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Clark, TerryGetting to Grips with On-the-Job Training.TAFE National Centre for Research and Development,Ltd., Leabrook (Australia).Australian Dept. of Employment, Education andTraining, Canberra.ISBN-0-86397-138-59171p.

TAFE National Centre for Research and Development,Attn: Sales, 252 Kensington Road, Leabrook, SouthAustralia 5067.Guides - General (050)

MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.Adult Learning; Adult Literacy; Case Studies; ForeignCo-qtries; *Needs Assessment; *On the ;lob Training;*Program Evaluation; Program Implementation; TeachingMethods; Vocational Education

IDENTIFIERS Australia

ABSTRACTThis booklet is part of the "Getting to Grips

with..." series, which is intended for the general reader who wantsto understand important trends in vocational education and training.It is designed to provide the reader with an understanding of themain practical aspects of on-the-job training. The booklet is n twoparts. The first part, a description of the subject matter thatshould be clear to any interested layperson, covers the followingtopics: (1) the need for efi'ective on-the-:ob training in Australia;(2) how to determine training needs; (3) different approaches andmethods of on-the-job training; (4) how to deliver on-the-jobtraining; and (5) how to evaluate on-the-job training programs. Thesetopics are illustrated by three case studies taken from a range ofAustralian enterprises. The second part gives -n annotated list of 26publications for those who want to read furthi. Each annotationconsists of the author or sponsoring organization, publication data,title, publisher, and content summary. (YLB)

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GETTING TO GRIPS WITHON-THE-JOB TRAINING

Terry Clark

This booklet was funded by the Commonwealth Departmentof Empbyment. Education and `Naining.

ABOUT THE SERIESThe "Getting to grips with . . ." series has been written forthe general reader who wants to understand importanttrends in vocational education and training.

Each booklet is in two parts. The ilrst part comprises adescription of the subject matter in a manner which isintended to be clear to any interested layperson. The secondpart gives an annotated list of publications for those whowant to read further.

Other titles in the series include: Getting to grips with skillsaudits. Getting to grips with competency-based training andassessment, Getting to grips with key technologies andGetting to grips with on- thejob comnetencies.

The Series Editor ts Dr. William Hall, Executive Director.TAFE National Centre for Research and Development. TheSeries Designer is Bain Middleton. Photographs wereprovided by Advertiser Newspapers Ltd and News Ltd.

ABOUT THIS BOOKLETThis booklet has been written by Terry Clark who is alecturer in Adult. Technical Teacher Education and Trainingat the Northern Territory University. Much help wasprovided by Geoff Hennessey of Nabalco Pty Ltd., SeniorConstable Scott Mitchell of the Northern Territory Police. PatLeavy of Sheraton Darwin Hotel, Michael Murphy of theDepartment of Employment, Education and Training, andBill Hall and Geoff Hayton of the TAFE National Centre forResearch and Development.

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Nrtuktrotton Hoodtrobtook SA 5087tbworporotrd In South Aufatolut1Printrd by A. Cuudril. Clownonont Prtntrr, south Auhtratt.,SISA rt11,11,

CONTENTSINTRODUCTION

WHAT IS ON-ME-JOB TRAINING?

the importance of on-the-job trainingInternational competitionprescriptions for Australiais training the answer?

DETERMINING ON-THE-JOB TRAININGNEEDS

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3457

11

training needs analysis methodologies 14case study one: Nahalco Pty Ltd 19selection of methodology 24training versus non training responses 27

APPROACHES TO ON-/ME-JOB TRAINING 29

how adults learn 29recognition of prior learning 31literacy and numeracy 32on- and off-the-job training 33action learning 33case study two: Northern Territory Police 36trainer training 38

DELIVERING ON-ME-JOB TRAINING 40

preparation 40giving the training 44administering on-the-Job training 46case study three: Sheraton Darwin 50

EVALUATION OF ON-THE-JOB TRAINING 52

FURTHER READING 55

i

INTRODUCTION

This booklet is designed to provide the reader with anunderstanding of the main practical aspects of on-the-jobtraining.

In Australia's current economic climate, properly deliveredon-the-job training is crucial to the improvement ofproductivity and efficiency in the workplace. If this is tohappen. however, many people with no prior experience orformal qualifications in training will need to be involved inthe planning. delivery and management of training.

The booklet will cover the following topics:

* the need for effective on-the-job training in AustraPa

* how to determine training needs

* different approaches and methods of on-the-job training

how to deliver on-the-job training

how to evaluate on-the-job training programs.

These will be illustrated by case studies taken from a rangeof Australian enterprises.

Managers. supervisors and experienced workers who arecalled on to deliver on-the-job training should find thisbooklet useful. Although some may already have experiencein delivering training programs. the new emphasis oncompetency-based training in Australian industry is likely to

I

mean that many will be taking on this role for the first time.

On-the-job training is particularly effective for induction ofnew employees and for use by supervisors who have aresponsibility to assist their subordinates careerdevelopment.

7

2

WHAT IS ON-THE-JOB TRAINING?

ghtAkejob Ateaktg can simply be described as theformation of skills. knowledge and attitudes occurring inthe trainee's normal workplace.

This process may range from very structured training withhighly predictable outcomes such as in the cockpit of anaeroplane. to very informal acquisition of skills as mayhappen when a new apprentice is told to spend a few daysJust watching an experienced tradesperson tit work.Between these two extremes lie many levels of on-the-jobtraining. These will differ not only In terms of structure, butalso in duration, methodology, cost, effectiveness, efficiencyand external recognition. On-the-job training may or maynot involve a trainer, training materials or trainingtechnologv.

The importance of on-the-job training

Although the need for effective on-the-job training inAustralia has been advocated by most industrial educatorsand professional associations for many years. Its value hasonly been widely promoted to iru.ustry quite recently. JohnDawkins. the Federal Minister for Employment. Educationand Training, recognised its importance in his 1988discussion paper Industry training in Australia: the need fin-change.

In this paper Dawkins expressed concern at th: inadequacyof the national training effort in terms of its ability to meetthe demands of international competitiveness. structuraladjustment and technological change. According 10 tlw

Australian Bureau of Statistics and the Bureau of LabourMarket Research as many as one third of Australianenterprises spend nothing on formal training. In additionexpenditure between industries varies gieatly. It is relativelylow in agriculture, retail, construction, recreation and textile,clothing and footwear and high in communications, mining.finance, chemicals and public administration.

Intetnational competition

Overseas, on-the-job training is generally more highly valuedthan in Australia. Northern European countries. Japan andrapidly expanding economies such as Korea, Singapore andTaiwan all invest much more heavily in this area. While theUSA does not have such a notable tradition of on-the-jobtraining, certain of its enterprises have a reputation forexemplary practice. For example. IBM, Motorola, Disney.Federal Express and the retailer Nordstrom attribute thtirsuccess in the market-place to their investment in employeetraining. According to Bill Wiggenhorn. Director of Trainingat Motorola:

We've documented the savings from the statisticalprocess control methods and problem-solving methodswe've trained our people in. We're running a rate ofreturn of about 30 times the dollars Invested - whichis why we've gotten pretty good support from seniormanagement.

While tht reasons for Australia's lack-lustre internationaleconomic performance extend beyond inadequate training.there is wide agreement among business, unions andgovernment that improving the rate of skill formation is

4

9

crucial to any sustainable recovery. Put simply by PeterKirby (1990):

economic performance depends on higher productivity:

* productivity depends on skills;

* skills will be tested by credentials:

* credentials will be given on reaching a specified levelof competence:

competence is developed through training.

Prescriptions for Australia

In January 1989 the Employment and Skills FormationCouncil was asked by Minister Dawkins to seek commentson his discussion paper from a wide range c lterestedparties. Their subsequent report contained a number ofsignificant conclusions which included:

* that industry should contribute at least as much toimproving training arrangements as governments;

that improvements in training are largely dependenton the quality of industries analyses of their needs;

that the industrial parties have a pivotal role inimplementing competency-based training:

that most enterprises have yet to integrate training withtheir human resource strategies and business plans:

5 o

* that industry would benefit from a more diversenetwork ol training providers;

that financial incentives be available to employers whocan demonstrate the provision of structured on-the-jobtraining designed to achieve specific outcomes.

