DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 108 077 CG 009 896

AUTHOR Sells, Lucy W.TITLE Sex and Discipline Differences in Professional

Socialization.PUB DATE 2 Apr 75NOTE '25p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the

American Educational Research Association(Washington, D. C., March 30-April 3, 1975)

EDRS PRICE MF=$0.76 HC-$1.58 PLUS POSTAGE_DESCRIPTORS *Graduate Study; Higher Education; Norms;

*Professional Personnel; *Sex Differences;*Socialization; Speeches; *Values

ABSTRACTProfessional socialization in this pa'per refers to

the process by which neophytes are initiated into the norms andvalues governing professional and academic disciplines in gra,duateschool by professional gate-keepers. The first part of the papershows very large differences in the effectiveness of professionalsocialization by sex,, and across professional and academicdisciplines. The second part explores some of the sources ofineffective socialization for neophytes and the gate-keepers whodetermine whether they gain access. The third part of the paperoffers some techniques for helping both neophytes and gate-keepersdiscover more effective ways to achieve professional socialization.(Author/PC)

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SEX AND DISCIPLINE DIFFERENCES tN PROFESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION

LUCY W. SELLSDEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY

SOCIALIZATION IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY DENOTES THE PROCESS BY WHICH AN

INDIVIDUAL LEARNS TO :ADJUST TO THE GROUP BY ACQUIRING SOCIAL BEHAVIOR OF1

WHICH YmE GROUP APPROVES." THIS FUNDAMENTAL PROCESS TAKES PLACE IN ALL

SOCIAL SYSTEMS IN WHICH NEW PEOPLE ARE BROUGHT INTO THE GROUP. PROFES

SIONAL SOCIALIZATION IN THIS PARER REFERS TO THE PROCESS BY WHICH NEOPHYTES

P ARE INITIATED INTO THE NORMS AND VALUES GOVERNING PROFESSIONAL AND ACADEMIC

DISCIPLINES IN GRADUATE SCHOOL BY PROFESSIONAL GATEKEEPERS. ONE MEASURE OF

YHg EFFECTIVENESS OF THE SOCIALIZATION PROCESS IS THE PERCENTAGE OF PEOPLE

w00 DROP OUT OF THE SYSTEM.

THE FIRST PART OF THIS PAPER SHOWS VERY LARGE DIFFERENCES IN THE EFFECT

IVENES OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION BY SEX, AND ACROSS, PROFESSIONAL AND

ACADEMIC DISCIPLINES: THE SECOND PART EXPLORES SOME OF THE SOURCES OF IN

EFFECTIVE SOCIALIZATION FOR NEOPHYTES AND GATEKEEPERS WHO DETERMINE WHETHER

THEY GAIN ACCESS. THE THIRD PART OFFERS SOME TECHNIQUES FOR HELOTNG BOTH

NEOPHYTES AND GATE KEEPERS DISCOVER MORE EFFECTIVE WAYS TO ACHIEVE pROFES

Si*NAL SOCIALIZATION.

I.,

DIFFERENCES0

EFFECTIVENESSFFECTIVENESS OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION.

IN INTERPRETING THIS SECTION, THE READER SHOULD KEEP IN MIND THEFOL-

LOWING QUESTIONS:

1. WHAT HAPPENS DIFFERENTLY TO WOMEN, MINORITY STUDENTS, AND TOWHITE MEN THAT MIGHT ACCOUNT FOR THE VERY LARGE SEX AND ETHNICDIFFERENCES IN EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT?

US DEPAEtTMENT OF HEALTH.EOLCATION & WELFARE 2. How MUCH OF IT IS SOCIOLOGICAL; IN TERMS OF EXPECTATIONS ABOUTNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

THIS DOCUVENT HEDUCAAS

TIONSEEN REPRO

HUMAN BEINGS, AND WHAT THEY MIGHT BECOME,'BASED ON TRADITIONALDuCE0 EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM SEXROLES AND ETHNIC ROLES?0,E PERSON OR ORGANIZATION OR,GiNATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS

A TEO DO NOT NECESSARiLy REPRE 3. HOW MUCH OF IT IS pSYCHOLOGICAL, IN TERMS OF AMBITIONS, ASPIRSENT Of eIC.AL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OfEOUrAJiON POSITION OR POLICY ATIONS, ANO MOTIVATIONS OF STUDENTS, WHICH, IN TURN ARE SHAPED

8Y THE EXPECTATIONS OF OTHER PEOPLE.

THIS SECTION WILL TRACE THROUGH A NUMBER OF CRITICAL FILTERING POINTS

11IHICH CUT DOWN ON TIE ACCESS OF WOMEN AND MINORITIES BEFORE THEY EVER

REACH THE AVAILABILITY POOLS FOR PROFESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION. THE FIRST

CRITICAL FILTER IS FREEDOM OFsCHOICE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUM.

1. A DICTIONARY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES, EDITED BY JULIUS GOULD ANDWILLIAM L. KOLB, UNESCO, 1964, PAGE 672.

PAPER PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHASSAC/ATION, HILTON HOTEL, WASHINGTON, DC, APRIL 2, 1975.

EDUCATORS IN THE UNITED STATES POINT WITH PRIDE TO THE OPENNESS OF

OUR PUBLIC EDUCATION SYSTEM, WHICH ATTEMPTS TO PROVIDE EQUALITY OF ACCESS

TO ALL PERSONS, INDEPENDENTLY OF SEX, ETHNICITY, OR SOCIAL CLASS. THEY

SOMETIMES POINT WITH ACCUSATION AT EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN OTHER COUNTRIES

FOR EXCLUDING PEOPLE FROM ACCESS ON THE BASIS OF SOCIAL CLASS. HOWEVER,

IN THE UNITED STATES, THERE IS A HIDDEN FILTER WHICH OPERATES TO EXCLUDE

PEOPLE ON THE OASIS OF SEX, ETHNICITY, AND SOCIAL CLASS. THOSE WHO CHOOSE

NOT TO TAKE ADVANCED MATHEMATICS IN HIGH SCHOOL ARE EFFECTIVELY FILTERED

OUT OF FREE CHOICE OF UNDERGRADUATE MAJOR AT MOST COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES.

--THE MINIMAL HIGH SCHOOL MATHEMATICS REQUIREMENT FOR ADMISSION TO THE

STANDARD FRESHMAN CALCULUS SEQUENCE IS TWO YEARS OF ALGEBRA, A YEAR OF GEO-

METRY, AND HALF A YEAR OF TRIGONOMETRY. UNTIL VERY RECENTLY THERE. HAS.BEEN

NOWAY FOR AN ENTERING FRESHMAN TO REMEDY DEFICIENCIES IN HIGH SCHOOL PREP-.

ARATION FOR THE STANDARD CALCULUS SEQUENCE. THIS CALCULUS SEQUENCE IS RE-

QUIRED FOR UNDERGRADUATE CURRICULA IN THE AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, CHEMISTRY.,

ENGINEERING, ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN, FORESTRY AND CONSERVATION, OPTOMETRY,

MOST OF THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES, AND ECONOMICS. IT IS NOT REQUIRED IN CRIM-

INOLOGY, EDUCATION, JORNALISM, LAW, LIBRARIANSHIP, SOCIAL WELFARE, AND THE

SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES. IT IS INCREASINGLY REQUIRED FOR SOPHIST-

ICATED GRADUATE WORK IN POLITICAL SCIENCE, PSYCHOLOGY, AND SOCIOLOGY. THE

ONLY TRADITIONALLY HIGH PRESTIGE, HIGH PAYING AND WHITE MALE DOMINATED FIELD

THAT *DOES NOT HAVE THE HIGH SCHOOL MATHEMATICS FILTER BUILT INTO THE FORMAL

REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION IS LAW. HOWEVER, HIGH ON MATHEMATICS

TESTS ARE INDICATIVE OF THE KIND OF ANALYTICALLY ORIENTED MIND THAT WILL

SUCCEED IN LAW SCHOOL.

IN A SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLE OF APPLICANTS FOR FALL 1972 ADMISSION

AT BERKELEY, 57% OF THE MEN HAD TAKEN TWO YEARS OF ALGEBRA, A YEAR OF GE-.

OMETRY, AND HALF A YEAR OF TRIGONOMETRY, COMPARED WITH 8% OF THE WOMEN.

THIS FORTY-NINE PERCENTA9L..POINT DIFFERENCE IS A POWERFUL MEASURE OF SEX-

ROLE STEREOTYPES WHICH CONSTRAIN THE ASPIRATIONS AND MOTIVATIONS OF STU-

DENTS DECIDING WHICH COURSES TO TAKE IN HIGH SCHOOL, EVEN AS THEY CONSTRAIN

THE KINDS OF.ADVICE COUNSELORS GIVE STUDENTS.

