Economic, traditional andmedicinal uses of mangroves

W.M. Bandaranayake

A I M S R e p o r tN u m b e r 2 8

Australian Institute of Marine ScienceTownsville

1999

© Australian Institute of Marine Science, 1999

Copies available from:

Science Communications

Australian Institute of Marine Science

PMB No 3, Townsville Mail Centre

Townsville Qld 4810. Australia

AIMS Report series: ISSN 1033-6974

National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data:

Bandaranayake, Wickramasinghe M.

Economic, traditional and medicinal uses of mangroves.

Bibliography

ISBN 0 642 32230 9

1. Mangrove swamps - Economic aspects - Australia.

2. Mangrove swamps - Environmental aspects - Australia.

3. Mangrove plants - Therapeutic use - Australia. 4. Mangrove

ecology - Economic aspects - Australia. 5. Mangrove fisheries -

Economic aspects - Australia. I. Australian Institute of Marine

Science. II. Title. (Series : AIMS report ; no. 28).

577.698

ii

List of tables iv

Abstract v

Introduction 1

Geographic setting and biodiversity 7

Uses of mangroves 11Early uses of mangroves 11Traditional exploitation 12Traditional products and uses 14Food from mangroves 17Medicinal uses 19Toxicants from mangroves 36Miscellaneous uses 38

Traditional fisheries 45

Conclusion 47

Acknowledgements 49

References 51

CONTENTS

iii

Table 1. Medicinal uses of mangrove plants 24

Table 2. Classification of mangrove flora 27

Table 3. Chemical classes identified from mangrove plants 43

LIST OF TABLES

iv

v

The economic benefits and traditional uses and products of mangrove ecosystems are

many and varied. Apart from prawns, many other species of economic importance are

associated with mangroves; these include crabs, shrimps, oysters, lobsters and fish.

Traditionally, the mangroves (mangroves, mangrove minors and mangal associates) have

been exploited for firewood and charcoal and their uses include the construction of

dwellings, furniture, boats and fishing gear and the production of tannins for dyeing and

leather production. The mangroves provide food and a wide variety of traditional

products and artifacts for mangrove dwellers. Extracts and chemicals from mangroves

are used mainly in folk medicine (e.g. bush medicine), as insecticides and piscicides and

these practices continue to this day. However the extraction of novel natural chemical

compounds from mangroves, in addition to those already known to the pharmacopoeia

of the people, is in its infancy. A knowledge of the biological activities and/or chemical

constituents of plants is desirable, not only for the discovery of new therapeutic agents,

but because such information may be of value in disclosing new sources of already

known biologically active compounds. It is of further value to those interested in

‘deciphering’ the actual value of folk remedies. This report describes the traditional uses

of mangroves and the world’s mangrove resources and products, in terms of their

economic importance, medicinal values and other functions. It examines recent

investigations on the biological activities of extracts and chemicals identified from

mangroves and mangal associates. The report is intended to provide the reader with an

appreciation of mangroves and the uniqueness of mangrove life and its intrinsic

fascination. It is hoped that the report will serve to promote greater interest in the

mangrove environment, and enhance awareness of the very special life forms which

contribute towards its existence.

ABSTRACT

Mangroves have long been a source of astonishment to the layman and of interest for the

scientist. For many people living in the Indo-West Pacific and Americas-East Atlantic

regions, the word mangrove will be a familiar one. For a selected few, long standing

familiarity is based perhaps on vague and romantic mental pictures of waterlogged

woodlands in which tangled aerial root systems foil the would-be explorer. However, the

majority see them as swamps which are ridden with mosquitoes and sand flies,

inhospitable, unhealthy and dangerous. There is another category of people whose

knowledge of mangroves is derived from recent publicity given by concerned

conservationists to preserve the ever dwindling mangrove areas of the world. Yet others

living in these regions and the rest of the world have little or no concept of what it is that

constitutes the mangroves.

The collective noun mangrove designates a tidal wetland ecosystem formed by a very

special association of plants and animals that live in the intertidal areas of low lying

tropical and sub-tropical latitudes. These wetland ecosystems are among the most

productive and diverse in the world, and more than 80% of marine catches are directly

or indirectly dependent on mangrove and other coastal ecosystems worldwide (Ong &

Gong 1983; Kjerfve et al. 1997). They occupy large tracts along sheltered coasts,

estuaries and in deltas where they are influenced by tides and widely different conditions

of salinity and rainfall regimes. They are also found around coastal lagoons

communicating with the sea and where the effect of tides may be weak and the salinity

very low. The term mangrove is also used to designate halophytic (salt loving) and salt

resistant marine tidal forests comprising trees, shrubs, palms, epiphytes, ground ferns

and grasses which are associated in stands or groves (Chapman 1977; Knox & Miyabara

1984; FAO 1982). Mangroves are usually found only in tropical climates as they need

consistently warm conditions for development and survival. They occur in 112 countries

and territories and are largely confined to the regions between 30o north and south of the

equator. Notably, extensions beyond this are to the north in Bermuda (32’20oN), Japan

(31’22oN), and to the south in Australia (38’45o S), New Zealand (38’03oS) and on the

east coast of South Africa (32’59oS) (Olsen 1997). Among recent methods used to assess

the quantity of mangrove wealth in a country, remote sensing is now considered the most

practical technique for mangrove inventory.