These and other findings were used in the formulation of theTraining Guarantee legislation which was enacted in 1990.While its opponents portray the Training Guarantee as anunnecessary burden on industry. its main benefit to datehas been to focus attention on the need to developcompetencies in a more structured manner.

The Federal Government's strateiv for the reconstruction ofAustralian industry hinges on two major pclicy initiatives:award restructuring and skill formation. In order to regaincomparative international advantage. the Government isdetermined to overcome the interrelated problems ofrestrictive Ind strial awards, demarcation, outmodedmanagement practices and inadequate training of theworkforce. Its objective in this regard is best summarised inone of the Structural Efficiency Principles handed down bythe Industrial Relations Commission in 1988:

to establish skill related career paths whichprovide an incentive for workers to continue toparticipate in skill formation .

This objective clearly states the need for workers to .indergotraining and retraining throughout their careers: quite adaunting proposition for the many Australians who believethat their education and initial vocational training will be

6 1 I

adequate for their entire working lives. What may be lessobvious is the need for this training to be delivered to a fargreater number of people and in a greater variety of modesthan are currently supplied by the traditional providers oftraining.

Training will play a vital role in industry restructuring inAustralia. Hayton (1990) states:

. . . training is a medium to long term investment inour workforce an investment just as important ifnor more important than investment in equipment.

It is now widely acknowledged that investment in trairing,particularly on-the-job training needs to be increasedsubstantially in Australia.

][s trAirting the answer?

This begs the question as to whether adequate training vanbe provided in time to deliver Australia from the economicdoldrums? And a crucial part of the answer would appear tolie in the ability of our enterprises to conduct effective on-the-job training. Our track record in this field can hardlygive rise to much Gptimism.

With the exception of some larger corporations, parts of thepublic sector and defence and emergency services.Australian enterprises generally do not have a tradition ofproviding structured on-the-job training for their employees.This deficiency is particularly apparent in small businessesand in the agricultural sectors. Instead, employers haverelied on external training providers such as TAFE, the

712

importation of skills from overseas and the poaching ofskilled labour from thot..e enterprises that have Invested intraining.

In many ways this situation is the result of cultural andhistorical factors. Until the 1980s Austraha's trade balancewas sustained by primary products which enjoyed stableprices. Local manufacturers were largely insulated fromglobal competition by tariff protection and import quotas.This lulled many Australian enterprises and workers into acomplacency which has been characterised by inefficientproduction and work practices and little investment intraining.

adz-

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Alt

(Advertiser Newspapers)

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Declining demand for our primary products and instabilityin world prices has brought to an end our reliance on theagriculture and resource sectors which in the past kept theeconomy afloat. Because of lack of competitiveness.however, the manufacturing and service sectors have beenunable to assume this role.

There still persists a widespread, false belief that Australiacan stage an economic recovery through hard work and belt-tightening. While there may be some historical evidence forthis point of view, it is generally recognised that we need towork smarter rather than harder to succeed internationally.If we examine those countries that have overtaken Australiaeconomically. none have done so by reducing wages or livingconditions. One consistent characteristh- of their success.however, is an emphasis on skill formation within theirworkforces.

Unfortunately in Australia there exists some reluctancetowards a solution which emphasises education andtraining. There is still a perception that economic success ispossible through brawn rather than brain. And so we cutdown our academic tall poppies. squeeze our education andresearch institutions and ignore the nerd to invest ineffective on-tliejob trafning prograMs.

The myth that we can progress by using yesterday's ad hochit-or-miss training techniques must be put to rest swiftly.In the 1990s it Is no longer possible to rely on 'training byosmosis' (I.e. sitting next to Bruce or Betty). Nor can weassume that competencies will result by simply sending anemployee to a TAFE college, University or on a short course.

9 1 4

Another related problem has been a narrow focus on trainingdelivery. According to Hall (1990) our trairtng Institutionsand industry alike have tended to concentrate on the 'how.where and when' of training, to the exclusion of equallyimportant considerations such as needs analyses,curriculum development, assessment arvi accreditation. Inaddition the skills formation requirements of awardrestructuring and the move to competency-based instructiondemand a more sophisticated approach. Only when all thesefactors are dealt with in a systematic fashion can training beseen as a truly effective contributor to Australia'srecovery.

15

10

DETERMINING ON-THE-JOB TRAINING NEEDS

To paraphrase the Cheshire cat from Alice in Wonderland:

If you don't much care where you're going.then it won't matter which way you go.

For many enterprises, unfortunately this epitomises theirapproach to on-the-job training. Too often training isprescribed as a panacea for all sorts of organisational ills.In other words, there is a tendency to assume the need fortraining without any systematic examination and analysis ofthe situation.

Examples of these 'shoot from the hip' reactions are:

if it's a quality problem. then a three day totalquality control training for one or two employees shouldput it right:

if it's a safety problem. then a two day accidentprevent4on course should do the trick: and

* if our financial planning is awry, then let's enrol theaccountant in an MBA program.

At the risk of stating the obvious, training can only bereliably expected to solve problems that relate to deficienciesin human performance in tenns of knowledge. skills andattituCes. According to Mager and Pipe (1970), it is essentialto establish whether or not the problem is actually aperformance deficiency. To do this, a training needs analysisshould be carried out.

if;

A Training Needs Analysis (TNA) is the detennination ofthe differences between the actual condition (what is)and the desired condition (what should be) in humanperformance in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes.Guthrie (1987)

Manual skills, knowledge skills and attitudinal skills allcontribute to human performance. Each skill type oftenoverlaps as described by Hayes (1990) in Figure 1.

Competence Performance

Figure 1: Overlapping of skill types

Where knowledge and skill overlap we have the area ofcompetency. This is the condition where the person iscapable of performing a job or task. However, this does notnecessarily mean that the person will perform. It isnecessary to add the third dimension of attitude to ensurethat the job gets done.

When conducting a TNA. competence (i.e. knowledge andskills) are often easier to assess than attitudes. This isbecause they are usually easier to describe and quantify. In

117

John Foyster's book in this series, Getting to grips withcompetency-based training and assessment he outlines threecomponents of competence that pnAnote easy assessment:

a precise, concise statement of the range of skillsto be performed;

* the standards of performance such as production rate.error rate and level of quality; and

* the conditions under which performance is requirede.g. work environment, time, tools and equipment.

Provided these components are clearly specified.determination of competence should be straightforward.Employees can simply be asked to demonstrate whether theycan perform a task or job under normal working conditions.

Attitudes however, are often more difficult to specify in a waythat makes their assessment clear cut. For example. how doyou determine whether an employee has 'high motivation'.'a courteous telephone manner' or 'a commitment toexcellent service? While it may be possible to infer thepresence of such attitudes from the employee's overtbehaviour or work output, It can be very difficult to actuallymeasure them in isolation. And even if attitudes can bemeasured, there can be no guarantee that they will beapplied with the same consistency as proven competencies.

Nevertheless attitudes are a vital component of performancein the workplace. Indeed, in highly competitive industries(e.g. the service sector) attitudes are often the keydeterminant of an enterprise's success. So we cannot put

13 Ls

attitudes in the 'too hard basket'. If we are to identifycorrectly the on-the-job training needs in this area. it isnecessary to get to grips with appropriate methods ofassessment.

Training needs analyses may be conducted at various levels:industry. occupation, entemrise and sub-enterprise. Theirapplication in this booklet is mainly at the enterprise or sub-enterprise level.

Training needs analyses should not be confused withoccupational analyses which are concerned with theidentification of jobs. duties and tasks. However, it may benecessary to conduct an occupational analysis prior to aTNA if this basic information is not available from jobdescriptions. Fortunately the techniques for conductingTNAs and occupational analyses are similar.

Training needs anslysis_methodologies

There are five main types of TNA methods:

examination of enterprise knowledge and recordsobservationinterviewquestionnairegroup process.

Even in the briefest TN& it is likely that at least two of thesewill need to be employed. This is because basic content forthe main method (e.g. questions for an interview) are oftenderived from another method (e.g. enterprise records).Although there is some overlap between these types. it is

14 fl

useful to consider each separately. A more completediscussion of TNA methodology can be found !ri themonograph by Hayton and others (1989) Training needsanalysts.