AMONG A CLASS,UP UPPER-DIVISION SOCIAL SCIENCE STUDENTS AT BERKELEY,

THERE WAS A LARGE AND STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HAVING

3

SOCIAL SUPPORT FROM TEACHERS, PARENTS OR PEERS, ANG GOING ON FOR THE

ADVANCED ALGEBRA ANO TRIGONOMETRY. THE EFFECT OF THE MATHEMATICS FILTER

ON MINORITIES CAN BE INFERRED FROM THE PERCENTAGE OF LETTERS ANO SCIENCE

STUDENTS MAJORING IN THE MATHEMATICS BASED FIELDS. THESE DATA, FROM THE

BERKELEY STUDENT RESOURCE SURVEY, SPRING, 1972 INCLUDE UPPER OIVISPON

TRANSFERS, AS WELL AS GRADUATE STUDENTS. AMONG THE ASIANS, 58% WERE

MAJORING IN THE MATHEMATICS BASED FIELOS,,COMpAREO WITH 30% OF THE BLACKS,

CHICANOS ANO NATIVE AMERICANS. THE ETHNIC DIFFERENCE IN CHOICE OF MAJOR,

TWENTY-EIGHT PERCENTAGE POINTS, IS LARGER THAN THE SEX DIFFERENCE. AMONG

THE MEN, 44% MAJORED IN THE MATHEMATICS FIELD, COMPARED WITH 21% OF THE

WOMEN, GIVING A SEX DIFFERENCE OFTWENTY -THREE PERCENTAGE POINTS. WHEN

SEX AND ETHNIcily ARE CONTROLLED SIMULTANEIOUSLY, THE DIFFERENCES GET

EVEN LARGER. WHILE 68% OF THE ASIAN MEN MAJORED IN THE MATHEMATICS -BASED

LETTERS ANO SCIENCE FIELDS, ONLY 17% OF THE NON-ASIAN WOMEN 010 So - A

OIFFERENCE4OF FIFTY-ONE PERCENTAGE POINTS. THE PROPORTION OF ASIAN WOMEN

IN THESE FIELDS IS SLIGHTLY HIGHER (45 %) THAN THAT OF NON - MINORITY MEN (41%).

THERE IS A STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT DROP IN THE PROPORTION OF WOMEN

EARNING BACHELOR'S DEGREES IN THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES AT BERKELEY (26%), ANO

THE PROPORTION OF WOMEN APPLYING TO ".GRAOUATE SCHOOL IN THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES

(11%) AT THE SAME TIME, WOMEN SEEM TO BE ADMITTED TO GRADUATE DEPARTMENTS

IN THE SAME PROPORTION IN WHICH THEY ARE APPLYING, ANO RECEIVING FINANCIAL

SUPPORT IN THE SAME PROPORTION IN WHICH THEY ARE APPLYING.

THE FIRST PART OF SECTION ONE HAS SHOWN FILTERS IN THE EFFECTIVENESS

OF PRE - PROFESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION. THE FOLLOWING PART SHOWS WHAT HAPPENS TO

PEOPLE WHO SURVIVE THE pRE-PROFESSIONAL4rILTERS.

TABLE I, BELOW, WAS CALCULATED FROM A CLASSIC STUOY OF DOCTORAL AT-

TRITION OF POST-MASTER'S STUDENTS IN THE TRADITIONAL ARTS ANO SCIENCES WHO

WERE IN GRADUATE SCHOOL BETWEEN 1950 THROUGH 1953. IT SHOWS LARGE ANO

STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT SEX ANO DISCIPLINE DIFFERENCES IN PERCENTAGE OF

DROPOUTS BY BOTH SEX ANO DISCIPLINE. WOMEN IN THE FIFTIES WERE MORE LIKELY

TO DROP OUT THAN MEN BY TWENTY.pERCENTAGE POINTS. STUDENTS IN THE HUMANITIES

WERE MORE LIKELY TO OROp OUT THAN STUDENTS IN THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES BY TWENTY

PERCENTAGE POINTS. THESE DIFFERENCES HOLO UP WHEN SEX ANO DISCIPLINE ARE

CONTROLLED SIMULTANEOUSLY.

..,

, 0

TABLE I

PERCENTAGE OF DROPOUTS AMONG 1950-1953POST-MASTER'S STUDENTS IN TRADITIONAL

ARTS AND SCIENCES, AS OF DECEMBER, 1962,BY SEX AND FIELD

HUMANITIESSOCIAL

SCIENCES

MEN 46% 39%_(4475) (6753)

WOMEN 66% 51%

. (11623 (1150)

BIOLOGICAL PHYSICAL PERCENTAGE% SCIENCES SCIENCES DIFFERENCE TOTAL.0.1.0.1

26% 29% 17* 35%

(3113) (6321) (20662)

42% 45% 21° 55%

(490) (345) (3147)

PERCENTAGEDIFFERENCE 20 12' 16* 17°

FOR SExES

TOTAL

... 20'

50% 41% 28% 30% 20* 38%

(5637) (7903) (3603) (6666) (23809)

SOURCE: CALCULATEO FROM TABLES PRESENTED IN THE CLASSIC STUDY OF DOCTORALATTRITION, TUCKER, GOTTLIEB, AND PEASE, ATTRITION OF GRADUATE STUDENTSAT THE PH. D. LEVEL IN THE TRADITIONAL ARTS AND SCIENCES, MICHIGAN STATEUNIVERSITY, OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT AND THE GRADUATE SCHOOL,PUBLICATION NUMBER 801964.

_/' SEX AND DISCIPLINE DIFFERENCES ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT AT'THE .05 LEVEL, USING ACONSERVATIVE ESTIMATE OF A TWO TAILED TEST.

o

IT IS NOT CLEAR FROM THE STATISTICAL EVIDENCE WHETHER WOMEN DROPPED

OUT OF DOCTORAL PROGRAMS BECAUSE THEY HAD OTHER REWARDING ALTERNATIVES OPENW cp.& .

TO THEM, OR WHETHER THEYORIVEN OUT BY A LESS THAN WELCOMING SOCIAL CLIMATE

IN GRADUATE SCHOOL IN THE EARLY FIFTIES.

A SECONDARY ANALYSIS OF DATA ON WOODROW WILSON FELLOWS WHO ENTERED

GRADUATE SCHOOL IN THE EARLY SIXTIES SHOWS A SIMILAR PATTERN OF SEX AND

DISCIPLINE DIFFERENCES IN EFFECTIVE PROFESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION. THE SEX

DIFFERENCE ALMOST DISAPPEARS AMONG THOSE WHO HAD SECOND YEAR FINANCIAL

SUPPORT, GETS MUCH LARGER AMONG THOSE WHO HAVE CHILDREN, AN' GETS LARGER

YET AMONG THOSE RATED 'EXCELLENT' BY THEIR GRADUATE FACULTY IN THE PHYS

ICAL SCIENCES. EFFECTIVE PROFESSIONAL,SOCIALIZATION WILL MAKE IT POSSIBLE

FOR THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF STUDENTS RATED 'EXCELLENT' TO SURPASS THOSE OF,

STUDENTS RATED AVERAGE TO FAIR' , INDEPENDENTLY OF SEX, ETHNICITY, OR

. t i

5

DISCIPLINE. IA THIS SAMPLE, OF HIGt%LY TALENTED GRADUATE STUDENTS, THERE

WAS NO STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE IN THEE PROFESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION

OF WOMEN RATED /EXCELLENT/ AND ME,N RATED 'AVERAGE TO FAIR.1. TABLE 11,

BELOW, SNOWS THE PERCENTAGE OF WOODROW WILSON FELLOWS OF THE EARLY SiXTIES

WHO DROPPED OUT OF DOCTORAL PROGRAMS BY SEX AND THE RATING OF THEIR GRAD-

UATE PERFORMANCE BY THEIR FACULTY.

TABLE

WOODROW WILSON FELLOWS: PERCENTAGE DROPOUTSBY SEX AND GRADUATE RATING BY FACULTY

GRADUATE RATING MEN 1.10MEN SEX EFFECT

EXCELLENT 33% a 58% 25*

(821) (267)

CONFLICTING RATINGS 42% 64 22*BY FACULTY (77) (25)

VERY GOOD 44% 67% 23*

(654) (270)

AVERAGE TO FAIR 56% 78% 22'

(303) (134) . 6

ERRATIC PERFORMANCE 60% 86% 26BY STUDENT.

(65) (21)

POOR TO DREADFUL 82% 90% NS

(131) , (40) 0

TOTAL RATED STUDENTS 44% 68% 24*(2051) (757)

RATING EFFECT 49 32*.

;!:( "SOURCE: THE ORIGINAL MOONEY DATA WERE OBTAINED FORSECONDARY ANALYSIS sy PERMISSION OF MRS. ,JANET MITCHELL,DIRECTOR OF THE WOODROW WILSON DISSERTATIO FELLOWSHIPPROGRAM.

* SEX AND RATING DIFFERENCES ARE STATISTICALLY SIGN;F'"ICANT AT THE .05 LEVEL, USING A CONSERVATIVE ESTIMATEOF A TWO TAILED TEST. THE NUMBER IN PARENTHESIS IS THEBASE TO WHICH PERCENTAGES ARE CALCULATED. AMONG THE 821MEN RATED 'EXCELLENT,/ 33% DROPPED OUT, COMAPRED WITH58% AMONG THE 267 WOMEN RATED 'EXCELLENT.'

TAKE AS GIVEN THAT THE DISCREPANCY BETWEEN ACHIEVEMENTS OF PERSONS

RATED EQUALLY ARE THEMSELVES UNEQUAL ARE A MEASURE OF INEFFECTIVENESS OF

tr

t,

-6

PROFESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION. THE CRITICAL QUESTION IS WHETHER THE PROBLEM, c

LIES IN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NEOPHYTES, CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GATE-0

KEEPERS, OR IN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SOCIAL SYSTEMIN WHICH THEY ARE IM.

BEDDED. THE FACT THAT STUDENTS WITH CONFLICTING RATINGS BY FACULTY FALL

BETWEEN STUDENTS RATED EXCELLENT AND THOSE RATED VERY GOOD, AND STUDENTS

WITH ERRATIC PERFORMANCE RATINGS FALL. BETWEEN AVERAGE TO FAIR AND POOR

TO DREADFUL TENDS'TO SUGGEST THE PROBLEM LIES IN CHARACTERISTICS OF NE0

PHYTES..RA,THER THAN GATEKEEPERS OR THE SYSTEM.