INTRODUCTION

1

Introduction

The word ‘mangrove’ may be connected with the Portuguese word ‘mangue’, the

Spanish word ‘mangle’, French word ‘manglier’ or the Malay word ‘manggi-manggi’ in

conjunction with the English word ‘grove’. Vannucci (1989) in her book The mangroves

and us explains that the word is neither Portuguese nor Spanish, but the word ‘mangue’

derives from the national language of Senegal. It is possible that the Portuguese first

adapted the word, later to be modified by the Spanish, as a result of their exploration of

the coast of west Africa.

Humans have been residents of mangrove wetlands for centuries. As the coastal zone is

home to about 65% of the global population, they are of great importance to many people

who live along tropical shorelines (Kjerfve et al. 1997). In countries such as Indonesia,

mangroves provided protection for people, a function often invaluable in a region long

renowned for piracy and kidnapping. Mangroves also have traditionally been important

habitat for certain maritime peoples in southeast Asia, such as the Orang Laut of

Malaysia and western Indonesia (Polunin 1983). Furthermore, mangroves typically line

stream and river mouths, sites which were particularly favourable for settlement because

of accessibility and supplies of fresh water.

The uses of mangroves are many and varied and are often quoted in scientific and

popular articles (Walsh 1974 and 1977; Snedaker 1982; Chapman 1975 and 1977; Rollet

1981; Aksornkoae & Kongsangchai 1982; FAO 1985; Tomlinson 1986; Hutchings &

Saenger 1987; Vannucci 1989; Field 1995; Macintosh & Zisman, 1997). However the

uses of mangroves fall into two major categories, firstly the use of the mangrove

ecosystem as a whole, and secondly the use of products from the mangrove plants.

Ecologically, mangroves are important in maintaining and building the soil, as a reservoir

in the tertiary assimilation of waste, and in the global cycle of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and

sulfur (Odum et al. 1982; De La Cruz 1978).Protection against cyclones is a ‘free’ benefit.

Yet, hidden benefits from mangroves, specially in marginal areas, may even be more

important than the obvious ones. They play a significant role in coastal stabilization and in

promoting land accretion, the fixation of mud banks, dissipation of wind, tidal and wave

energy (Saenger et al. 1983; Subramanian & Krishnamurthy 1990; Achuthankutty 1990;

Hong 1996). In New Zealand, for example, there remain rows of mangrove bushes planted

to stabilize the coast by early generations of Maori people (Olsen 1997). Transplanting

saltmarsh vegetation is an alternative erosion control method which is relatively

inexpensive and proven to be effective on some shorelines. The aerial plant parts dissipate

2

3Introduction

waves, act as a living groyne by accumulating sediment and the tough mat of roots and

rhizomes stabilizes the substrate (Broom et al. 1981; Seneca & Broom 1982). They trap

sediments and thus contribute to land building and prevent excessive shifting of coastline

sand. A relatively recent commercial use is recreation and ecotourism.

In mangrove swamps, leaf fall forms an appreciable annual net production. Mangroves

are highly productive of organic matter, but in countries such as Papua New Guinea less

than 10% of this production is grazed by herbivores (Polunin 1983), and most of it enters

the detritus pool. Through the feeding activities of microbial decomposers such as

bacteria and fungi, wood-boring isopods and larger detrivorous animals, the humus from

fallen leaves and other plant parts are processed into finer particles. The organic matter

from the leaves forms the basis of an aquatic food web, which is utilized by a range of

organisms, some of which may specialize in the intact leaves and others on the

particulate decomposed products (Pool et al. 1975; Clough 1982; Polunin 1983; Umali

et al. 1986; Flores-Verdugo et al. 1987, Umali et al. 1986). As in other tidal ecosystems,

the extent of export probably depends on the amount of water movement.

Mangrove plants are exclusive to the mangrove environment. By contrast, the other

living things found in the mangroves also occur in other habitats. Some of these

organisms depend upon the mangroves for only part of their life cycle. For others, the

mangroves provide a suitable, permanent environment, but it is one which is non-

obligatory. Nevertheless, the presence of many other plants and animals is predictable,

and they make a significant contribution to the life of the mangrove community. On the

whole, over and above these plants and animals, the mangroves may support the

existence of occasional species whose presence is almost incidental and of no critical

significance to the central community.