Enterprise knowledge and monis

For most organisations this is an obvious starting placefor a TNA. Valuable sources of information aboutemployees' performance and training needs can often beobtained from the following people:

workersline supervisorstrainersengineerssafety officersquality control officersunion Job delegates.

Company records may also be a source of information.although not always in formats that immediately revealtraining needs. Needs may be directly or indirectlyobtained from data such as:

daily logs and diariesquality control reportsaccident/damage reportswaste. spoiled work and rework ratesmachine production and downtime ratesjob descriptionstraining recordsexit interview records.

15

The Critical Incident Technique, which is a well-developed method for examining significant events inthe production process fe.g. accidents, outstandingachievement), may also be used to infer training needs.

The main advantages of a training needs analysis usingenterprise knowledge and records are:

the information is accessiblespecific to a given Job. process. machine or areaoften quantifiedlonger term, historical perspectiverelatively inexpensive.

The main disadvantages are;

expression of opinion rather than factparochial, narrow perspectiveinay lack a bipartisan appre....hneed to maintain systematic, siandardised records.

Enterpnse K. st.nviedge and re -ords are a fertile source ofinforrnation about on-the-job training needs. They arelikely to bt.c.s.lic even more useful az computerisationallows for better recording, timely reporting and moresophisticated analyses.

* Obseivzi ion .-iletbods

These can be divided into formal and informal methodsand usually need to be supplemented by othertechniques. Traditional types of firmal observationinclude method study and Job measurement. Because

2 116

these are closely associated with the now discreditedconcept of 'scientific management' or Taylorism% theiruse has declined in recent times.

Informal observation, however, will almost certainlyfeature in any analysis of on-the-job training needswhether by accident or by design. By watching aperson at work some parameters concerning the taskand the individual's ability are rapidly established.While this may not provide hard, definitive data, it doesgive us a 'feel' for the Jul) and the associatedcompetencies. From these we are sometimes able toinfer training needs.

In using any type of obsenration technique we shouldremember that the information being gathered is beingfiltered through the eyes and mind of the observer. Thismay result in subjectivity and bias. It should also berecognised that if the employee is aware that they arebeing observed, then their performance couldconceivably be affected. Video recording may be a lessobtrusive means of observation and can allow for moredetailed examination of a worker's performance.

Despite these drawbacks, on-the-job training needs canbe readily and inexpensively determined by an astute,experienced observer. Ideally, conclusions reached bythis method should be confirmed by another method toensure reliability and acceptance.

Interview methods

From the point of view of employees, interviews are

17 22

perhaps the most satisfactory of all TNA methods.Whether structured or unstructured, the interview canallow for a confidential, one-to-one discussion of anindividual's training needs. The interviewer must havegood interpersonal skills in order to explore these needsin a non-directive and non-threatening manner.

Interviews may be used as an ilternative to paper-basedquestionnaires if members of the workforce have limitedreading and writing skills. Naturally. if workers do nothave a good grasp of spoken English, then the interviewshould be = =lucted in the language of the employee.

The uratructured interview is often a good startingpoint if the training needs are largely unknown. Byusing open-ended questions, providing non-Judgementalresponses and encouraging disclosure, the interviewercan get quick first-hand information. The mainproblems with unstructured interviews are:

the generation of opinion rather than factthe lack of consistency if applied to a large numberof employees, or if more than one interviewer isinvolvedinterviewer and interviewee may get side-trackedoften very diffieult to code and analyse responses.

The structured interview. in which the same previouslydetermined questions are put to all interviewees, shouldgive more consistent results provided that theinterviewers are trained to a consistent standard. Bylimiting the range of responses (e.g. to Yes/No, multiplechoice, number or code) the results of a structured

I8 23

interview should be more consistent and easier toquantify than its unstructured comterpart.

its main limitations are:

takes longer to preparerestricts the range of possible findingsrelatively expensive if large numbers of employeesare involved.

13oth structured and unstructured interviews are veryuseful in workplaces where there are industrialrelations or interpersonal problems. These issues canbe thoroughly discussed in the privacy of the interviewsetting before turning to the subject of training needs.Because work-related Wevances can get in the way ofidentifying training needs, the initial stage of theinterview can be used to deal with these issues.

Case Study 1: Nab& leo Pty Ltd.

In 1990 the author conducted a combined training needs analysisand skills audit of 55 electrical, electronic and instrumentworkers for the alumina producer Naha leo Pty Ltd at Nhulunbuyin the Northern Territory. The training needs of the employees.who included electricians, instrtiment fitters. technicians,linesmen, cable jointers and trades assistants were determinedusing a structured questionnaire.

Questions relating to over 500 skill, knowledge and attitude itemswere developed in consultation with a working party comprisingseven representatives of employees and management. Initiallythe working party was given a general inventory of skills used onthe job by electrical and instrument workers. Following two fulldays of small group discussions together with referral back totheir colleagues, the working party developed a draftquestionnaire to be used by the interviewers.

1924

Three members of the working party and the author acted asinterviewers. The draft questions were trialled using members ofthe working party resulting in some minor modifteations. Eachinterviewer then interviewed about ten workers. The interviewstook between 30 and 90 minutes to complete.

Interviewees were asked to rate each skill/knowledge/attitudeitem as:

non-cdstentbasicbetter than basicadvancedcurrently used on the jobtraining desired.

The intetviewers recorded the above number codes dependingupon the answer given. A variety of reports based on these datawere then produced.

Examples of reports included:

frequency of items where training is desireditems where training is desired from a zero skills base forany employeefrequency of zero skill/knowledge/attitudefrequency of advanced skill/knowledge/attitude on the joblist Jobs of employees for a particular training need.

The range of possible reports is vast and the company intends toupdate the information on an annual basis or as employees jointhe company or complete training courses. Both the employerand the union plan to use information from the database todevelop training plans and career paths. All other Nabalcuemployees will have the opportunity to participate In similarinterviews in 1991.

The success of this TNA was largely attributable to the co-operation between the employer, union and workers. All wereinvolved in the planning, selling. interviewing and reportingphases. As a result, over 90% of all workers participated.

2520

Questionnaire methods

Paper-based surveys and questionnaires are the mostcommon form of TNA method. Using this technique.individual employees write or code their answers tospecific, pre-set questions about their training needs.In most cases questicnnaires are designed to becompleted without assistance from the researcher.

The steps involved in using a questionnaire todetermine on-the-Job training needs are:

selecting the sample to be surveyeddeveloping the questionsdesigning the format of the questionnaireWalling the questionnairecollecting the dataprocessing z.,id analysing the data.

You may choose to draft your own enterprise-specificquestionnaire from scratch, or base it on one of themany existing instruments that have been developed byorganisations like Industry Training Councils. TAFE.employer associations, unions etc. The advantages inadapting existing instruments include: saving time,learning from the experience of others, access to skillinventories, keeping to industry standards, reducingparochialism.

Apart from general questionnaires, there are a fewspecific survey techniques such as Delphi, WPSS (WorkPerformance Survey System). CODAP (ComprehensiveOccupational Data Analysis Programs) and OSDAS

21 26

(Occupational Data Analysis Systun). However, theyare more useful for determining training needs at amacro level rather than within a single enterprise.

Questionnaire methods have a number of strengths:

economical for collecting data from a large numberof people in a short time;high level of confidentiality possible;well-designed questionnaires can be interpretedconsistently by the respondents;reliability is enhanced if respondents havesufficient time to consider each itenranswers can be coded for easy analysis.

But they also suffer from several weaknesses:

unless all the employers are surveyed it is oftendifficult to determine every training need;questionnaires have relatively low response rates(e.g. less than 50%).;unsuitable for people with poor literacy skills:self-completion surveys may offer little help torespondents who have difficulty interpreting aquestion;closed questions may restrict responses;open-ended questions can be extremely dihicult tocode.

Group process methods

Group processes are often the most cost-effectiv- sourceof information about on-the-job training needs.

22 27

Examples of specific methods are: Nominal GroupTechnique, DACUM. Force Field Analysis and SearchConference. They are all based on the technique ofbrainstorming and contain two distinct processes:

idea generation* idea evaluation.