THE POLICY IMPLICATION FOR NEOPHYTES IS THAT CONSISTANT PERFORMANCE

HAS HIGHER PAYOFF THAN ERRATIC BRILLIANCE. THERE HAS BEEN A-DRAMATIC REDUCTION IN THE FOURTH YEAR DOCTORAL DROPOUTS AMONG VJOMENAT BERKELEY.

AMONG THE ENTERING CLASS OF 1962, 22% OF'THE MEN HAD DROPPED OUT OF DOC

TORAL PROGRAMS BY THE FOURTH YEAR,, COMPARED WITH 42% OF THE WOMEN. AMONG

THE ENTERING CLASS OF 1.968, 27% OF THE MEN HAD DROPPED OUT BY THE FOURTH

YEAR, COMPARED WITHm27% OF THE WOMEN. TtlE POLICY IMPLICATION FOR NEOPHYTES

IS THAT THE SOCIAL SUPPORT OF THE WOMEN'S MOVEMENT CAN HELP THEM ACHIEVE

ACCESS TO THE SYSTEM, THE POLICY IMPLICATION FOR GATEKEEPERS IS THAT

THEY NEED NOT IMPOSE EXPECTATIONS ANG EVALUATIONS OF WOMEN IN THE 1970'S

ON THE BASIS OF THEIR EXPERIENCES AND OBSERVATIONS OF GRADUATE WOMEN IN

THE EARLY FIFTIES. AND EARLY SIXTIES. THE IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL SOLIDARITY

AMONG NEOPHYTES AND CHANGfNG EXPECTATIONS OF GATE KEEPERS IS CRUCIAL IN

IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION.6

IN A NATIONAL SAMPLE OF GRADUATE STUDENTS AND FACULTY SPONSORED 8Y

THE CARNEGIE COMMISSION ON HIGHER EDUCATION, IT IS CLEAR THAT GATEKEEPERS

AND NEOPHYTES HAVE VERY DIFFERENT PERCEPTIONS OF WHETHER WOMEN GRADUATE

STUDENTS ARE AS DEDICATED AS THE MALES. TABLE III, ON THE. NEXT PAGE

REPORTS THE- RESPONSES BY FACU(.TY AND FEMALE STUDENTS ON TWO PARALLEL

QUESTIONS. THE FACULTY ITEM IS "THE WOMEN GRADUATE STUDENTS IN THIS DEP

ARTAENf\ARE NOT AS DEDICATED AS THE MALES." THE,STUDENT ITEM IS "THE

'PROFESSORS IN MY DEPARTMENT DON'T TAKE FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS SERIOUSLY."

THE PERCENTAGE DIFFERENCE IN AGREEMENT TO THE TWO ITEMS BY GATE KEEPER

OR NEOPHYTE STATUS AND ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE OFFERS SUPPORT FOR LEO LOWENTHAL'

H'POTHESIS THAT 'FACULTY FANTASIES AOUT GRADUATE STUDENTS ARE SURPASSED

ONLY BY GRADUATE STUDENT FANTASIES ABOUT FACULTY.' THIS IS A SPECIAL CASE

TABLE I:II

FACULTY AND STUDENT PERSPECTIVES ON.EACHOTHER: PERCENTAGE PLACING BLAME ON THE OTHER

. FACULTY: % AGREE THAT "WOMEN GRA1DUATE STUDENTSIN THIS DEPARTMENT ARE NOT AS.DEDICATED AS THEMALES."

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS: % AGREE THAT "THE41''PROFESSORS' :N MY DEPARTMENT DON'T TAKE FEMALE.GRADUATE STUDENTS SERIOUSLY.

FEMALE PERCENTAGEDISCIPLINE FACULTY :._,TUDENTS DIrrERENCE

4 HISTORY . 19% 27*

(395) (91)

ENGLISH 22% -4X;

(' +95) (149)

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 222 28%

(114) (18)

20*

6I

-Ns

POLITICAL SCIENCE 23% 55% 33*

(307) (67)

SOCIOLOGY 23% 40;/, 17*

(21 ?) .° (45)

BIOLOGICAL ANDPHYS1,CAL SC1ENCr';

(2403) ,

UXT,LPImENTAL PSYCH. .47/,

1'

(,'s,;' )

: '.ECONDARy ANA L. 'DATA1,, or GA 7 tir-rrt" BY THr!in T I °wt. ....,BRvEy or Pi ourn 1011CAT I on. f7',P0r/',ORED BY THE

GAInr COmmi ON ON HIGHER 1.0uGA T ION.9

,TATI',TICALLY StealIFICANT AT THE .05 LLvrL, USING ACONSERVATIVE ESTIMATE Or A TWO - TAILED

ALL TABLES BASED ON THE CARNEGIE DATA ARE USING' ASUBSAMPLE OF THE 'NSTITUTIONS DESIGNATED AS 'HIGHQUALITY UNIVERSITIES' IN THE PUBLIC VERSION OF THECODEBOOK. MEDIUM AND LOW QUALITY UNIVERSITIES WEREEXCLUDED, AS WERE COLLEGES AND COMMUNITY COLLEGES.

L .

OF THE BROADER-MYPOTFFSIS, THAT SIN EVERY SOCIAL SYSTEM, GATE - KEEPER

FANTASIES ABOUT NEOPHYTES ARE SURPASSED ONLY BY NEOPHYTE FANTASIES ABOUT

GATE4EEPERS. THE,saLuTioN FOR MORE EFFECTIVE PROFESSIONAL SO ALIZATION

CONSISTS OF BRINGING THE FANTASIES OF GATE - KEEPERS AND NEOPHYTES CLOSER TO

REALITY. THIS W/LL BE DISCUSSED MORE FULLY 'IN A LATER SECTION OF THE PAPER.

THE FUNDAMENTAL PATHOLOGY I'VE OBSERVED IN A VARIETY OF SOCIAL SYSTEMS

CONSISTS OF PEOPLE AT EVERY LEVEL 'ABSOLVING'THEMSELVES4F FAULT OR BLAME

BY PLACING IT ON,PEOPLE ABOVE AND BELOW THEM. INSTEAD OF TAKING RESPONSES

ILFTY FOR SOLVING PROBLEMS..TABLE III IS A GOOD EXAMPLE OF PEOPLE OF DIF-

FERENI STATUS ABSOLVING THEMSELVES BY PLACING BLAME ELSEWHERE.

TABLE IV, BELOW,-SHOWS THE RESPONSES.OF FACULTY, MALE GRADUATE AND

FEMALE GRADUATES TO THE SAME TWO ITEMS. .AGAIN, THE PATTERN OF SEX AND

DISCIPLINE DIFFERENCES IN RESPONSES APPEARS. ONLY ,IN THE PHYSICAL 'SCIENCES

ARE THE SEX DIFFFERENCES IN STUDENT AGREEMENT =THAT "THE PROFESSORS IN

MY DEPARTMENT DON'T REALLY TAKE FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS SERIOUSLY NOT

STATIST.CALLY SIGNIFICANT. THE DIRECTION OF AGREEMENT VARIES BY STATUS.

AMONG THE FACULTY, 18% OF THOSE IN THE HUMANITIES AGREETHAT "THE FEMALE

GRADUATE STUDENTS IN MY DEPARTMENT ARE NOT AS DEDICATED AS THE MALES,"

COMPARED WITH OF THOSE IN THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. THOSE IN THE BIOL-

OGICAL SCIENCES ARE MORE LIKELY TO AGREE BY SEVENTEEN PERCENTAGE POINTS

THAN THOSE IN THE HUMANITIES. 'AMONG THE FEMALE GRADUATES, 40% OF THOSE

IN THE HUMANITIES AGREE THAT "THE PROFESSORS IN MY DEPARTMENT DON'T REALLY

TAKE FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS SERIOUSLY," COMPARED WITH 30% OF THOSE IN

THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. THOSE IN THE BI.OLOGICAL SCIENCES ARE LESS LIKELY

TO AGREE BY TEN PERCENTAGE POINTS.

AGAIN, IT!S NOT CLEAR FROM THE DATA WHETHER AGREEMENT TO THESE ITEMS

8

COMES FROM CHARACTERISTICS OF NFOPHYTES, GATE - KEEPERS, OR THE SOCIAL SYSTEM

IN WHICH THEY ARE IMBEDDED. TO WHAT EXTENT ARE FACULTY PERCEPTIONS OF WOMEN

GRADUATE STUDENTS AS LESS DEDICATED, AND STUDENT PERCEPTIONS THAT FACULTY

ARE NOT TAKING THEM SKRIOUSLY A CHICKEN AND EGG PHENOMENON? MORE IMPORTANTLY,

WHAT IS THE MOST CONSTUCTIVE WAY TO INTERVENE, TO HELP FREE NEOPHYTES AND

GATE-KEEPERS FROM THE CONSTRAINTS OF TRADITIONAL SEX AND STATUS ROLE EXPEC'.

TAYIONS?

ANOTHER CLUE TO SEX AND DISCIPLINE DIFFERENCES IN PROFESSIONAL SOCIAL-

IZATION CAN BE FOWID IN TABLE .V, ON PAGE 10. IT SHOWS VERY LARGE SEX AND

t

TABLE IV

FACULTY AND GRADUATE STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF FACULTY ATTITUDES'TOWARD WOMEN GRADUATE STUDENTS, BY SEX AND FIELD.

9 1

FACULTY: % AGREEING THAT "THE FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS IN MYDEPARTENT ARE NOT AS DEDICATED AS THE MALES."