The intricate root system of plants retain alluvia which, along with the high productivity

and physical structure of mangroves, create an appropriate and a valuable habitat for

many zoobenthos, some of which are of commercial importance (Hong 1996). At present

the most valuable mangrove-related species are penaeid prawns. The juvenile stages of

several species are recruited into mangrove and adjacent tidal vegetation, while the

adults breed offshore. Furthermore, the influence of mangroves extends far beyond

prawn fisheries. Apart from prawns, many other species of economic importance are

associated with mangroves; these include crabs, shrimps (from which belachan fish

paste is made in Indonesia, Malaysia and India) oysters, lobsters and fish.

Introduction

Silviculture of mangroves (reforestation) to produce a variety of timber products, mainly

charcoal, firewood and poles for dwellings has been practiced in a number of countries

in southeast Asia, and mangroves have been managed as a sustained yield forest crop for

more than a century (Snedaker 1982; Achuthankutty 1990; Teas 1991). A fundamental

function of all forests has been to supply timber for cooking, heating and constructing

dwellings, and mangrove forests are no exceptions (Watson 1929; FAO 1982).

Traditionally, people have used mangroves for the benefit of the local community

(Snedaker 1982; Achuthankutty 1990).

In recent years the ecological, environmental and socio-economic importance of

mangroves has been emphasized by international agencies, governments, local authorities,

non-government organizations (NGOs), coastal communities and scientists (Mercier &

Hamilton 1984; Padma 1990). Worldwide, there are about 685 protected areas containing

mangroves, distributed between 73 countries and territories (Olsen 1997).

Though mangrove ecosystems provide a unique and valuable range of resources and

services, increasing populations have led to an increasing non-sustainable abuse of the

resources. The pressures of population increase, food production and industrial and urban

development have led to a large proportion of the world’s mangrove resource being

threatened by destruction (Nair et al. 1979; Saenger et al. 1983; Knox & Miyabara 1984;

Berjak et al. 1982; Untawale 1986; Amarasinghe 1988). Huge areas of mangrove have been

lost, especially in southeast Asia and most parts of south Africa, due to demographic shifts

in coastal areas, wood extraction, conversion to agriculture and rubbish dumps, coastal

aquaculture and salt production, coastal industrialization, urbanization, and pollution.

Large areas of land formally occupied by mangroves have been reclaimed and planted with

pasture and cash crops such as rice, coconut and palm oil (Marius 1985; Bennett &

Reynolds 1993; Olsen 1997). In drier areas, mangroves are converted to salt pans.

Localized major uses for solar salt fields occur in Pakistan and Australia. Recently, shrimp

farming has caused large scale losses of mangrove habitats in several countries, the worst

cases being Ecuador, Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam among others (Schaeffer-

Novelli & Cintron 1990; Baconguis et al. 1990; Primavera 1991; Pillay 1993; Phillips et

al. 1993; Clough 1993; Lacerda 1993; Hong 1996; Olsen 1997). In Papua New Guinea,

Thailand and Malaysia some areas of the mangroves are destroyed by mining for tin and

other minerals such as chromium, and associated titanium mining, as well as by drilling for

oil (Aksornkoae & Kongsangchai 1982; Aksornkoae & Saraya 1986; Umali et al. 1986;

Chan & Salleh 1987). On the south-east shores of the Mekong delta, mangroves are dying

due to excessive sedimentation caused by deforestation upstream in Thailand, Laos and

4

5Introduction

Cambodia. Destruction of mangroves by wood borers is common in some countries. While

some mangrove wood is highly resistant to marine borers, most others have no borer

resistance at all. In places such as Florida and Banacon Island located in Central Visayas

in the Philippines most of the mangroves have no borer resistant wood and, as a result,

much of the forestation is lost due to borer infestations to the extent that the phenomenon

is described as an ‘eco-catastrophe’. Several molluscan and crustacean wood borers are

reported from Indian mangroves. Destruction of mangroves is mainly caused by the

sphaeromids and the teredinids. Barnacle infestation is the biggest threat to mangrove

plantations in Banacon Island. Crab infestation, though not serious, is another problem.

The crabs (e.g. Uca and Sesarma species) usually girdle the root collar and eat the fleshy-

cambium of the propagules. Mangrove plants and seedlings suffer a high mortality or

retarded growth due to seaweeds and the green ribbon-like algae (Umali et al. 1986). Apart

from this, there is a peculiar situation in the Cochin backwaters in India where most of the

mangroves have been destroyed by the water fern, Salvinia species, commonly called

‘African Payal’. The fern, which has a tremendous growth, has not only clogged the

waterways but its rate of degradation has affected the fishery potential of the area.