For most enterprises a group of five to eight participantswill be sufficient to provide detailed information aboutthe training needs of one occupation or closely relatedgroups of occupations (e.g. electricians, electronicstechnicians and trade assistants). Obviously a smallorganisation may be able to use a smaller group, whilea very large enterprise may need more. The groupdynamic, however, is influenced by the group size andabsolute limits of between three and twelve should beobserved.

The main aim of using small group processes is toencourage by discussion and interaction the generationof the widest possible range of on-the-job trainingneeds. Brainstorming works on the principle that youneed a large quantity of ideas to get good quality ideas.Nevertheless, not all groups will spontaneously generatea free flow of ideas. Some members may be shy andreticent while others may dominate the conversation.For this reason it is essential to have a skilled

facilitator to help all group members to contribute.

It takes conskierable training ari.l practice for a

facilitator to develop the interpersonal skills necessary

to achieve effective outcomes from group processes.

23 2s

Because of this, it is preferable for a novice facilitator tostart with one of the more structured processes suchas the Nominal Group Technique. It is also useful forthe facilitator to have the assistance of a scribe torecord all contributions thus freeing the facilitator toconcentrate group members' involvement.

The strengths of group processes are:

fast (one hour or less for most techniques);creative (wild ideas are encouraged);good for identifying training needs in the affective(i.e. attitude) realm:inexpensive (in terms of ideas generated and time);participative (group members rather thanfacilitator have ownership of outcomes).

The weaknetases of group processes are:

inconsistent results (i.e. two different groupsconsidering the training needs of the oneoccupation in the same enterprise are unlikely tocome up with identical results);results are largely determined by group members'knowledge:can be difficult to control.

Selection of methodolotiv

While there is no one best method for determining on-the-jobtraining needs In all enterprises, there are a number offactors to be considered when making a selection(s). Eachfactor can be expressed as a question to be considered beforemaking a choice.

2429

Factors to consider:

What is the scope of the TM? Is it concerned withjust one occupation or one part of the enterprise, orwith the entire workforce? Is the focus on skills, orknowledge. or attitudes or all three? If the scope is verywide and the enterprise large (say over 100 employees)then a questionnaire is probably indicated. If attitudesare considered important, then a group process shouldbe considered.

What depth of information is required? Is itnecessary to know every training need or just the mainones? If detailed information is required, an inventory ofskills, knowledge and attitudes should be generated bygroup processes and confirmed by interview orquestionnaire.

How large is the workforce and how many differentoccupations need to be covered? Not ont_y does thishave time and cost implications, but may includeindustrial considerations such as demarcation. In adiverse workforce involving a number of different unions(and possibly awards), it will almost certainly benecessary to set up some form of a joint union-management TNA steering committee to address theseissues and decide on the method(s) to be used.

What is the industrial relations climate like? Arethere major grievances that are likely to affect the TNA?Are there participative decision-making structures inplace? Will the method chosen allow for adequateconsultation and input by the industrial parties?

25 3 0

Training needs are always high on the agenda of tradeunions so it is essential from the outset to involve Jobdelegates and full-time official&

How much time and money are available for thestudy? Short timelines and small budgets usuallypreclude large paper-based surveys. If should bestressed that sufficient time should always be allowedfor WI and adequate consultation betweenmanagement and employees during the TNA.

How will the findings be received? Will the industrialparties have ownership of the outcomes? Will they beimplemented? If all parties are involved in the designand implementation of the TNA, then its outcomes havea much better chance of being widely accepted andimplemented.

* Are the necessary expertise and resources available?Does the organisation have the people and resources[e.g. data processing) to conduct the TNA or will outsidehelp be needed?

* What infoimation is already available? There is notmuch sense in reinventing the wheel if much of the datais already available from sources like personnel andtraining records.

31

26

ilaininiMmtuaminkingiamagsl

TNAs invariably reveal far more than on-the-job trainingneeds. Other outcomes may include:

training needs that can only be met oli-the-jobneed for job redesignsimplifying the work methodrecruiting more trained employeesreview of awards and conditionsneed for better tools and equipment.

In most cases optimum human performance can only beachieved by a combination of training and non-trainingstrategies. Nevertheless, on-the-job training has not alwaysbeen the preferred option in many Australian enterprises.

The choice between training and non-training responsesbasically involves a decision about how organisationalobjectives are best met. In the past many of our enterpriseshave tended to opt for technological solutions, usuallyinvolving the purchase of expensive. imported capitalequipment. With the exception of apprentices. on-the-jobtraining has largely been restricted to training operators invery basic use of this technology. The results of TNA.s.however, consistently show a desire by production workersto undergo training so that they can perform a much widerrange of tasks on their equipment. For example. many pressoperators want to learn how to maintain. repair. and retooltheir machines rather than just load and unload them.

Employers who ignore the findings of TNAs do so at theirperil. At the very least they are passing up an opportunity to

2732

capitalise on the first-hand knowledge. goodwill andenthusiasm of their workers. At worst they will lose them toa more astute competitor.

Another non-training response favoured by many Australianemployers has been to poach trained workers from otherenterprises. This strategy is hardly sustainable in the long-term and has been roundly condemned by government.unions and those employers who have made a realinvestment in training their staff.

Immigration has always been a good source of skilled labourfor Australia. But as our International economicperformance slips. Australia is becoming a less attractivedestination for those who are able to obtain high wages andan increasing standard of living in their own countries.

TNAs have revealed that the type of training that is requiredto redress many of the skill shortages in Australia need notbe long or expensive. Indeed on-the-job training usually hasa shorter lead time and is considerably less expensive thanmany capital-intensive alternatives. Not only does it offerthese immediate advantages. It also increases the nation'sstock of skills and its long-term economic competitiveness.

V;I :3

28

APPROACHES TO ON-THE-JOB TRAINING

How adults leam

Learning may be defined as a change in behaviour that canbe observed and measured. It involves the acquisition ofskills, knowledge and attitudes associated with job mastery.

It is often said that learning is a life-long process. Certainlythere are concentrated periods like the time we spend atschool, TAFE or on a short training program. But over alifetime by far the greatest amount of skills, knowledge andattitudes are acquired in an informal way at home, at workand at play.

ON

(Advertiser Newspapers)

29 3 .1

Adults and children both acquire skills, knowledge andattitudes in similar ways. R begins with seeing, hearing,reading, smelling, tasting or feeling something ler the firsttime. Following this initial introduction to a new skill, pieceof knowledge or value, there is usually a try-out phase. Inthe case of a skill, this may mean attempting to do all or partof it. For a new item of knowledge or a value, this may meancomparing it with existing knowledge and values. Nextcomes the practice stage where we attempt to apply the skill,knowledge or attitude. This is often done under supervisionor in a simulated environment. When we and ourinstructors are satisfied of our competence, real-worldapplication can proceed. The more frequently we apply theskill, knowledge or attitude, the more we internalise it. Itbecomes second nature and often we use it withoutconsciously thinking about it.

Learners feel more comfortable about their learning if theystart with something they know before proceeding to thenew. Obviously adults have some advantages over youngpeople because of their larger stock of pre-existingknowledge. Children on the other hand are often more eagerto explore the unknown and are not so hidebound by oldhabits and attitudes.

In a training situation it is important to keep in mind theprinciples of adult learning. They are:

Motivation: adults learn more effectively if theyunderstand why they need to know or be able to dosomething. They need to experience or see thebenefits: 'what's in it for them'.

30 3 .)

Trainee centred approach: adults have a strong needto be responsible for their own learning - to be self-directing. This means that the training should give thetrainee scope to actively participate in the learningprocess.

Transfer of learning: the trainer must ensure that theskills learned in the training session can be applied onthe job.

Prior experience: _raining adults it is vital torecognise and make use of their prior learningexperiences.

IImaitLoP_afsAcq lrning

At present recognition of prior learning (ltPL) is aburgeoning field. Prior learning is defined as:

skills and knowledge obtained through formal training(industry and education), work experience and/or lifeexperience. Brown (1990)

The main focus of RPL is the learning outcomes of the priorexperience, not how, when or where the learning occurred.Questions of authenticity, currency. quality, relevance andtransferability need to be resolved so that employees cangain credit towards formal qualifications or placement in thecorrect skill-related wage classification.