GRADUATE STUDENTS: % AGREEING THAT "THE PROFESSORS IN MY DEPARTMENTrOONIT REALLY TAKE FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS e

;SEdioustY4

HUMANITIES

FACULTY

18%

(t861)

SOCIAL SCIENCES 24%

-(1647)

°PHYSICAL SCIENCES 34%

BIOLOGICAL CENCEg 35%

(1155)

M*LE GRADUATES FEMALC GRADUATES

27% .40%

(838)' (529)

29% 39%

. :(804) . -(309)

25% 31%

(762) (101)

20%1

(394)

9

SEX DIFFEKENC

E = 13*

E'= 10*

E = 6

E = 10*

FIELD DIFFERENCE E = ..17*

TOTAL 27%

(5878)

E = ,7* E = 10*-

20% 30%

(2798) (1090) -

E =12*

SOURCE: SECONDARY ANALYSIS OF DATA GATHERED BY THE NATIONAL SURVEY of HIGHER

EDUCATION, SPONSORED BY THE CARNEGIE COMMISSION ON HIGHER EDUCATION. READ i0OF THE 1861 FACULTY ..IN THE HUMANITIEP AGREE THAT "THE FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS.

IN MY DEPARTMENT ARE NOT AS DmicATED AS THE MALES." IN CONTRAST, 40% OF THE 529

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AGREE THAT "THE PROFESSORS IN MY DEPARTMENT DON'T

REALLY TAKE FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS SERIOUSLY."

* STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT AT THE .05 LEVEL, USING A CONSERVATIVE ESTIMATE

OF A TWO TAILED, TEST.

I

4

TABLE V

1 '

JV

PERCENTAGE OF DOCTORAL STUDENTS WHOSE PRIMARYFACULTY CONTACT REGARDS THEM AS A COLLEAGUE

OR APPRENTICE, BY SEX AND, DISCIPLINE.

.

,

. . . 19-

'

MEN WOMENPERCENTAGEDIFFERENCE TOTAL

.

r

a

4

43.

oh

.

"

PSYCHOLOGY

ANTHROPOLOGY

CHEMISTRY

PHYSICS

BIULOGICALSCIENCES

SOCIOLOGY

e

HISTORY

ENGLISH

MATHEMATICS

72%

176).

-72%

(51)

58%

(235;

57%

(265)

56%

(393)

61%

(101)

57%

(252)

52%.

(197)

39%

(268)

53%

(95)

50% .

(50)

54%

(35).

36%

(14)

.45%

(153)

38%

(44).

37%

(90)

33%

(.149)

g2%

(50)

. 19e'

22 '

4 NS

2.1 NS

iv..

,-

?I!

20,

19

17.0

65%

(271),

61%

(101)

57%v4

(270)

56%

(279)

,,..153!

..i543)*._

52.,%'

(145)

52%

(342)

44%

(346)

36%

(318).

DISCIPLINE,

PERCENTAGEDIFFERENCE

. 31* .29.

SOURCE: SECONDARY ANALYSIS OF DATA GATHERED BY THE NATIONALSURVEY OF HIGHER.EOUCATION, SPONSORED BY THE.CARNEG1ECOMMINION ON HIGHER EDUCATION.

STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT AT THE .05 LEVEL, USING A.CONSERVATIVE ESTIHATE OF A TWO- TAILED TEST.

ALL OF THE TABLES BASED ON THE CARNEGIE DATA WERE GAGED ONLY ,

ON THE INSTITUTIONS OEBIONATE0 "HIGH QUALITY UNIVERSITY"THE CODESOOK. THEY DO NOT INCLUDE MEDIUM.ON LOW QUALITY UNI'vuRsollts,rouA R veocIR COLLEGES, OR JUNIOR COLLEGES.

S

11p 0

a

rDISCIPLINE DIFFERENCES IN PERCENTAGE OF DOCTORAL STUDENTS WHO REPORT THAT

THEIR PRIMARY FACULTY CONTACT REGARDS THEM AS A COLLEAGUE OR,APPRENTICE,

RATHER THAN AS A STUDENT. AGAIN, THE CAUSAL DIRECTION IS NOT CLEAR.

ARE WOMEN BEING EXCLUDED FROM COLLEACUEAL OR APPRENTICE PrIATIONS, OR ARE

THEY:EXCLUDING THEMSELVES BY CONSTRAINTS IMPOSED BY PREPROFESSIONAL:SI:IC-0

IALZAWN?

TABLE ON pAGE12, SHOWS THE PERCENTAGE OF,FACULTY WHO REPORTED

HAVING A MEMBER OF THEIR CWFACuLTY WHO ACTED AS 'SPONSOR" FOR THE FIRST '

JOB, BY SEX AND DISCIPLINE. AGAIN, THE,PATT.cRN .4F SEX AND DISCIPLINE %.

DIFFERENCES IN SPONSORSHIP SUGGESTS BOTH SEX AND DISCIPLINE DIFFERENCES

IN THE PROCESS OF PROFESSICNAL SOCIALIZATION. THERE ARE TOO FEW WOMEN

IN THE FACULTY SAMPLE TO EXAMINE SEX DIFFERENCES IN SPONSORSHIP WITHIN

PROFESS.IONAL AND ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE.:. TABLE VII, ON PAGE 13, SHOWS THE

PERCENTAGE' OF TOTAL FACULTY( WITHIN PROFESSIONAL AND ACADEMIC DISCIPLINES

WHO REPORTED HAVING A FACULTY SPOKSqR. THE PATTERN OF FACULTY SPONSCRSkIP

IS 1CLEARLY TORE PREVELANTIN THE ACADEMIC MISCIPLINES THAN IN THE PROFES...

SIOAL FIELDS.. 'ENGLISH IS THE ONLY ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE WHICH HAS LOWER/

..RATES7'OF SPONSORSHIP THAN THE TWO PROFESSIONAL FIELDS WITO TiE HIGHEST

RATE OF SPONSORSHIP, BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND EDUCATION.

THIS VARIATION IN PATTERNS QF .SPONSORSHIP SEEMS MORE LIKELY TO BEo.

IS

RELATED TO CHfRACTERISTICS OF THE DISCIPLINE AS ASOCIAL SYSTEM THAN TO.41

. 0

mr. CHARACTERISTICS OF NEOPHYAS.01CGATEKEEPERS.

9

1

.

0.

1

. TABLE VI

0

QUESTION: "AS A GRADUATE STUDENT, WAS THERE A FACULTY MEMBER WHO ACTEDAS YOUR ";PONSOR' WHEN YOU WERE LOOKING FOR YOUR FIRST JOB?"

c"

t

a

% OF FACULTY WHO REPORTED HAVING HAD A FiCUO'YSPONSOR, BY SEX AND FIELD

FIELD MEN WOMEN SEX DIFFERENCE TOTAL

HUMANITIES 56% . 41% 15 5425

(1719)' (235)1 (195)

PHYSICAL SCIENCES 66% 45% 21* 65;'y

(1526) (65) (1591)

SOCIAL SCIENCES 71% 68% 3 N S 71;4

(1416) (146) (1591)

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 64% 46% 18" 62%

(1069) (110) (1179)........

FIELD DIFFERENCE.............

HUMANITIESSOCIAL 15* '27*, 17*

TOTAL 64% 50% ' 14* 63%

(57594 (556) - (6315)

* STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT AT THE .05 LEVEL, USING A CONSERVATIVE-ESTIMATE.

WHILE 56% OF THE MALE FACULTY IN THE HUMANITIES REPORTED HAVING

A FACULTY 'SPONSOR' WHEN LOOKING FOR THE FIRST JOB, ONLY 41%9F THE

FEM4LE FACULTY MEMBERS DID SO. THE FIELD DIFFERENCE IS ALMOST TWICE AS..,

..

LARGE FOR WOMEN AS FOR"MEN.. ro

12.

13

TABLE VII

PERCENTAGE OF FACULTY 'WHO,REPORTED HAVING A FACULTYSPONSOR BY PROFESSIONAL AND ACADEMIC FIELD

PROFESSIONAL FIELD ACADEMIC FIELD

ARCHITECTURE 26% (174) ENGLISH 46% (538)

LIBRARY SCIENCE 26% (77) BACTERIOLOG*1 06 (234)

SOCIAL WELFARE 29% (195) MATHEMATICS 62% (583)

HEALTH FIELDS 36 %(1937) CHEMISTRY 4 65% (343)

FINE ARTS 37% (627) ECONOMICS 68% (354)

ENGINEERIWG 41%(1119) POLITICALSCIENCE 68% (317)1LAW 43% (221)

cs3 BUSINESSPHYSICS 69% (414)

ADMINISTRATION 53% (450) ANTHROPOLOGY 70% (141)

EDUCATION 57% (475) PSYCHOLOGY 71% (507)

HISTORY 74% (419)

SOCIOLOGY 77% (234)

SOURCE: SECONDARY ANALYSIS OF DATA GATHERED BY THE

NATIONtt. SURVEY OF HIGHER EDUCATION, SPONSORED BYTHE CARNEGIE COMMISSION ON HIGHER EDUCATION.

THERE IS A DIFFERENCE OF TWENTY-ONE PERCENTAGE POINTS IN PATTERNS

OF SPONSORSHIP BETWEEN ARCHITECTURE AND EDUCATION IN THE PROFESSIONAL

FIELDS, AND A DIFFERENCE OF THIRTY -ONE PERCENTAGE POINTS BETWEEN ENGLISH

AND SOCI.OLOGY IN THE ACADEMIC FIELDS.