Ultimately, this fresh water fern has slowly adapted to the brackish water conditions and

changed the entire mangrove ecosystem to a pure Salvinia ecosystem (Umali et al. 1986).

Destruction of mangroves due to diseases (e.g. caused by pathogenic fungi) is rare (Odum

et al. 1982, Umali et al. 1986).

While the direct and indirect ecological and economic benefits of mangroves have long

been recognized, little has been documented regarding the traditional uses of mangroves

for commerce and for the livelihood, specially of mangrove dwellers. Recently, efforts

have been made to identify toxicants and chemicals with medicinal values from

mangroves and their potential economic benefits.

This report is the result of communication with scientists associated with mangrove

research, many people in Asia and southeast Asia and library researches. The consensus

of opinion among the correspondents and the people interviewed is that knowledge of

uses of mangroves is difficult to obtain, sometimes out of date, tenuous at best, and often

frustratingly lacking because most usage is local and never well documented.

This report examines how the mangrove forests and associated fauna provide a

livelihood for many people who make traditional products, handicrafts, artefacts, and

harvest mangroves for timber, many locally important foods and medicines. Recent

developments in medicinal and toxicant research in mangroves are also reviewed.

Approximately one-fourth of the world’s tropical coastline is dominated by mangroves

and they extend over 15.5 million hectares world-wide (Macintosh & Zisman 1997).

The most extensive and luxurious mangroves extend across the Indo-Pacific regions

where they are best developed in the delta systems of major rivers. The largest single area

of mangroves in the world lies in the Bangladesh part of Sunderbans, covering an area

of almost 600,000 hectares including waterways. There are about 6.9 million hectares in

the Indo-Pacific region (Clough 1982; Polunin 1983; Field & Dartnall 1985; Umali et

al. 1986; Macintosh & Zisman 1997), 3.5 million hectares in Africa, 4.1 million hectares

in the Americas including the Caribbean (Odum et al. 1982; Scheffer-Novelli &

Camargo 1982; Marius 1985; Untawale et al. 1992; Gang & Agatsiva 1992; Zahran &

Al-Kaf 1996; Macintosh & Zisman 1997). Venezuela has extensive stands of mangroves

and there is evidence that the areas were colonized more than 5000 years ago by nomads.

Mangroves also penetrate some temperate zones, but there is a rapid decrease in the

number of species with increasing latitude (Chapman 1977; Arroyo 1977; Tomlinson

1986; Macintosh & Zisman 1997).

The mangrove community is dominated by plant life. The trees of the mangroves not

only dominate the habitat, but also characterize it. Mangroves form unique environments

and floral-faunal assemblages. They are possibly the simplest and best defined of

ecosystems among the tropical forests and are one of the easiest tropical forest types to

generate because of their reproductive biology and adaptation to intertidal conditions

(Tomlinson 1986). They do not become established on exposed tracts of coastline. They

depend for initial propagation and subsequent perpetuation on the growth of the

seedlings, and for this a soft, muddy substrate is preferable. This restricts their growth to

shallow, sheltered shores close to a fresh water source, where accretion of a suitable mud

can take place. In most zones of the mangrove area, the substratum is waterlogged at all

times, and as a result mangrove substrates are anaerobic (lack oxygen). Mangroves have

the ability to grow where no other vascular plants can, as shown by their existence in

calm, nutrient-rich environments. They thrive under stressful and extreme tropical

environmental conditions, such as high concentration of moisture and high temperatures.

They exist in muddy, shifting, saline and anaerobic conditions, acid soil, and high and

low tides of brackish water, and serve as a bridging ecosystem between freshwater and

marine systems. They stand with their roots in salt water, and are a special form of

GEOGRAPHIC SETTING AND BIODIVERSITY

7

Geographic setting and biodiversity8

vegetation existing at the boundary of two environments and receiving food from the

land and the sea. Hence, these plants have evolved special methods to survive in these

extreme habitats. In fact, this peculiar environment has imposed several modifications on

these plants. Aerial roots are the most noticeable adaptation. The seeds are often buoyant,

easily dispersed by tides and shaped so that they anchor in the mud. The path of

photosynthesis is different from that of other glycophytes. There are modifications or

alterations in other physiological processes such as carbohydrate metabolism or

polyphenol synthesis (Bhosale & Mulik 1992).