For training on the job RPL is also essential. Firstly we needto establish what the trainee already knows or can do so weknow where to start. Next we ein encourage the trainee to

31

3

build on their existing knowledge and skills by taking themfrom the known into the unknown. By relating the new to

the old we provide a point of reference for new learning. The

trainee can compare the new and the old and modify theirbehaviour accordingly. If previous behaviour isinappropriate or dysfunctional, then it can be extinguishedat an early stage to prevent bad habits setting in.

Weracy and numeracy

It is now widely accepted that the greatest barrier to skill

formation in the Australian workforce is the lack of basic

literacy and numeracy skills. While people from non-Englishspeaking backgrounds tend to be more visible in this regard.

by far the largest group affected are Australian-bornworkers.

The implications of this situation for on-the-jet% training are

severe. For instance, how is it possible to provide effective

safety training if an employee is unable to read hazardsigns? Or how can quality and accuracy 1Ie assured ifworkers are unable to cany out basic measuring andarithmetic tasks?

To address this problem. a number of larger enterprises haveentered into co-operative arrangements with TAFE colleges to

provide training in literacy skills in the workplace. To date,however, there have been few initiatives to improve

numeracy skills apart from components of formal trainingsuch as adult apprenticeships.

32 37

iht_andsttEllmiabAntisting

The relationship between on- and off-the-job training isanother important consideration. Theie is gowingrecognition of the need to integrate these two componentswherever possible. In-house trainers should be fully awareof the training rrovided to their employees by externalagencies such as TAFE. Conversely the external providersneed to 'get closer to their clients' and develop a clearerunderstanding of the needs of both the trainees and theiremployers.

if on- and off-the-job training are co-ordinated andcomplementary, then the trainee will be provided with apowerful learning experience. But to achieve this, thereneeds to be greater mutual recognition by in-house andexternal trainers of their counterparts' contribution. Thisjoint approach would be enhanced if there were greateropportunities for in-house and external trainers to swaproles. If this were possible. it would have the benefit ofexposing in-house trainers to a broader range of trainingstrategies and giving external trainers greater insight intoproduction processes and the real-world needs of theirclients.

Atctioting

Most adults prefer an action or hands-on approach tolearning rather than a theoretical, or classroom-based style.According to Barry Smith (1989) action learning assumesthat adults bring to the learning situation prior knowledgeand skill, rather than a vacuum to be filled by an experttrainer. 11. also recognises the power of individual

33 3S

experiential learning and links this to practical action.Action learning was developed in the UK by Prof. RegRevans over 40 years ago and has been used successfullyworld-wide in a variety of enterprises. In Australia it is usedin on-the-Job training of employees at ICI. ACI andCommonwealth Government Departments. It is also slowlygaining acceptance in some university MBA programs.

Smith's (1989) Action Learning model is set out in Figure 2.The action component is the inner cycle and the learningcomponent. the outer cycle.

LEARNING vilso-CYCLE

Learningborn

Expenence

(

ASSESSOutcomes

Action

TestingNew Concepts

in NewSituations

Discussron

Agreement

ConcreteExpertence

Sue:Project

ACTIONCYCLE

FeedsbackData

FormutationOf AbstractConcepts

Crestionsto Clanty

Objectives &l'Aettiods

Obseneation& Testingagatnst

known Theory& Practice

AnalysesData

DevelopsHypotheses

iS

}Uwe 2: Action Learning Model (Smith 1989)

343f 4

In the context of on-the-job training, action learning focuseson human performance problems in the workplace.Trainees, their co-workers and trainers all interact toovercome these. The trainer's role is more of an adviser orcoach rather than a teacher and the learning material isderived from the job, rather than from books or irrelevantcase studies. Differences between action learning and moretraditional approaches are illustrated in Figure 3.

Traditional Learning=CIS

Trainer centredPassiveIndividual orientationStudy other organisationsHistoric case studiesProgrammed knowledge (PK)TheoryInput basedPast orientedLow risk

Action Learning

Trainee centredActiveBased on work groupStudy own organisationCurrent real casesPK plus questioningTheory aild practiceOutput/results basedPresent and futurtHigher risk

Figure 3: Traditional learning and action learningcompared.

Although action learning was originally devised to assistmanagement with problem-solving, it is equally useful fortraining employees at all levels within an organisation.Depending upon the trainees' level of experience andpreferences, the most effective learning outcomes may beachieved using a blend of traditional and action learningapproaches.

The principles of action learning can be applied with most ofthe common delivery modes for on-the-job training.including:

35 4 0

one-to-one instructionsmall group instructionself-directed learningcomputer assisted instruction.

Obviously they are not compatible with very regimented'chalk and talk' lectures or with simulation exercises that arenot good approximations of real work.

While the trainer's role in action learning is low-key.preparation, planning and management of on-the-jobtraining are still essential. The trainer may also need todevelop new skills as a coach and mentor, rather than as asubject expert and lecturer. Crucial to the success of actionlearning is the ability for the trainee to pose searchingquestions and then find the answers. For this reason thetrainer should avoid providing immediate answers to thetrainee's questions. Rather. the trainer should help thetrainee to formulate the right questions and guide theresearch required to find the answers.

Case Study 2: Northern Territory Police

The Northern Territorys achool-based police community relationsprogram provides a good mample of action learning in on-the-jobtraining. School-based police community relations is a proactivecommunity development program which targets studentsthroughout their school years. lts aim is to maintain andimprove the relationship between police and the community.

Experienced police officers recruited into the program for aminimum of two years, are based at 18 secondary schools inmajor centres. They provide outreach services to the surroundingcommunity. Including four to six feeder primary schools.

3641

A major patt of this program. which is unique in Australia, isD.A.R.E.: Drug Abuse Resistance Education. Newly appointedschool-based pollee officers undergo two and a half weeks ofintensive DARE. training at the NT Police College. This trainingcovers both content and presentation skills and includes practicalexperience in a school.

In their first year as a bsnool-based police officer, personnelundergo continuous on-the-job training supervised by co-ordinators. The officers develop crucial interpersonal.communication and problem-solving skills as well as the specialattitudes required to undertake this alternative approach to policework.

These are enhanced by a routine of referral, practice, reflection,revision and reapplication. When the program was initiated,school-based police attended fortnightly seminars to discuss theirprogress and share approaches to common problems. As theirexperience broadened, the frequency of these seminars wasreduced to first monthly, and then quarterly.

Teleconferencing is used to allow officers based outside Darwin toparticipate in the seminars. 1n-service training is also provided topmmee skills such as counselling and public speaking. At leastonce a year co-ordinators spend an extendtAl amount of time (e.g.up to two days) with each school-based officer.

Examples of action learning situations for these officers include:

teaching the D.A.RE. program on a weekly basis:addressing School Council and Parents and Friendsmeetings:publicising Safety !louse and Neighbourhood Watchprograms:liaising with local business peopk.:conducting sport and recreation activities for students: andexplaining citizens' rights to adult re-entry students.

The school- based police officers meet on a regular basis to reviewtheir progress and exchange information. Rather than adopting asingle, uniform approach to problems, each officer is encouragedto develop their own personalised style.

For many officers this type of work is quite different from regularpolice work. It involves greater discretionary judgement withmuch more emphasis on crime prevention rather than detection.

4 237

In some cases it tequires 'unfreezing' the approach gained bypolice officers in their initial police training and on-the-jobexperience.

In true action learning style. these school-based police combinethem and practice to confront real cases, focus on the futureand take risks.

Imigsrigaggng

These approaches to on-the-job training strongly imply aneed for trainer training. In the past, most in-housetraining has been delivered by workers with good subjectknowledge and plenty of practical experience, but little or noformal training skills. Quite often the on-the-job trainer hasa wide range of othet responsibilities such as supervision,meeting production targets. safety, maintenance, record-keeping etc. But in order to maximise the tifectiveness ofon-the-job training, the trainer needs specific skills andknowledge. These include being able to:

apply adult learning principlescommunicate effectivelydetermine training needs

set training objectivesassess competenciesevaluate training programsdcyclop training materials

* Liaise with external training agencieskeep training records.

Competency standards for trainers are currently beingdeveloped for the National Training Board and should beavailable by mid-1991.