THIS SECTION OF THE PAPER kAS COVERED FILTERING POINTS IN PRE-PROF-

ESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION, SHOWN SEX AND DISCIPLINE VARIATION IN THE EFFECT-

IVENESS OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION, AND SHOWN SEX AND DISCIPLINE VAR=

IATION IN PATTERNS OF APPRENTICESHIP AND SPONSORSHIP, FROM THE DATA AV-

AILABLE, I'VE BEEN UNABLE TO VERIFY WHETHER THE DIFFERENCES ARE DUE TO

CHARACTERISTICS OF NEOPHYTES, GATE - KEEPERS, OR THE SOCIAL SYSTEMS IN WHICH

THEY ARE IMBEDDED.

THE NEXT SECTION EXPLORES SOME OF THE SOURCES OF INEFFECTIVE PROFES-

SIONAL SOCIALIZATION AS IT RELATES TO CHARACTERISTICS OF NEOPHYTES, GATE-

a KEEPERS, AND THE SOCIAL SYSTEMS IN WHICH THEY ARE IMBEDDED.

a t

fl/

2. SOURCES OF INEFFECTIVENESS OF PROFESSIONAL SOC ALIZATION

SDME OF THE PROCESSES WHICH OPERATE TO DRIVE WOMEN OUT OF DOCTORAL

PROGRAMS ALSO wORK AGAINST MEN. SOLUTIONS DERIVED FRO4.1 WORKING WITH

wOMEK STL'ZENTS MIGHT ALSO BE USED TO REDUCE ATTRITION AMONG TALENTED

MEN. THIS SECTION OF THE PAPER DESCRIBES SOME OF THE PROCESSES IDENT

IFIED IN THE GRADUATE WOMEN'S PROJECT, SPONSORED BY THE AFFIRMATIVE

ACTION PLANNING OFFICE, AND THE WOMEN'S CENTER AT BERKELEY, IN SPRING,

1973.

THIS PILOT PROJECT. GREW OUT OF CONCERN WITH UNDERSTANDING THE

VERY LARGE SEU AND DISCIPLINE DIFFERENCES IN DOCTORAL ATTRITION DESCRIBED

EARLIER. WE WERE PARTICULARLY CONCERNED WITH ISOLATING THOSE FACTORS

WHICH MIGHT BE DIFFERENT FOR WOMEN GRADUATE STUDENTS IN THE 19701S, SO

THAT EXPECTATIONS BASED ON THE BEHAVIOR OF GRADUATE WOMEN IN ThE 19501S

AND 1960'S WOULD NO LONGER BE IMPOSED ON CONTEMPORARY WOMEN.

THE PILOT PROJECT CONSISTED OF AN EIGHT WEEK SERIES OF TWO

HOUR SESSIONS IN WHICH GROUPS OF WOMEN FROM A VARIETY OF DISCIPLINES

ATTEMPTED TO DEFINE AND ARTICULATE PROBLEMS FACED BY WOMEN IN GRAD

UATE SCHOOL, AND TO GENERATE ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS TO THOSE PROBLEMS.

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE PROJECT WERE MAILED TO ALL WOMEN IN CHEMISTRY,

ENGLISH,e MATHEMATICS, PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIOLOGY, AND ZOOCOGY; AND TO ALL

GRADUATE SECRETARIES FOR POSTING. IN ADDITION, AN ARTICLE DESCRIBING

THE PROJECT WAS PUBLISHEO IN THE DAILY CALIFORNIAN.2

THE INITIAL ORGANIZATIONAL MEETING WAS ATTENDED BY TWENTYFOUR

WOMEN. FIELDS REPRESENTED INCLUDED CHEMISTRY, ENGLISH, MATHEMATICS,

ZOOLOGY, ASIAN STUDIES, CITY PLANNING, EDUCATION, GEOLOGY, POLITICAL

SCIENCE, SOCIOLOGY, AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS, SOCIAL WELFARE, NURSING,

AND NEAR EASTERN STUDIES. AT THIS MEETING WE EXPLAINED THE PURPOSE

OF THE PROJECT, AND DESCRIBED THE NATURE OF OUR SUPERVISION BY A

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST EXPERIENCED IN GROUP PROCESSES.

To KEEP THE SIZE OF MEETINGS MANAGEABLE THE WOMEN WERE DIVIDED..

INTO TWO GROUPS; EACH MET WITH THE COFACILITATORS IN SEPARATE TWO

HOUR SESSIONS ONCE A WEEK FOR EIGHT WEEKS. IN ORDER TO AVOID IMPOSING

OUR OWN PRECONCEPTIONS UPON THE PARTICIPANTS, THE MEETINGS WERE DELIO

ERATELY VNSTRUCTURED. A NOMBER OF RECURRING THEMES EMERGED FROM THE

DISCUSSIONS. THESE THEMES WERE ECHOED AND AMPLIFIED INDEPENDENTLY IN

A QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY OF NON-pARTi'cIpANTs FROM THE ORIGINAL mA4LING.

IT SHOULD BE EMPHASIZED THAT SOME OF THE PROBLEMS MENTIONED BY WOMEN

IN THE PILOT PROJECT ALSO TROUBLE mKN, AND THAT SOLUTIONS FOR WOMEN

MIGHT BE CARRIED OVER TO SOLUTIONS FOR MEN.

THE MAJOR THEMES EMERGING FROM THE GROUP EXPLORATIONS AND THE

QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY CAN BE GROUPED INTO THREE CATEGOR;Es:

1. FACTORS BEYOND THE CONTROL OF STUDENTS on FACULTY.

2. FACTORS WITHIN THE CONTROL OF FACULTY.

3. FACTORS POTENTIALLY WITHIN THE CONTROL OF STUDENTS.

EACH GROUP OF THEMES WILL BE DISCUSSED BELOW, WITH GREATEST EMPHASIS

ON THOSE FACTORS POTENTIALLY WITHIN THE CONTROL OF STUDENTS THEMSELVES.

1. FACTORS DEVON!) THE CONTROL OF STUDENTS OR FACULTY.

DECLINE %N FEDERAL AND PRIVATE SOURCES OF GRADUATE STUDENTFtNANCIAL SUPPORT, WHICH MAKES STUDENTS INCREASINGLY DEP-ENDENT ON DEPARTMENTAL GOOD WILL FOR SUPPORT.

RISING TUITION COSTS, AND COSTS OF LIVING IN GENERAL.

DECLINING JOB MARKET FOR PH: D.'S, COMBINED WITH THE PROLIF-ERATION OF DOCTORAL PRODUCTION FROM LOWER QUALITY INSTITUTIONS.

2. FACTORS WITHIN THE CONTROL OF FACULTY.

$

LACK OF WOMEN AS ROLE-MODELS ON THE FACULTY, WHICH AFFECTS THESOCIALIZATION PROCESS OF THE WOMAN GRADUATE STUDENT.

POOR FORMAL ADVISING PROCEDURES, WHICH ARE THE SOURCE OF MUCHUNNECESSARY CONFUSION AUD BITTERNESS.

EXCLUSION OF WOMEN FRAM THE INFORMAL COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK BYBOTH FACULTy AND GRADUATE 'STUDENTS, WHICH CONTRIBUTES TO ANINCREASING SENSE OF INVISIBILITY AS TIME PASSES.

EXCLUSION OF WOMEN FROM THE TRADITIONAL APPRENTICE RELATIONSHIPSWITH FACULTY.

INDIFFERENCE OF PROFESSORS. MANY WOMEN FEELAND UNAPPROACHABILITY OF PROFESSORS MAKES ITADVICE AND HELP.

MYSTERY, CHARACTERIZED BY THE LACK OF EASY AVAILABILITY OF INFOR-MATION. MANY WOMEN CITED THE ABSENCE OF WELL-DEFINED, PUBLICCRITERIA FOR EVALUATION, REQUIREMENTS, OR PROCEDURES.

SECRECY. MANY COMPLAINED ABOUT THE ABSENCE OF INFORMATiOh ABOUTATTRITION, FLUNKING, AND S -:CESS RATES WITHIN THE DEPARTMENT;ABOUT THE LENGTH OF TIME IT TAKES TO GET THE DEGREE; ABOUT THEEMPLOYMENT SITUATION ONCE THEY EARN THE DEGREE. THERE WERE ALSOCOMPLAINTS ABOUT THE ABSENCE OF DUE PROCESS FOR STUDENTS WHOFELT THEY WERE WRONGFULLY BEING DROPPED FROM DOCTORAL PROGRAMS.

THAT THE REMOTENESSDIFFICULT TO SEEK

15

3. FACTORS POTENTIALLY WITHIN THE CONTROL OF STUDENTS.

THESE FACTORS WERE REPEATEDLY RECURRING THEMES IN THE GROUP

CUSSIONS AND THE NON PARTICIPANT QUESTIONNAIRE. EACH WOMAN IN THE

GROUP HAD INITIALLY PERCEIVED THAN AS UNIQUE, PERSONAL PROBLEMS. THEO

MAJOR INSIGHT ARISING FROM THE GROUP PROCESS WAS THE RECOGNITION BY

THE WOMEN INVOLVED TKAT THEIR FEELINGS WERE IN FACT NOT INDIVIDUAL,

AND EVEN MORE IMPORTANTLY, THAT THEY WERE NOT LIMITED TO STUDENTS IN

THEIR OWN DEPARTMENTS. RECOGNITION OF THESE FEELINGS AS PERVASIVE

CHARACTERISTICS OF GRADUATE STUDENT LIFE SEEMS TO HAVE MADE IT POSSIBLE

TO DEAL WITH THEM MORE EFFECTIVELY.

PRDBLEM AREAS WERE RAISED AT TWO DIFFERENT LEVELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL AND

SOCIOLOGICAL.

