP transistor?

9. What is the power gain of CE configuration?

10. What are the applications of CE configuration?

5. Characteristics of Field Effect Transistor

1. What are the advantages of FET?

2. Different between FET and BJT?

3. Explain different regions of V-I characteristics of FET?

4. What are the applications of FET?

5. What are the types of FET?

6. Draw the symbol of FET.

7. What are the disadvantages of FET?

8. What are the parameters of FET?

9. FET is unipolar or bipolar?

10. FET is voltage controlled or current controlled?


70

6. Characteristics of Uni Junction Transistor

1. What is the symbol of UJT?

2. Draw the equivalent circuit of UJT?

3. What are the applications of UJT?

4. Formula for the intrinsic stand off ratio?

5. What does it indicates the direction of arrow in the UJT?

6. What is the difference between FET and UJT?

7. Is UJT is used an oscillator? Why?

8. What is the Resistance between B1

and B2

is called as?

9. What is its value of resistance between B1

and B2?

10.

Draw the characteristics of UJT?

7. Characteristics of Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

1. What the symbol of SCR?

2. IN which state SCR turns of conducting state to blocking

state?

3. What are the applications of SCR?

4. What is holding current?

5. What are the important type’s thyristors?

6. How many numbers of junctions are involved in SCR?

7. What is the function of gate in SCR?

8. When gate is open, what happens when anode voltage is

increased?

9. What is the value of forward resistance offered by SCR?

10. What is the condition for making from conducting state to

non conducting state?

8. UJT relaxation oscillator

1. What is meant by negative resistance region of UJT?

2. What is “interbase resistance” of UJT?

3. What waveform is generated across the capacitor in UJT

relaxation Oscillator?

4. What is UJT?

5. Explain the working of UJT relaxation oscillator

6. Explain the term peak point voltage (Vp) of a UJT


71

7. Explain the term valley point voltage (Vv) of a UJT

8. What does UJT stand for? Justify the name UJT.

9. Difference between UJT and BJT

10. Draw the structure and symbol of UJT

9. Characteristics Photo diode

1. What is photo diode?

2. Define the term drift current

3. Define the term diffusion current

4. Explain the terms knee voltage and breakdown voltage w.r.t.

diodes

5. What is avalanche breakdown in PN junction diode?

6. What is depletion region?

7. What are factors decides the magnitude of photo current?

8. Difference between PN junction (ordinary) diode and photo

diode :

9. What is Dark current?

10. Applications of Photo diode :

10. Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifiers

1. What is the peak inverse voltage (PIV) & write its value for Half-

wave and Full-wave rectifier?

2. What is the efficiency of half wave & full wave rectifier?

3. What is the rectifier?

4. What is the difference between the half wave rectifier and full

wave Rectifier?

5. What is the o/p frequency of Bridge Rectifier?

7. What is the function of the filters?

8. Define regulation of the full wave rectifier?

9. What is meant by ripple and define Ripple factor?

10. What are the applications of a rectifier?


72

11. COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

1. What is phase difference between input and output waveforms of

CE amplifier?

2. What type of biasing is used in the given circuit?

3. If the given transistor is replaced by a p-n-p, can we get output

or not?

4. What is effect of emitter-bypass capacitor on frequency response?

5. What is the effect of coupling capacitor?

6. What is region of the transistor so that it is operated as an

amplifier?

7. How does transistor acts as an amplifier?

8. Draw the h-parameter model of CE amplifier?

9. What type of transistor configuration is used in intermediate

stages of a multistage amplifier?

10. What is Early effect?

12. RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

1. What are the conditions of oscillations?

2. Give the formula for frequency of oscillations?

3. What is the total phase shift produce by the RC ladder network?

4. Whether the oscillator is positive feedback or negative feedback?

5. What are the types of oscillators?

6. What is the gain of RC phase shift oscillator?

7. What is the difference between damped oscillations undamped

oscillations?

8. What are the applications of RC oscillations?

9. How many resistors and capacitors are used in RC phase shift

network

10.How the Barkhausen criterion is satisfied in RC phase shift

oscillator

edc lab manuel

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