4 338

Since the implementation of the Training Guaranteelegislation, trainer training has been marketed by a widevariety of providers. It is fair to say that the quality of thesecourses varies considerably. On the one hand1 there areexcellent programs provided by reputable providers such asTraining Services Australia. TAFE, the Australian Institute ofManagement as well as some private agencies. On the other.there are many dubious claims being made: for example, anysuggestion that a trainer can be fully trained from scratch ina two or three day course should be treated withconsiderable caution. Those seeking trainer training shouldshop around and take the advice of experienced trainers.The National Training Directory which lists 289 individualtrainers, their categories of competence and relevantexperience has recently been published by the AustralianInstitute of Training and Development and should provide auseful tool for those seeking training programs.

39 4 4

DELIVERING ON-THE-JOB TRAINING

In this section three aspects of on-the-job training deliverywill be examined:

* preparationactual delivery and

" administration.

If your trainees are also receiving external training in similarskills (e.g. at a TAFE college), you should aim tointegrate both off and on-the-job components.

Prepazatlon

Once the needs have been determined and a decision hasbeen made to meet these through on-the-job training, thereis usually a considerable amount of preparation requiredbefore training can be effectively delivered. The first thing isto establish the training objectives.

The desired objectives or outcomes of on-the-job training willin most cases relate directly to the needs. Ideally theseshould be expressed in the form of a competency statemente.g.:

. at the end of this training the trainee will beable to type correspondence on a personal computerat 35 words per minute with 98% accuracy usingWordperfect V 53.

Notice that the objective is quite specific and containsperformance standards and conditions under which the

4045

performance occurs. This information must be given beforethe training begins so that the trainee knows exactly what isexpected.

Objectives expressed as competency statements may implyknowledge and attitudes as well as manual skills. But ifthese are crucial they should be stated explicitly e.g.:

. . at the end of this training the trainee will be ablemove palletised loads weighing u p to 3 tonnes using anLPG fork lUt truck. He/she will know the maximum safeworking loads for various height settings and thestandard pallet stacking configurations as set out in thehandbook At all times the trainee will demonstrate acommitment to safe working practices by observingcompany and Department of Labour regulations.

If your current on-the-job training objectives aren't writtenas competency statements, it may be a good idea to reviewthem.

The next preparatory task is to select the training method.Often the choices will be obvious or limited. Neverthelessthe trainer should look at all options and base the choice notjust on short-term cost or expediency. but on what will givethe best outcome. This means considering:

safetyadult learning principlesthe trainee's needs, preferences and prior experiencethe training environment (noise, distraction levels)training resources available.

4 1

4 6

Some of the possible options are:

* one-to-one instruction;* group instruction:

simulation exercises where trainees learn on the job byundertaking hypothetical tasks or by using simulatorsrather than real tools, materials and equipment;

* self-instruction where trainees follow preparedguidelines which might be presented in the form of jobsheets, manuals, audio-visual media or interactively viaa computer terminal;

* action learning where the focus is on solving a problemby collaborating with co-workers;work shadowing where trainees follow an experiencedworker and carefully observe their practices, orsome combination of these.

Irrespective of the method used, it is highly desirable to do ajob or task breakdown. Assuming that you are familiarwith the job or task, this simply means breaking it down intological steps and key points. A logical step may involve theapplication of one skill or piece of knowledge. It will usuallyhave a distinct beginning and end and will often becharacterised by the use of a specific tool, machine or rawmaterial. Key points to be taken into account include anysafety items or pieces of information that affect quality orhelp make the job/task easier.

42 4 7

(Advertiser Newspapers)

For example. teaching someone to drive an automatic car:

Steps: Key point:

I. Correct seating position Safety belts, mirrors, pedals2. Start engine Select neutral. handbrake on3. Move off Select drive. handbrake off.

check road, accelerate slowly4. Steering Keep left, mirrors, indicators5. Speed Below 60kph6. Braking Keep safe separation distance.

gradual pedal pressure7. Stopping 30 cm from kerb. select park.

handbralce on.

43 4s

These are such familiar skills for most drivers that few wouldactually make a mental note of these steps and key points asthey do them. Yet if we are teaching a novice, we wouMwant to be sure to miss none out. For this reason job andtask breakdowns are important. Sometimes the veryexperienced trainer being so familiar with a task forgets toteach a vital step!

Other preparatory tasks for on-the-job include:

informing the trainees and their supervisorsarranging a suitable time and placegetting any training materials prepared.

Giving the traiging

There are four basics steps to follow when giving on-the-jobtraining:

Prepare the trainee(s)* Present the training

11y-out and practice* Application and assessment.

Prepare the trainee(s):

* Because adult learners tend to be apprehensive, it isimportant to put them at ease. In a group situation itmay also be appropriate to introduce each member.

* State the training objective(s), preferably incompetency terms.

4449

* Find out what the trainee(s) already knows.

* Get them interested in the training by explainingthe benefits in terms of 'what's in it' for them.

Place them in an appropriate position: i.e. where theycan see and hear.

Present the training:

Explain the context of the training objective i.e. where itfits into the bigger picture.

If it is an observable skill or behaviour, model it atnormal speed/timing.

Repeat it step-by-step. stressing key points.

* Get the trainee(s) to try or explain each step. stating thekey points.

* Get them to repeat each step until mastered.

* Put the steps together in the normal sequence.

Try-ont and practice:

Set the trainees some real work to practise. but perhapswith a reduced rate of output.

Supervise the practice as unobtrusively assafety/quality permits.

5 0

* Correct errors as soon as they are observed and asktrainee(s) to explain the nature of the mistake.

* Continue the practice until YOU know THEY know.

Application and assessment:

Test each trainee to determine that they have acquiredthe skill, knowledge or attitude.

Set 4n12 to work under normal conditions, but checkfreqi, Iv at first.

* Ensure that they know who to go to for help.

* Follow up and retest as required.

If the trainees are on a self-instruction training program.e.g. receiving the information from a written or audio-visualsource, then the above steps will be slightly modified. Forinstance, it may be necessary to provide closer supervisionduring the try-out phase.

A ergkitAggmkt-trainin

Although the Training Guarantee legislation has recentlyhighlighted the need for larger organisations to record detz...ilsabout employee training. sound reasons for doing so havealways existed. Some of these include:

developing a skills inventory or bank (not unlike aninventory of stock or equipment) so you know exactlywhat human resources you have:

46

* recording time and money spent on training to ensureits cost-effectiveness as well as for budgeting purposes:

* recording skills and qualifications for pay andclassification purposes;

* accreditation and certification purposes;

using the data for succession planning and careerdevelopment;

modifying and updating training programs;

* statutory requirements. i.e. where certain training andretraining is prescribed e.g. airline pilots, firefighters.medical practitioners.

Specific administrative requirements of the TrainingGuarantee apply to all employers carrying on business inAustralia except:

those with an annual payroll below $200,000 in1990-91public benevolent institutions other than hospitalsreligious institutions,certain exempt international organisations (e.g.diplomatic missions).

Employers outlaying less than 1% (1.5% from 1 July 1992)of their annual payroll on eligible training expenditu_e willbe obliged to pay the shortfall to the Australian TaxationOffice. Eligible training expenditure includes both on- and

5 2

off-the-job training. To qualify as an eligible trainingprogram:

its objectives must be to develop, maintain orimprove employment related skills:

there must be no other significant objective. such asrecreation: and

* the program must be structured before it is delivered.

Thus on-the-job training is eligible as long as employersidentify before the start:

the skills, knowledge and competencies to be acquired:

how these skills, knowledge and competencies will beimparted: and

the expected results or how productivity gains could beidentified.

Also, the training must have been designed or approved bysomeone appropriately qualified.

Because employers are required to self assess their liability.it will be necessary for them to keep records unless theychoose to pay the levy in full. These records must include:

the annual company payroll:

* net eligible training expenditure:

* liability (if any) of the training shortfall;

* who designed or approved the training program togetherwith their qualifications or experience:

the skills, knowledge or competencies to be acquired bythe participants that were identified before the trainingbegan:

the means by which the training was imparted: and

what were the expected outcomes or the means ofidentifying productivity gains.

These records can be examined by the Tax Office and mustbe kept for five years. There are penalties for failure to keepaccurate records.