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL LEVEL

STUDENTS MENTIONED THE FOLLOWING KINDS OF FEELINGS WHICH INTER

FERE WITH PERFORMANCE AND INHIBIT THE KIND OF SUSTAINED EFFORT NEEDED

FOR INTELLECTUAL ACHIEVEMENT, AND WHICH SEEM TO BECOME MORE INTENSE

AS LENGTH OF TIME IN GRADUATE SCHOOL INCREASES:

1. LOWERING OF SELF CONFIDENCE.

2. LOWERING OF SELF ESTEEM.

3. ABIVALENCE ABOUT PROFESSIONAL AND CAREER NORMS WHICH SEEM TOEXCLUDE THE LEGITIMACY OF PERSONAL LIFE.

4. AMBIVALENCE ABOUT PROFESSIONAL NORMS WHICH PUT RESEARCH AHEADOF TEACHING.

5. AMBIVALENCE ABOUT SUCCESS AND FAILURE, ARISING FROM FEARS OFPROFESSIONAL SUCCESS AS INHERENTLY DEFEMINIZING.

6. AT LEAST THREE DIFFERENT FORMS OF ALIENF.TION:

A. ALIENATION ARISING FROM AMBIGUITY ABOUT THE NORMS GOVERNING ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL SUCCESS. THIS AMBIGUITYCOULD BE RESOLVED BY EXPLICIT CLARIFICATION OF WHAT ITTAKES TO SUCCEED IN A FIELD, SO THAT STUDENTS COULD DECIDEEARLY IN THEIR GRADUATE CAREERS WHETHER OR NOT THEY WANTTO PLAY THE GAME.

B. ALIENATION ARISING FROM THE STUDENT'S SENSE OF POWERLESSNESS.TO THE EXTENT THAT SHE PERCEIVES HER ACADEMIC LIFE OUTSIDEOF HER OWN CONTROL, SHE WILL BE HINDERED IN DEGREE PROGRESSTHIS SENSE OF POWERLESSNESS COULD BE RESOLVED BY PROVIDINGGREATER OPPORTUNITY FOR STUDENT PARTICIPATION IN THE DECISION MAKING PROCESSES WHICH AFFECT DOCTORAL PROGRESS.

Co ALIENATION ARISING FROM A SENSE OF THE MEANINGLESSNESS OFHlivoLES TO BE PASSED. THIS COULD BE RESOLVE BY CLARIFYINGTHE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CURRICULUM HURDLES AND THEIRCONTRIBUTION TO PROFESSIONAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.

,

THE SOCIOLOGICAL LEVEL

GRADUATE STUDENTS FREQUENTLY CCMPLAIN ABOUT THE INFANTALIZATION

IMPOSED ON THEM BY GRADUATE SCHOOL. THE WOMEN IN THE PILOT PROJECT

ALSO MENTIONED THIS. A FACULTY ADVISOR TOLD ONE OF OUR WOMEN SCIEN

TISTS THAT 'THE TROUBLE WITH STUDENTS IS THEY WANT TO TAKE TOO MUCH

CHARGE OF THEIR OWN LIVES, OF COURSE IT IS NOT ALWAYS CLEAR WHICH

WAY THE CAUSAL ARROW OPERATES. 00 FACULTY BEHAVE IN A PATERNALISTIC

MANNER BECAUSE STUDENTS BEHAVE IN A DEPENDENT, CHILDLIKE MANNER? OR

DO STUDENTS BEHAVE IN A DEPENDENT, CHILDLIKE MANNER BECAUSE FACULTY

EXPECTATIONS ELICIT AND REWARD SUCH BEHAVIOR? IS THE QUESTION OF

PATERNALISM VERSUS AUTONOMY RELATED TO THE SEX OF THE STUDENT, OR

DOES IT AFFECT THE PROGRESS OF MALE STUDENTS AS WELL?

WOMEN ENTER GRADUATE SCHOOL WITH STRONGER RECORDS THAN MEN. THEY

NAVE TO BE BETTER TO SURVIVE THE INITIAL SCREENING PROCESS. ALL OF

THE WOMEN IN THE EXPLORATORY GROUP, AND MOST OF THE WOMEN IN THE QUESTION**

NAIRE SURVEY REPORTED A SENSE OF PROGRESSIVE DEMORALIZATION, OF SKIDDING

DOWNHILL IN THEIR SENSE OF COMPETENCE, SELFESTEEM, AND SELFCONFIDENCE.

THEY SEE THE MALE GRADUATE STUDENTS WITH WHOM THEY ENTERED ACCEPTED AS

APPRENTICES AND JUNIOR COLLEAGUES, BUT FEEL SHUT OUT FROM SUCH RELATION

SHIPS THEMSELVES.

STUDENTS IN THE PILOT PROJECT AT BERKELEY REPORTED AN INCREASING

SENSE OF NOT BEING TAKEN SERIOUSLY, BY FACULTY, OR BY THEIR FELLOW

STUDENTS. THIS SENSE OF NOT BEING TAKEN SERIOUSLY CONTRIBUTES TO THEIR

SENSE OF DEMORALIZATION, AND OF FUTILITY IN PURSUIT OF THE DOCTORATE.

AGAIN, IT IS NOT CLEAR WHETHER STUDENTS PICK UP AND REFLECT FACULTY

EXPECTATIONS WITH RESPECT TO THEIIYERIOUSNESS, OR WHETHER STUDENTS

BEHAVE IN A MANNER WHICH ELICITS EXPECTATIONS OF LACK OF SERIOUSNESS.

STUDENTS IN A NUMBER OF DEPARTMENTS AT BERKELEY MENTIONED A LACK

OF COMMUNITY WITHIN THEIR DEPARTMENTS, AND A SENSE OF ISOLATION FROM

BOTH FACULTY ANO OTHER STUDENTS. THIS IS PARTICULARLY A PROBLEM FOR

STUDENTS IN THE HUMANITIES, WHERE RESEARCH IS A MUCH MORE INDIVIDUAL

aENTERPRISE THAN IN THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

.4

r

N

J

.THE BERKELEY PILOT PROJECT AND THE NATIONAL SURVEY DATA INDICATE

SOME PROBLEMS WITH GRADUATE STUDENT MORALE. HOWEVER, INFORMAL DIt

CUSSIONS WITH FACULTY IN A VARIETY OF FIELDS SUGGEST A RADICALLY DIF-

FERENT PERCEPTION OF STUDENT MORALE. THERE APPEARS TO BE A DENIAL OF

THE EXISTENCE OF THE PROBLEM, A POSITION WHICH CAN BEST BE DESCRIBED

BY THE MYTHOLOGY THAT "OUR DARKIES ARE HAPPY HERE ON THE PLANTATION."

THE SHARP CONTRAST BETWEEN STUDENT AND FACULTY PERCEPTIONS OF

STUDENT MORALE SUGGESTS THE NEED FOR AN ACTIVE PROGRAM zr,O CHANGE THE..,

SITUATION. IMPRESSIONISTIC EVIDENCEN

\SUGGESTS ALSO THAT FACULTY MORALE WITH RESPECJITO

STUDENTS IS LOW, AND THAT AN EFFECTIVE ATTRITION REDUCTION PROGRAM

MUST BE GEARED TO IMPROVING BOTH FACULTY AND STUDENT MORALE. THIS CAN

BE JUSTIFIED BOTH IN THE NAME OF SALVAGING HUMAN RESOURCES, AND IN THE

NAME OF SAVING THE TAX - PAYER'S MONEY AS WELL AS IN THE NAME OF OPENING

UP OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN AND MINORITIES FOR ACCESS TO THE AVAILABILITY

POOLS FOR FACULTY RECRUITMENT, HIRING, PROMOTION, AND TENURE.

THIS SECTION HAS REVIEWED SOME OF THE PROCESSES EMERGING FROM A

PILOT STUDY OF SOURCES OF INEFFECTIVENESS OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION.

THE NEXT SECTION OFFERS SOME TECHNIQUES FOR BOTH NEOPHYTES AND GATE- KEEPERS

TO IMPROVE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION.

3. IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION.

ONE OF THE THEMES EMERGING FROM THE PILOT PROJECT AND THE NATIONAL

SURVEY DATA WAS THE SENSE OF EXCLUSION FROM THE INFORMAL COLLEAGUE OR

APPRENTICESHIP RELATIONSHIP WITH FACULTY.

GRADUATE STUDENT ORGANIZATIONS CAN PROVIDE AN IDEAL MECHANISM'

FOR STUDENTS TO DEVELOP THE INTERPERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL SKILLS

WHICH CONTRIBUTE TO THEIR SENSE OF COLLEAGUESHIP AND APPRENTICESHIP.

THE PARADOX $S THAT MANY STUDENTS ARE SO INVOLVED IN THEIR INDIVIDUAL

PROGRESS OR PARALYSIS THAT THEY FAIL TO SEE THE POSSIBILITY OF ORG-

ANIZATIONAL SOLUTIONS. THIS IS PARTICULARLY TRUE FOR STUDENTS WHO

SEE PROBLEMS IN GRADUATE SCHOOL AS EVIDENCE OF PERSONAL FAILURE AND

INEPTITUDE, RATHER THAN EVIDENCE OF PROBLEMS SHARED BY MOST STUDENTS.

UNTIL QUITE RECENTLY, WOMEN HAVE TENDED TO INTERNALIZE BLAME FOR THESE,

PROBLEMS, WHILE MEN HAVE TENDED TO PROJECT IT ON FACULTY, AND ON

THE SYSTEM.

i

1.