The trees that comprise the mangroves may be either small and sparse, or of considerable

size, achieving such a measure of luxuriant growth that the mangrove community is

known by the alternative names of coastal woodlands or tidal forests. Mature mangrove

communities are commonly known as mangrove swamps on account of the terrain being

periodically inundated. The trees with life spans of the order of several decades can reach

a height of some 30 meters or more and may have 30-40 centimeters girth producing

dense closed-canopy forests. It is reported that the tallest mangrove trees in the world are

found in Majagual in Ecuador, reaching over 60 meters in height (Olsen 1997). The

undergrowth, except by recruits of the same species, is sparse. It is within the vicinity of

the areas covered by mangrove trees that the other mangrove plants such as a lianas,

grasses, and sedges find shelter (Table 2), (Chapman 1975 and 1977; Aksornkoae &

Kongsangchai 1982; Ong & Gong 1983; Saenger et al. 1983; Wightman 1983;

Tomlinson 1986; Lovelock 1993), and mangrove animals find both shelter and food.

Mangroves can be classified into three broad categories. Firstly, true mangroves are mainly

restricted to intertidal areas between the high water levels of neap and spring tides. Plant

species from true mangroves belong to at least 20 different families. About 80 species of

true mangrove trees/shrubs are recognized, of which 50-60 species make a significant

contribution to the structure of mangrove forests (Tomlinson 1986; Lovelock 1993; Field

1995). Thirty-four mangrove species and three hybrids are known to occur in Queensland,

Australia (Clough 1982; Lovelock 1993). Species diversity is much higher in the southeast

region, where approximately two-thirds of all species are found, while approximately 15

species occur in Africa and 10 in the Americas (Berjak et al. 1982; Field 1995). The species

composition and structure of the mangrove forest vary as a function of geophysical,

geographical, geological, hydrographic, biogeographical, climatic, and edaphic factors and

the environmental conditions. Rhizophora species occur in all three regions. Secondly,

minor species of mangroves are distinguished by their inability to form conspicuous

9Geographic setting and diversity

elements of the vegetation and they rarely form pure communities. The third category, the

mangal associates, are not found exclusively in the proximity of mangroves and may occur

only in transitional vegetation, landwards and seawards. However, they do interact with

true mangroves and are salinity tolerant plant genera (Bonde 1991) (Table 2). Within the

community are several woody, climbing plants. Among the most spectacular of the

climbers are the giant bean plants (Entada spicata and Elephantorrhiza elephantina) in

southern Africa which grow horizontally to form tangled stems and woody surface roots of

enormous extent and size (Berjak et al. 1982). A non-woody plant which is commonly part

of this community is the tall grass Phragmites australis (P. comminis) often called swamp

reed and Phragmites karka. Collectively they fulfil at least some of the ecological roles of

mangrove associations, through litterfall and root exudates for instance, dissolved nutrients

and the droppings of bats, birds and other animals that nest and live in the canopy or among

the roots. On the seaward fringe, beach and dune fixing plants like Ipomoea pes-caprae,

Sesuvium portucalastrum and species of Salicornia (e.g. Salicornia arthrocnemum)

consolidate the sandy sea front. Species such as Porteresia (=Oryza) coarctata tolerate

some degree of salinity. On the landward side thrive the coconut (Cocos nucifera), the sagu

palm (Metroxylon sagu), the pepper vine, and species of Dalbergia, Hibiscus tiliaceus, and

Pandanus. The only other group of vascular plants that has successfully adapted to sea

water are a few species of sea grasses, which thrive on the sea front and salt marshes, and

in the tropics are often found associated with mangroves and coral reefs.

Epiphytic flowering plants are quite abundant in the most humid areas of mangroves

(Aksornkoae & Kongsangchai 1982). They belong to different families, most notably

two species of semi-parasitic Loranthaceae, a true parasite of the genus Viscum

(mistletoe), Asclopiadaceae, and Orchidaceae. Lichens, mushrooms, ferns other than

Acrostichum, occur in the branches and trunks. In the drier areas exist the Bromeliaceans,

prominent among them Tilandsia usneoides, that occur in the Americas. The fern

Acrostichum aureum can form a dense undergrowth at the fringe of the mangrove. Within

the mangrove and its very edge, where the saline flow of the tides is both regular and

frequent, marine algae are locally abundant. A few species of simple green algae

(Chlorophyta) may be found on the stable silt and on the aerial roots and lower parts of

the trunks of mangrove trees. Red algae (Rhodophyta) encrust the pneumatophores,

knee roots and prop roots.

It is a common feature of tropical estuarine brackish waters bordered by mangroves that

the standing stock of phytoplankton is dense in the lower reaches where it is dominated

Geographic setting and biodiversity

by diatoms, specially those of the genera Coscinodiscus, Pleurosigma, and Biddulphia.