Further information is contained in a Tax Office publicationtitled: The naining Guarantee Your Questions Answered.

(News Luo

49

. '

Case ilitudy 3: Sheraton Darwin

The Sheraton Hotel in Darwin is a 233 room. five star hotel whichopened in 1986 and currently has about 200 employees. Fivemath categories of training are conducted In-house:

customer service trainingon-the-job skills trainingmanagement trainingsafety and security trainingorganisational development.

A training business plan is administered by the Director ofliuman Resources. The plan includes mandatory courses whichare prescribed for all Sheraton Hotels and optional courses whichvary according to local needs.

Customer service training

Every employee undertakes this program which is known as theSheraton Guest Satisfaction System (KISS). The program wasdeveloped in the early 1980s for world-wide use in SheratonHotels. SGSS contains four 1.5 hour modules, each of whichcovers a particular standard relating to client contact e.g.:greetings and courtesy.

11a. modults are normally delivered as part of the orientationpmgram for new employees by specially trained trainers.Training methods Involve a combination of video presentations.discussions. role plays and questionnaires. Ideally each newemployee should attain the four required customer contactstandards before dealing with members of the public.

The effectiveness of the SGSS is assessed by a standard measrreknown as the Guest Service Index (GSM This is a questiona: ;which guests are encouraged to complete. Results are sent to acentral collection point in Boston for analysis and reporting backto indtvidual hotels.

Results of the GSI are used as part of an award and incentivescheme known as the Chairman's Club. Annual and quarterlyawards are made to high performing hotels and individualempkwces.

On-the-Job skill training

This covers topics such as wine appreciation, bed making. guestcheck-in and reservation procedures. For each job at theSheraton Darwin there are specified competency standards.Training and testing is undertaken by managers and oervisorswho have undergone trainer training.

Management training

This covers training for line managers in skills such asperformance appraisal, leadership, administrative procedures andtrainer training. lt is mainly provided by senior managers andstaff trainers.

Safety and security training

International corporate staiil tis for this type of training are setin Boston and adapted by each hotel to meet local legislation andregulations. At the Sheraton Darwin safety and security trainingis co-ordinated by the Human Resources and Securitydepartments. Formal instruction in fire drills and first aid isi',Iven to employees. On-the job training in chemical handling,maintaining hygiene standards and safe lifting procedures isdelivered by department managers and supervisors.

Organisational development

Some of the programs such as Focus Groups (which examinebarriers to high performance) involve all employees. Othertraining such as team development and Total Quality Controlmay only apply to selected employees (e.g. senior management) orspecific departments. Training to faci;itate organisationaldevelopment may be presented either by Sheraton staff orexternal consultants.

Comments

Although the Sheraton Darwin is one of the smaller hotels in theSheraton chain, it is required to maintain the quality of its in-house training to strict international standards. The SheratonDarwin does not report particular difficulty in meeting thesestandards.

51r n

EVALUATION OF ON-THE-JOB TRAINING

There are two main reasons why you should always evaluateon-the-job training:

* to ensure that the training meets the trainees'expectations, and

to determine whether the training can be improved insome way.

Evaluation methods generally fall into two categories:formative (during the training) and summative (at the endof the training).

Formative evaluation of on-the-job training may occur wheneither the trainer requests feedback about the training orwhen the trainee provides it spontaneously. Trainers shouldactively encourage constructive criticism at all times. Whenevaluation is delayed until the end of a long trainingprogram. the feedback may not be so effective. If thetraining fails to live up to the trainees' expectations. it Ismuch more useful to the overall training program if this isdetected and corrected sooner rather than later.

The method of summative or terminal evaluation is morefamiliar to most people. It is chiefly conducted in some formof a course/trainer checklist or rating scale at the end of atraining program.

Both summative and formative evaluation methods havetheir supporters and detractors. In the move towardscompetency-based. self-paced training however, the use of a

525 7

combination of summative and formative evaluation methodsis certain to grow.

Although adult trainees, especially in a group, are usuallyquick to indicate if your training is deficient. it is probablybest not to rely entirely on them being `up front'. The trainershould make it clear from the outset of a training programthat feedback is always welcome. Even if you think a traineeis wrong, you should accept their comments with candourand be prepared to discuss the matter.

At suitable points during, and certainly at the end of atraining course. the trainer should ask the trainees tocomplete a formal evaluation of the training. Unfortunatelymany of the course evaluation questionnaires oared to theauthor have been inadequate and self-serving. Groupdiscussion methods (e.g. Nominal Group Technique) areoften far more effective in eliciting feedback, even if they takea little longer to conduct.

A few formal trainer evaluation instruments such as LikertScales, Thematic Apperception Tests (TAT) and the OsgoodSemantic Differential exist. For many on-the-job trainersthese will be too esoteric. However, more detailed treatmentof these tools can be found in Stock. Laird and Likert. Anaciadernic library will help you to locate them.

Most practical trainers should have little difficulty obtaininguseful feedback from their trainees. At the very least, yourtrainees should be given the chance to let you know whetherthey believe the training objectives were met and anychanges they believed desirable.

Quite often a short, anonymous survey combining open andclosed questions and a simple (i.e. no more than 5 point)rating sca: can obtain useful feedback from trainees. Forexample. most trainers would probably appreciate answersto the following questions:

: . Did the training meet its stated objective?

YES / NO / UNSURE

(1f there arc multiple objectives, each should be listedseparately.)

!

, .I

Did the training meet your needs?

FULLY / PARTLY / NOT AT ALL

.

:

:

What was the most useful part of the training?

,

i

i,

,

4. What was the least useful part of the training?

5. What changes would you make to the training?

. How will you use what you have learned in your Job?

These questions could also be used as the basis for groupevaluation and discussion of the training.

54 5 9

FURTHER READING

Australian Institute of Training and Development.(1991). National training directory. AITD, Sydney.

This directory was published with the aim of ensuring ethicaland high quality training standards across Australia. It listsalphabetically 298 individual trainers cross referenced byfour major areas of training and development expertise andsix further categories of competence. Other informationprovided on each trainer includes relevant experience.qualifications, recent assignments, availability and contactdetails. The introduction to the directory gives intendingconsumers a definition of training and a check-list to beused when selecting trainers.

Australian Taxation °Mee (1990). The TrainingGuarantee - your questions answered. Commonwealth ofAustralia. Canberra.

This offers a basic guide to the Training Guaranteelegislation and is current as at 1 July 1990. It covers thepurpose of the legislation and defines who is an employer.what ccnstitutes an eligible training program and what is aRegistered Industry Training Agent. It provides details andgives examples of how to structure eligible on- and off-the-job training programs. Brief information is given about therecords that employers should keep. how to assess the levy.penalties and review and appeal procedures.

Brown. A. (1900). 'The recognition of prior learning' inAssessment and standards in vocational education aridtraining 1990 cortference/workshop rvort. TAFENational Centre for Research and Development. Adelaide.p. I 20-130.

This paper examines the following:

the context in which prior learning assessment isdevelopingprinciples and process in RPLinternational developments in RPL. andimplications and issues resulting from research andcase study work.

Clark, T.W. (1990). Getting to grips with skills audits.TAFE National Centre for Research and Development.Adelaide.

Skills audits are the processes whereby the skills requiredand held by the workforce are identified. They helpenterprises and industries to identify the complete range ofskills at their disposal and isolate deficiencies in the skillsrequired. This booklet explains what skills audits are.setting them in the wider context of indu try and awardrestructuring. It also looks at when to use and who shouldundertake skills audits. Four case studies are described andthe implementation of the outcomes of a skills auditdiscussed. An annotated bibliography is included.

56

Dawkins. J. S. (1988). industry training in Australia:the need for change. Department of Employment.Education and Training, Canberra.

This document is a discussion paper which canvasses issuesand options to provide a basis for wide-ranging consultation.The paper states that persistent skill shortages odst across arange of industries and occupations. Current trainingactivity by employers is uneven, ranging from best practiceto no training at all. Recent Government reforms have beendesigned to improve the quality of the training system byreforms to the apprenticeship system. advisory mechanismsand TAFE, as well as the introduction of the AustralianTraineeship System. The chapter headings are in the form ofquestions, inviting reader response.