19

THE PROBLEM IS TO HELP STUOENTS RECOGNIZE THAT IT IS TO THEIR

AOVANTAGE TO BECOME I NVOLVEO IN OEPARTMENTAL STUOENT ORGANIZA IONS,

IN ORDER TO TAKE RESPONSIBILITY FOR THEIRnpRorcssIoNAL GROWTH ANO

DEVELOPMENT. THERE APPEARS TO BE CONSIDERABLE STUOENT RESISTANCE TO

THE IDEA OF "PROFESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION," IN WHICH STUDENTS ARC REW

AROE0 FOR BECOMING MORE ANO MORE LIKE THE FACULTY, ANO PENALIZED FOR

SERIOUS OEVIATION FROM THE FACULTY MOOEL OF "APPROPRIATE" PROFESSIONAL

ACAOEMIC BEHAVIOR. THIS RESISTANCE COMES FROM MEN AS WELL AS WOMEN,

ANO NEEOS TO BE EXPLORED. PART OF IT MAY STEM FROM REJECTION OF THE

PASSIVITY ANO OENIAL OF AUTONOMY IMPLIED IN THE PROCESS OF BEING

SOCIALIZED BY AUTHORITY FIGURES WHO ARE SOLELY RESPONSIBLE FOR DET.".

ERMAING STANOAROS OF EVALUATION. PART OF IT MAY STEM PROM REJECTION

OF THOSE STANOAROS OF EVALUATION. PART MAY STEM FROM A OISINCLINATION

TO ACCEPT THE GIVEN MOOELS OF APPROPRIATE PROFESSIONAL ATTITUOES AND

BEHAVIOR. 1

STUOENTS SHOULO BE ENCOURAGEO TO ORGANIZE ON THEIR OWN BEHALF

TO IMPROVE COMMUNICATIONS AMONG EACH OTHER, ANO WITH FACULTY; TO

FINO OUT, ANO MAKE EXPLICIT THE STANOAROS OF EVALUATION GOVERNING

PERFORMANCE ANO PROFESSIONAL BEHAVIOR; TO EXPLORE ANO MAKE EXPLICIT

ALTERNATIVES TO ACCEPTED MOOELS OF APPROPRIATE PROFESSIONAL ATTITUOES

ANO BEHAVIOR; TO FINO OUT, ANO MAKE EXPLICIT THE OPPORTUNITIES ANO

LIMITATIONS FOR EMPLOYMENT IMPOSED BY THE RAPIOLY CHANGING SUPPLY

ANO DEMANO FOR DOCTORATES IN EACH FIELO.

SOME MIGHT ARGUE THAT SUCH ACTIVITIES ARE THE PRIMARY cRESPONG

IBILITY OF THE FACULTY. HOWEVER, FOR FACULTY TO CONTINUE TO SPOON

FEED STUOENTS WITH THE RULES FOR SUCCESS BECOMES THE WORST FORM OF

PATERNALISM ANO OENIAL OF STUOENT AUTONOMY. THE PARAOOX IS THAT

STUOENTS HAVE TO ACT LIKE COLLEAGUES ANO APPRENTICES IN OROER TO BE

SO TREATEO, ANO THEY HAVE TO FEEL LIKE COLLEAGUES ANO APPRENTICES IN

OROER TO ACT ACCOROINGLY.

THERE IS CONS I OERABLE VARIATION ACROSS DISCIPLINES IN THE KI NOS

OF ATTITUOES ANO COMMITMENTS REQUIRED FOR SUCCESS. ONE POSSIBLE APPROACH

'TO STUOENT INITIATED ORGANIZATIONS IS OUTLINED IN APPE4101)01 BUT IT

WOULO NEED TO BE TAILOREO TO MEET THE SPECIAL NEEOS OF INOIVIOUAL OEP

ARTMENTS, CURRICULUM REQUIREMENTS, ANO JOB OPPORTUNITIES ANO LIMITATIONS.

19B

THIS PAPER HAS SHOWN LARGE SEX AND DISCIPLINE DIFFERENCES IN THE EFFECT-

IVENESS OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION, EXPLORED SOME OF THE SOURCES OF

INEFFECTIVE SOCIALIZATION FOR NEOPHYTES AND,GATE-KEEPERS, AND OFFERED

SOME TECHNIQUES FOR HELPING NEOPHYTES AND GATE-KEEPERS DISCOVER M01.- EFFECT-

IVE WAYS TO ACHIEVE PRROFFESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION.

IN CONCLUSION, I WOULD LIKE TO SUGGEST THAT ONEOF THE MAJOR PROBLEMS

FOR NEOPHYTES AND GATE-KEEPERS HAS TO DO WITH THE DEGREE OF FIT BETWEEN

THE NORMS AND VALUES OF NEOPHYTES AND OF GATE-KEEPERS. NOT ALL GRADUATE

STUDENTS WANT TO EARN THE NOBEL PRIZE JN,,THEIR FIELD. SOME HAVE MORE

MODEST ASPIRATIONS FOR TEACHING ANO DOING RESEARCH FOR THE JOY OF DOING

MANY, MEN, AS WELL AS WOMEN, WANT TO DEVOTE SOME OF THEIR TIME,

ENERGY, AND COMMITMENT TO FAMILY AND PERSONAL LIFE. THE THE EXTENT

THAT FACULTY WHO HAVE MADE IT IN A ..HIGHLY COMPETITIVE SYSTEM By THEIR

OWN INTENSE COMMITMENT TO THEIR FIELD IMPOSE EXPECTATIONS OF THE SAME

KIND OF COMMITMENT ON STUDENTS,'THOSE WITH MORE MODEST ASPIRATIONS WILL

BE EVALUATED DIFFERENTLY THAN THOSE WHO ALREADY WANT TO BECOME LIKE

HIGHLY SUCCESSFUL FACULTY.

MY HOPE IS THAT WE MIGHT REVISE PROFESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION TO TAKE

INTO ACCOUNT THE DIFFERING CAREER GOALS, CHANGING JOB MARKETS, NEEDS AND

EXPECTATIONS OF STUDENTS, WITHOUT FJ'CING THEM INTO THE PROCRUSTES BED OF

FACULTY DEFINED STANDARDS OF WHAT FLOURISWING IN GRADUATE SCHOOL MEANS.

20

RECOMMENDATIONS BASED ON THE PILOT PROJECT

A MAJOWTHEME EMERGING FROM THE PILOT PRDJECT WAS THAT OF

PERVASIVE LOW MORALE AMONG GRADUATE WOMEN. THE INTERDISCIPLINARY

DISCUSSIDN GROUPS PROVIDED A THERAPEUTIC CONTEXT IN WHICH THOSE WHO

pARTICIPATED WERE ABLE TO COME TO TERMS WITH THEIR FEELINGS ABOUT

GRADUATE SCHOOL IN A SUPPORTIVE SETTING.

CLOSE SUPERVISION BY AN OUTSIDE CONSULTANT WITH SPECIAL TRAINING

IN GROUP PROCESSES HELPED THE CO-FACILITATORS KEEP THE DISCUSSIONS

FROM DETERIORATING INTO DESTRUCTIVE SCAPEGOATING DIATRIBES AGAINST

PARTICULAR :NDIVIDUALS OR DEPARTMENTS. THE INTERDISCIPLINARY NATURE

OF THE GROUPS WAS ANOTHER IMPORTANT FACTOR IN THEIR SUCCESS. IT PER-

MITTED EXAMINATION AND ANALYSIS OF PRCESSES, RATHER THAN PEOPLE, AND

GAVE STUDENTS AN OPPORTUNITY TO COMPARE THEIR OWN EXPERIENCES WITH

THOSE OF STUDENTS IN OTHER DEPARTMENTS.4. k I

THE NATIONAL SURVEY OF GRADUATE STUDENTS SUGGESTS THAT MORALE

IS A SERIOUS PROBLEM FOR WOMEN, IT MAY ALSO BE A PROBLEM FOR MEN.

THE OPPORTUNITY FOR COMING TO TERMS WITH ONE'S FEELINGS ABOUT GRADUATE/

SCHOOL SHOULD BE EXTENDED TO THEM.

RECOMMENDATION .# 1. THE INTERDISCIPLINARY EXPLORATIONS SHOULD BEEXTENDED TO MEET THE NEEDS OF MEN AS WELL AS WOMEN. PROVISIONSHOULD BE MADE FOR SETTING UP ADEQUATE CONTROL GROUPS, SO THEACTUAL'BENEFIT OF THE GROUPS CAN BE MEASURED ACCURATELY.

NOT ENCUGH IS KNOWN ABOUT FACULTY PERSPECTIVESON THE CAUSES OF,,

DOCTORAL ATTRITION. THE BERELCON(1960) STUDY SUGGESTS A TENDENCY TO

ATTRIBUTE FAILURE TO LACK or ABILITY AND UNWILLINGNESS TO DO THE WORK.

THE SECOND RECOMMENDATION IS SEEN AS A FIRST STEP TOWARD CLARIFYING

THE DIMENSIOAS_O_E-FACULTY, PERSPECTIVES ON THE ATTRITION PROBLEM.

THEIR YEARS OF EXPERIENCE AS GRADUATE ADVISORS AND DISSERTATION CHAIR-

MEN COULD PROVIDE INVALUABLE INSIGHT INTO DEVISING WAYS OF____ItECUC4N

-----------

RECOMMENDATION # 2. INTERDISCIPLINARY DISCUSSIONS SHOULD BE SET pf,AMONG FACULTY TO EXPLORE THEIR PERCEPTIONS OF THE DOCTORALATTRITION PROGRAM.

A CASE WAS MADE FOR THE IMPORTANCE OF DEPARTMENTALLY BASED,

STUDENT INITIATED ORGANIZATIONS TO PROVIDE AN INSTITUTIONALIZED

MEANS FOR STUDENTS TO ACHIEVE THEIR OWN AUTONOMY.