The zooplankton is represented by almost all aquatic groups of animals from protozoa to

fish eggs and fingerlings as well as larvae of most zoological groups except

Echinoderms. Pathogenic bacteria such as Shigella, Aeromones, Vibrio can survive in the

nutrient rich mangrove water, and water contaminated with noxious chemicals (such as

flavonoids, tannic acid and derivatives), pesticides, fertilizers and untreated domestic

sewage and industrial waste. Some of these lignolytic, cellulolytic, proteolytic bacteria

and other micro-organisms can break down large organic molecules such as tannins and

cellulose into useful smaller fragments. Higher algae are common, specially on

pneumatophores and stilt roots.

The study of saprophytic fungi is important because these organisms, together with

bacteria, convert lignocellulose into energy sources for other organisms in the food web.

Mangrove substrata are mostly composed of fine recent sediments, but one also finds

sand and peat, and occasionally fractured rocks and shingle where mangroves are not

predominant species. Important elements of the mangrove soils are the microbes,

bacteria, fungi, and blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria). They play an important role in

mineralization and chemical transformation in mangrove soils. In the oxygen deprived

mud, bacteria which can live anoxically play an equally important role. Some of them

utilize sulfur compounds instead of oxygen in respiration, and are instrumental in

breaking down the sulfur containing substance conchiolin of which marine shells are

partially constructed. Hydrogen sulfide (which smells like rotten eggs), the major by-

product of sulfur bacteria action, imparts the characteristic odor which is noticed when

the mud is disturbed. Thus, hydrogen sulfide, which is fairly freely available and

reactive, has the tendency to reduce ferric iron compounds in the soil (to a variety of

hydrated ferrous sulfides which are black), making the alluvial soil rich with ferrous

sulfides which impart to mangrove mud a dark appearance.

10

Early uses of mangroves

The evolutionary history of mangrove species is documented by the palaeontological

records, palynology or the study of fossil pollen grains and spores, palaeobotanical and

radio carbon dating methods (Muller 1961; Macnae 1968; Thanikaimoni 1987). It is now

over a century since Nypa fruits were found in London clays and at Gan in southwest

France (Vannucci 1989). Historically, mangroves have been economically important in

certain regions of the world. Mangrove products have been traded for centuries if not for

millennia between east African coasts and Arabia or India and have been a traditional

source of construction timber, poles, firewood and charcoal around the Indian Ocean and

everywhere in the Far East. According to Bowman (1917), quoted by Walsh (1974), the

first studies on mangroves go back to 325 B.C. with a chronicle of Nearchus, commander

of the navy of Alexander the Great. The earliest references to the uses of mangroves date

back to the year 1230 (Walsh 1977). Reference is made to the use of Rhizophora seedlings

as food in times of famine, to cure sore mouth, to produce fuel, tannin and dye and wine

having an aphrodisiac effect when ingested, and of their use as philters in Arabia. The

oysters that grew on Rhizophora roots in Trinidad have been described as ‘well tasted’ and

the bark provided a tannin dye. The bark mixed with milk or fresh butter aided in curing

diseases of the liver. A wine was made from mangrove propagules. The mangroves were

utilized for retention of ballasts along the shores of the Florida Keys and in Venezuela. It

is reported that sea-going vessels from the shores of the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf

in prehistoric and early historic times had keels made of mangrove wood, and poles of R.

mucronata and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza were used in the construction of buildings in

Arabian cities. Early man carried mangrove propagules from South America to southern

Pacific Ocean Islands. They were to serve as seed material for trees that produced tannin

and wood. Occasionally, tall mangrove trees were especially maintained and used as

‘signal trees’ in creek navigation. Walsh (1977) reported that when Amerigo Vespucci

visited Maracaibo, he was impressed by native buildings on stilts, he named the area

Venezuela (‘little Venice’) because the stilt-supported homes over the water reminded him

of Venice. Many of the aboriginal inhabitants of Australia clearly made use of and still

exploit mangrove resources (Hegerl 1982; Kenneally 1982). The fact that coastal

aborigines have extensive vocabularies in their traditional languages relating to the

mangroves is a direct indication of their close association with and interest in those forests

USES OF MANGROVES

11

Uses of mangroves

in the past. Furthermore, the extensive occurrence of major shell middens, long deserted, for

example, on the foreshores of Princess Charlotte Bay, demonstrates an obvious early

dependence on mangrove related food resources. Remnants of stone fish traps at mangrove

fronts elsewhere provide similar evidence.

In many places in west Africa, the mangrove ecosystem and the wood itself were

associated with magico-mystical practices that often symbolize resistance, myths or

mystery. Some mangrove dwellers believed that their canoes would be lost unless they

were tied to pegs made of Rhizophora, while others considered the mangroves to be

sacred forests to be used only for the burial of the dead, as in the Solomon Islands, or to

perform special rituals (Vannucci 1989; Olsen 1997). Fijians placed people suffering

from leprosy in an empty house and lit a small fire on which they placed wood of

Excoecaria agallocha. The ensuing smoke, besides causing them intense pain, was

believed to have cured patients.