Department of Industrial Relations (1989). On-thejobtraining: a handbook for training in the workplace.Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

This handbook was developed to assist Australian PublicService staff to undertake on-the-job training and to provideinformation and techniques on how to impart knowledge andskills in a normal working environment. lt adopts a generic,adult learning approach which is not task-specific.

The main topics covered include:

why and how people learntask breakdown and analysisadapting a training program for on-the-job deliveryassessing training effectiveness, andpreparing a problem-solving form.

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Field, L. (1990). Skil ling Australia: a handbook fortrainers and TAFE Teachers. Longman Cheshire,Melbourne.

Skilling Australia deals with the main aspects of planning.conducting and assessing job-related skills. It is divided intotwo parts. Part One examines Australia's current skillsshortage and the link betweea economic performance.training and work organisation. Part Two covers the maincompetencies required by trainers and TAFE teachers if theyare to successfully cope with these challenges. The book isextremely readable and provides a comprehensiveintroduction to the main influences on skill formation inAustralia.

Foyeter, J. (1990). Getting to grips with competency-based training and assessment TAFE National Centre forResearch alid Development, Adelaide.

This booklet is intended to Introduce the reader to the ideasassociated with competency-based training. It explores themeaning of competence and explains what is involved incompetency-based teaching and learning. The need forassessment and ways of going about it are discussed, as wellas the implications of competency-based training foremployers, teachers and learners. A short test for the readerappears at the end of the booklet.

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Hall, W.C. (1990). 'Summary and challenges' inAssessment and standards in vocational education andtraining 1990 conference/workshop report. TAFENational Centre for Research and Dcrelopment. Adelaide.

This paper summarises the document themes presented inthe plenary sessions of the Assessment and Standards inVocational Education and Training Conference conducted bythe TAFE National Centre in 1990. Dr. Hall in his summingup focuses on the current context of training issues.assessment and standards in vocational education and thechallenge relating to vocational education identified withinthe conference.

Hayes, M. (1990). `Conducting skills audits' in Trainingand development in Australia.

This article defines more clearly some of the keyterminologies (e.g. skill, competency and performance)associated with skills audits and training needs analyses.

Hayton G., g (1988). Training for Australianindustry: a guide to research techniques for assessingindustry training requirements. Australian GovernmentPublishing Service, Canberra.

This manual is principally concerned with the developmentof methods aimed to identif industry and occupational skillrequirements as a basis for developing appropriate trainingresponses. It describes methods of industry analyses, labourmarket analyses, occupational analyses and training needs

,

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analyses. It also presents a general approach to planning.conducting and reporting workforce studies.

Hayton G., It a (1989). Training needs analysis.Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

This monograph focuses on methods for cbnducting trainingneeds analyses and is an extract from the previous title.

Hayton G. (1990). Getting to grips with industryrestructuring. TAFE National Centre for Research andDevelopment. Adelaide.

The author provides the reader with vn understanding ofindustry restructuring by answering three key questions:

What is industry restructuring?Why restructure?How is industry restructuring achieved?

This booklet contains five ease studies plus an annotatedbibliography.

Kirby, P. (1990). 'Issues affecting assessment andaccreditation' in Assessment and standards invocational education and training 1990cortference/workshop report. TAFE National Centre forResearch and Development. Adelaide.

This paper looks at the assessment and accreditation issues

60 f;

confronting training providers and industry in the context ofindustry restructuring. These include:

assessment of skills gained on the Job throughexperience:assessment of prior study/training;credit transfer in the post-secondary education sector,responsibility for maintaining standards; and,power to award and accredit.

Kirby stmsses the importance of focussing on client needsand argues that many of the reforms developed by TAFEsystems should be implemented as a matter of urgency.

Laird, D. (1985). Approaches to training anddevelopment 2nd ed. Addison-Wesley, Reading. MA.

This is a very comprehensive treatment of organisationaltraining and development. Some of the more pertinentchapters are:

How do you find training needs?How do you respond to individual training needs?How do people learn?What methods shall we use?How can we measure training and development?How DO you evaluate training and development?

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Mageean. P. (1980. The integration of on- and qff-the-Job training in traineeships. TAFE National Centre forResearch and Development, Adelaide.

This study was commissioned by the Department ofEmployment. Education and Training (DEET) and wasundertaken by the TAFE National Centre for Research andDevelopment. The aim was to discover the key means bywhich the integration of on- and off-the-job training intraineeships can best be facilitated. Successful examplesfrom similar systems. including apprenticeships andoverseas systems, were examined to find these factors.

Mager. R.Y.. Pipe. 7 (1984). Analysing petformanceproblems. 2nd ed. Lake Publishing Company, Belmont. CA.

This book describes a step-by-step procedure for analysingjob performance problems. A wide range of possible trainingand non-training solutions is suggested with frequentillustrations being offered throughout the text.

National Board of Employment. Education and Training.(1989). Industry training in Australia: the need forchange.

Interim report on consultations by the Employment andSkills Formation Council. Australian Government PublishingService, Canberra.

This report is based on the 241 responses to John Dawkin's1988 discussion paper of the same name. Its chapter

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headings are:

1. Introduction2. Industiy training in Australia: the context3. Training reform: the debate and recent developments4. Training reform: the next steps5. ConclusionPlus Attachments A - F.

Chapter Four and Attachment F are most useful as theycover strategies for improving the quality and responsivenessof training.

National Training Board. (1990). Setting national skillstandards: a discussion paper. NT13 Ltd.. Canberra.

This paper is designed to establish the framework andguidelines for use by those responsible for the developmentand implementation of standards-based training.

Office of the Australian Nationai Training Series (1991).One to one skills instruction. O.A.N T.S.. Hawthorn.

This new trainer-training package was developed to meet thespecific needs of people involved in one-to-one skillsinstruction. It may be purchased from the publisher or theirlocal agents on the basis of a site licence fee.

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Ped ler. M. (ed) (1983). Action learning in practice.Gower. Aldershot. Eng.

This book explains the underlying concepts, and outlineswhat is involved in implementing an action learningprogram. It offers a practical approach while recognising theintellectual, emotional and moral challenge of the actionlearning approach.

Smith, B. (1989) `Management education: puttinglearning into action' in Personnel today. August 1989.

In this article the writer compares traditional and action-learning approaches and argues that the latter has much tooffer Australian enterprises in the context of industryrestructuring.

Snider, J.G. & Osgood, C.E. (1969). Semantic Alifferentialtechnique: a sourcebook. Aldine Publishing Company,Chicago.

The semantic differential technique forms an important rolein most behavioural sciences and in several applied areas.This sourcebook is a compilation of materials that illustratethe origins, history. criticism, methodology, validity and usesof the technique. An extensive bibliography is also provided.

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Stock,J.. si a (1987). Assessment and evaluation intraining, Vol. 6 training technology programme.Parthenon. Casterton Hall. Eng.

This is one volume in a series of thirteen manuals that dealwith training technology. It covers in great detail thedefinitions, methods, processes. instruments and outcomesof both assessment and evaluation. Its style makes for easycomprehension and the content includes flow charts,cartoons and case studies.

Thomson, P. & Pearce, P. (1990). Testing times: a studyof assessment on and ceff the job. TAFE National Centre forResearch and Development. Adelaide.

The development of competence assessment cove:ing bothon-the-job and off-the-job training requires fundamentalchanges to the way educators and trainers have traditionallydone things. This report seeks to document how muchprogress has been made in the area of assessment, both on-the-job and off-th-job. and how much still remains to beachieved.

The report concludes with three major recommendations foraction:

to raise the assessment skills of both teachers andsupervisorsspecify a greater role for industry in assessing on-the-job training, andincrease the quality of the assessment procedures.

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Tlmsitt. G. & Chalmers. M. (1990). Training Guaranteehandbook. CCH. Melbourne.

This is a largely non-legalist analysis of the TrainingGuarantee legislation and its implications. lt goes intogreater depth than the Australian Taxation Office's guideand has a chapter entitled Designing your own trainingprograms. The final chapter contains further references andadvice on where to obtain professional training advice. Theauthors go further than an objective analysis of thelegislation by making a well-argued case for training anddevelopment in terms of its potential benefits.

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