RECOMMENDATION # 3. DEPARTMENTS SHOULD ENCOURAGE STUDENTS TO WORKAGGRESSIVELY ON THEIR OWN BEHALF BY MAKING IT CLEAR THAT SUCHACTIVITIES APE IPSO FACTO EVIDENCE OF PROFESSIONAL BEHAVIOR.

Pi? e wd. t

GRADUATE WOMEN'S PROJECT

THIS PROJECT OERIVES FROM TWO WOMEN'S PERSONAL _ENCOUNTERS WITH GRAOUATE

EDUCATION; IT IS AN ATTEMPT TO OEFINE ANO ARTICULATE PROBLEMS FACE() BY WOMEN

IN GRADUATE SCHOOL AND TO GENERATE ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS TO THOSE PROBLEMS.

THE PROJECT CONSISTS Or AN EIGHT WEEK EXPLORATION ANO EXAMINATION OF

INSTITUTIONAL ANO PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS TO SUCCESS IN DOCTORAL PROGRAMS.

ONE OF THE GOALS OF THE PROJECT IS TO ISOLATE THOSE PROBLEMS COMMON TO ALL

GRAOUATE STUOENTS FROM THOSE PROBLEMS THAT ARE UNIQUE TO WOMEN. WHAT WE

LEARN FROm'THE-PROJECT WILL BE USED FOR TWO COMPLEMENTARY PURPOSES: FIRST,

TO HELP WOMEN HELP THEMSELVES THROUGH DOCTORAL PROGRAMS; SECONO, TO HELP

OEVELOP AN EFFECTIVE, ONGOING AFFIRMATIVE ACTION PROGRAM FOR STUOENTS ANO

FACULTY.

CO-FACILITATORS ARE LUCY W. SELLS ANO NANCY ISAAC KuRILOrr. MS. SELLS

IS A DOCTORAL CAN GIOATE IN SOCIOLOGY WHO IS INVESTIGATING ATTRITION IN

DOCTORAL PROGRAMS. MS. KuRILOrF IS A DOCTORAL CANDIDATE.IN HIGHER EDUCATION

WHO IS SPECIALIZING IN PROBLEMS OF STUDENTHOOD, AND INSTITUTIONAL AND PSYCH-

OLOGICAL BARRIERS TO LEARNING . BOTH ARE CONCERNED ABOUT THE WASTE or

HUMAN RESOURCES ANO THE EXPENSE OF SPIRIT IN GRAOUATE PROGRAMS. BoTN ARE

INTERESTEO IN 0EVELORING-THERA-PEUTI-C CONTEXTS FOR LEARNING AT THE SOCIOLOGICAL

ANO PSYCHOLOGICAL LEVELS.

2,)

pPe

STUDENT ORGANIZATION ACTIVITIES

STUDENTS CDJLD LEARN TO BECOME AUTONOMOUS IN THREE MAJOR AREAS

OF THEIR GRADUATE CAREERS BY ORGANIZING3SEMINARs AROUND THOSE AREAS,

AND TAKING THE INITIATIVE TO INVITE FACULTY TO CONTRIBUTE THEIR SPECIAL

EXPERTISE ON PARTICULAR TOPICS.

THE FIRST MAJOR AREA IS THAT OF CLARIFYING FOR FIRST YEAR STUDENTS

PRECISELY WHAT A SERIOUS PROFESSIONAL COMMITMENT INVOLVES. THIS COULD

BE DONE IN A:SEmINAR HELD BY ADVANCED DOCTORAL STUDENTS ON IIEHALF OF

ENTERING STUDENTS DURING THE FIRST QUARTER. WEEKLY SESSIONS WOULD

BE HELD, WITH GUEST SPEAKERS, WHERE APPROPRIATE. THE TEXT WILL BE PIERRE

VAN OEN BERGHE, ACADEMIC GAMESMANSHIP, NEW YORK, ABELARD, 1970. THIS

BOOK, COMBINED WITH THE SEMINAR DISCUSSIONS, WILL HELP FIRST YEAR STUDENTS

DECIDE EARLY IN THEIR GRADUATE CAREERS WHETHER THEY REALLY WANT TO COMMIT

THEMSELVES TO ACADEMIC CAREERS. TOPICS WILL INCLUDE:

1. INTRODUCTION TO THE DEPARTMENT: OVERVIEW, AND INTRODUCTION OF

ENTIRE FACULTY TO FIRST YEAR STUDENTS. EXAMINATION OF DIVER

SITY OF RESEARCH INTERESTS, THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES, AND THE

METHODOLOGICAL STRATEGIES OF FACULTY. THIS WILL HELP STUDENTS

DECIDE WITH WHOM THEY MIGHT 8E INTELLECTUALLY COMPhTIBLE DUR

ING THEIR FIRST QUARTER.

2. I NTRO 10N_ TO- TNE--408MA-RK-E1 TF-ORP-EWS-0 NS wl TH MASTER S DE

GREES AND 'WITH DOCTORATES. PRESENTATION OF DATA ON APPROXIMATE

NUMBER OF NEW DOCTORATES AT BERKELEY, TOP TEN, AND NATIONWIDE

DEPARTMENTS; APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF OPENINGS EACH YEAR, NATIONWIDE, AND AT VARIOUS TYPES OF INSTITUTIONS; RANGE OF Joe ALTER.

NATIVES OPEN (GRADUATE TEACHING AND RESEARCH; UNDERGRADUATETEACHING; INDUSTRY; BUSINESS; GOVERNMENT FEDERAL, STATE, LOCAL;

PRIVATE RESEARCH ORGANIZATIONS; OTHER OPTIONS.)

HE REMAINING SESSIONS WILL BE DEVOTED TO THE MEANS OF ACHIEVING

CAREER ADVANCEMENT, GIVEN THE OPTIONS AVAILABLE, AND THOSE IN WHICH THE

STUDENT IS INTERESTED. MEANS lu ADVANCEMENT INCLUDE:

3. PUBLICATIONS: IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS IN E-ACH.

OF THE CAREER OPTIONS; WHICH JOURNALS MOST APPROPRIATE FOR WHICH.

OPTIONS; HOW TO SUBMIT PAPERS; CONSTRUCTIVE WAYS OF HANDLING

REJECTLQNS..

4. GRADUATE/ STUDENT JOB EXPERIENCE: HOW TO MAKE TEACHING ASSISTANTSHIP4AND RESEARCH ASSISTANTSHIPS CONTRIBUTE TOWARD CAREERADVANCEMENT, RATHER THAN IMPEDE,IT; IMPORTANCE OF EARLY BUILDING UP OF VITA; EXTRA CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES THAT WILL.ENHANCE

OR HINDER.

5. ORGANIZATION MEMBERSHIP: WHICH SCHOLARLY, SCIENTIFIC, OR PROFESSIONAL SOCIETIES ARE IMPORTANT FOR EACH OF THE CAREER ALTERNATIVES? HOw OD YOU JOIN THEM? HOw DO YOU USE, THEM FOR CAREER

ADVANCEMENT? IMPORTANCE OF PARTICIPATION IN REGIONAL AND NAT

IONAL MEETINGS; IMPORTANCE OF DEVELOPING RELA IONS WITH GRADUATE

STUDENTS WITH SlyILAR RESEARCH INTERESTS AT THER INSTITUTIONS.

t:Ynt.*'

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6. FELLOWSHIPS ANO RESEARCH GRANTS: LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION,BASED ON CLASSROOM PERFORMANCE, PUBLICATIONS, JOB EXPERIENCE;RECOGNIZING THE IMPORTANCE OF CHOOSING RESEARCH TOPICS WITHLONGRANGE PAYOFF IN TERMS OF THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL FERT-ILITY IN YOUR SUBSTANTIVE AREAS. ../.

7. FIRSTe POSTDOCTORAL JOB STRATEGIES FOR VARIOUS ALTERNATIVES.

THE SECOND FUNCTION WOULD BE, FILLED BY? SERIES OF.SEMINARB FOR

'STUOENTS PREPARING FOR QUALIFYING EXAMINATIONS. THESE WOULD BE ORG

ANIZED AROUND SUBSTANTIVE AREAS IN THE DISCIPLI*, SleXHATSTUDENT'S

WORKING IN SIMILAR AREAS COULD WORK TOGETHER IN CARVING OUT THE MAJOR

ISSUES AND CODIFKING RELEVANT MATERIALS IN'pRERARATION FOR EXAMS.

THE UNDERLYING ASSUMPTION IS THAT STUDENTS WILL BE FREE gp WORK HARD

TD MEET EACH OTHER'S EXPECTATIONS,. AND THAT THEY WORK HARDER IN SUCH

A CONTEXT THAN IN MEETING THE IMKGiNARY EXPECTATIONS OF THE FACULTY

PERSON WHO WILL ULTIMATELY BE DECIDING WHETHER. THEY PASS OR FAIL.

THeTHTTCOr-uNCTION WOULD BE FILLED BY A PARALLEL SERIES CP:SE44-141A115

FOR STUDENTS ENGAGED IN DISSERTATION RESEARCH. IT WOULD PROVIDE STUDENTS ,

WHO ARE WORKING ON SIMILAR RESEARCH TOPICS WITH AN OPPORTUNITY TO RESOLVE

SOME OF THE INTELLECTUAL ISSUES INVOLVED IN fHE DESIGN, EXECUTION, AND

WRITING UP OF THEIR RESEARCH BEFORE SUBMITTING IT FOR EVALUATION BY THE

MEMBERS OF THE EVALUATING COMMITTEE.

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