Traditional exploitation

In villages all around the world people are dependent on mangroves for timber and firewood,

to build dwellings (often on stilts) and lattice, furniture, studs for houses, rafters, joists,

telegraph poles, fences, bridges, railway sleepers, poles for fish traps, harpoons, paddles and

rafts, canoes and boats (Walsh 1977; FAO 1982, 1985; Saenger et al. 1983; Knox and

Miyabara 1984; Field 1995; Rasolofo 1997). In Sri Lanka, straight stems of Ceriops tagal,

Rhizophora and Bruguiera species are used to construct the frames of thatched roofs and

window frames. The wattle of mud walls of houses are made with timber from the above

species as well as Sonneratia, and the timber from coconut trees is widely used for rafters

(Amarasinghe 1988). In addition to the commonly used mangroves, species such as Entada

pervillei, Gluta tourtour and Ceiba pentandra are used by traditional fishermen in

Madagascar to construct ‘stilt’ houses and Givotia madagascariensis and Hazomalania

voyroini for doors (Rasolofo 1997). Intsia bijura, a rare mangrove in Indonesia, and

Xylocarpus moluccensis in west Africa provide valuable timbers for furniture making.

In Bangladesh Sunderbans (beautiful forest; Sundari meaning beautiful), timber yields,

principally of Heritiera fomes and Excoecaria agallocha (gewa), have exceeded 300,000

cubic meters annually, representing a major source of wood in a country poorly endowed

with other forest types. About 300,000 people are directly dependent on the mangroves

for wood, thatch, honey and fish (FAO 1982).

12

13Uses of mangroves

Polynesians and other Pacific Ocean people use mangrove wood to construct boats to

this day. Avecennia spp. are often used to construct dugout canoes. Boat builders in the

mangroves knew when and where to fetch the right timber (Walsh 1977; Vannucci 1989).

They preferred Excoecaria and Ceriops spp. to construct the knees, Rhizophora spp. for

the masts, Avicennia spp. for the keel, and Barringtonia and Xylocarpus spp. for the

planks. In Madagascar different mangrove species are used for the same purpose. Most

commonly, species such as Ceiba petandra, Entada pervillei and Gluta tourtour are used

for the hull, Sonneratia alba, E. pervillei, Rhopalocarpus lucidus and mascarhenasia

spp. for paddles, and the stabilizers are made either of Cananga odorata, Ceiba petandra

or Hazomalania voyroni (Rasolofo 1997). In the mangroves of Cananeia, the fishermen

noiselessly followed tide markers such as dyes and floats in dug out canoes, listening to

the ‘speech’ of different fish (specially the bottom living catfish), whose sounds were

magnified by the shape of the canoe.

On the northern coast of the Northern Territory in Australia (Timor Sea), the only sea

going rafts known to aborigines are crude rafts made of the light buoyant poles of

Camptostemon schultzii (locally called wuduku) lashed together with vines. The nibong

Oncosperma tigillarium (palm tree) is used throughout southeast Asia as poles to build

jetties, wharves and other submerged structures because it is resistant to rot and attack

by fungi and other borers in general. The corresponding palm trees of a different family,

the ‘jussara’ (Euterpe) and the ‘jeriva’ (Arecastrum) are used in Brazil for the same

purpose and reasons. When sufficient palm trees are not available, the common

surrogates everywhere are species of Rhizophora, which due to their high tannin content,

are resistant to rot and borers almost to the same degree as the palms. However, pilings

for houses in swampy areas are made of Rhizophora (main species stylosa).

In poor rural and urban communities in developing countries, fuelwood and charcoal are

used widely as household power sources. Besides directly supporting the livelihoods of

subsistence users, fuelwood and charcoal also create income and employment when

traded as market commodities. For instance, mangrove wood is sometimes traded

informally, or in the market place. In the Pacific and in Asia, mangroves such as

Bruguiera and Ceriops spp. are used as a source of fuelwood for cooking, heating and

cremation (Knox and Miyabara 1984; Sin 1990). Mangrove wood still provides 90% of

the fuel used in Vietnam. In the urban areas fuelwood and charcoal are not confined to

domestic use, but are often essential to small and medium scale trades or industries such

as fuel for the manufacture of bricks and lime, baking, brewing and in textile

Uses of mangroves

manufacture. The Polynesians carried coconut husks to burn in the hearths carved from

hardwood that they used in canoes during sea travels. In Indonesia, commercial

exploitation of mangroves for charcoal was first reported in 1887. In the Philippines

Rhizophora spp. and B. parviflora have been used as a substitute for the petroleum coke

that is used in the manufacture of calcium carbide and ferro-alloys, which, in turn are

used in the chemical, plastic, and metal industries (Walsh 1977). In Malaysia the

production of charcoal is now one of the most important forms of mangrove utilization.

The best charcoal with highest caloric power, exceptional slow-burning properties and

no smoke, is that obtained from Rhizophora billets. For this reason, in Sind, in present

day Pakistan, Rhizophora wood is used to fuel the boilers of locomotives. In Thailand,

raw distillate from Rhizophora apiculata is condensed and collected from the vents of

charcoal kilns. This raw condensate is essentially pyroligneous acid. Through a more

complicated process, the pyroligneous acid is extracted to yield acetic acid, methanol

and wood tar. In Sri Lanka coconut shells are ‘combusted’ in limited supply of air to

produce an excellent charcoal and ‘activated’ carbon which is used in various industries.

It is still being used by villagers to heat ‘irons’ to press clothes. In rural ‘cottage’

industries, fuelwood or charcoal have viable and valuable economic uses, such as in

drying coffee or curing fish. Large scale conversion of mangroves for wood chip

production began in East Malaysia and Indonesia during the 1970s. In 1971 almost

50,000 hectares were licensed in Sabah to produce wood chips, mainly for export to

Japan. Malaysia halted the practice after 15 years, but mangrove wood chips are still a

major export from Kalimantan, accounting for the annual loss of thousands of hectares

of mangrove forest (Macintosh & Zisman 1997).

Traditional products and uses

The wide variety of traditional products from mangroves produced and utilized by

coastal communities is well documented (Rollet 1981; Tomlinson 1986; Chan and Salleh

1987; Vannucci 1989; Field 1995). In Asia and the Pacific, leaves of Nypa palm, the

screw palm Pandanus and the leaves of the coconut palm are woven to obtain ‘attap’ or

thatch to construct dwellings. Plants from the family Cyperaceae and grasses (sape) in

Brazil are used for thatching and matting. Grasses and palm leaves are used to make door

mats, and mats for sails, and to thatch walls and roofs. In Malaysia, an important cottage

industry is the manufacture of shingles for roof thatching from the leaves of the most

useful mangrove plant Nypa fruticans (Mercier & Hamilton 1984). Creepers are made

use of in basketry, to obtain fibres for cords and to make fishnets. Prop and aerial roots

of Rhizophora stylosa and young stems of Entada phaseoloides are used as ropes, and

14

15Uses of mangroves

are useful in stringing fish to facilitate their transport. The pepper vine, Hibiscus

tiliaceus, species of Dalbergia and Pandanus are used in making fibres, mats, paper and

tapa cloth and grass skirts. Leaves of Typha domingensis are used to manufacture hats,

and the bark is used to make ‘floor polish’ and Cyperus articulatus is used to make mats

and baskets. Culms of the saltmarsh rush Juncus kraussii are a favored material for the

weaving of traditional articles in Natal/KwaZulu, South Africa (Heinsohn &

Cunningham 1991). Coarser shoots from the plant Spartina alterniflora of the lower

marshes are used as thatching for farm house roofs. The use of dried plants as packing

material is a well known commercial use of marsh products (Queen 1977). Handicrafts

are made from many species of mangroves. In west Africa Amoora cucullata is used to

make toys and hookah pipes, Xylocarpus spp. to make pencils, and roots of Xylocarpus

spp. are ‘natural’ carvings. Tool handles are made from Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea.

The wood of Cerbera manghas is very light, and therefore ideal for the carving of masks,

figurines and puppets. E. agallocha provides match wood. Intsia bijuga is an

exceptionally dense, hard timber and considered sacred by Fijians. It is used for beams,

posts, canoes, ‘yaqona’ bowls, clubs, and head rests.

The pneumatophores of Sonneratia alba, S. caseolaris and the mangrove associate

Anona spp. are used in making corks and fishing floats, and the wood is used, because it

is light, to make heels for shoes (Walsh 1977). Dry fruits of Barringtonia asiatica are

useful as floats for fishing lines. The pneumatophores of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and B.

sexangula yield perfumes and condiments. Necklaces are made from seeds of Entada

phaseoloides and Abrus precatorius. It is reported that some mangrove plant extracts are

hair preservatives (Acanthus ebracteatus and A. illicifolius, xylocarpus spp.), skin

cosmetics (Sonneratia caseolaris) and even aphrodisiacs (Excoecaria agallocha). The

ash of species of Avicennia and R. mangle, rich sources of ‘sodium compounds,’ is used

as a soap substitute. Sap of the leaves of Clerodendrum inerme is used for washing

dishes. The bark of B. gymnorrhiza, B. sexangula, and Ceriops tagal produces adhesives

(Field 1995).

To a limited degree, mangrove plants (e.g. Heritiera fomes, Excoecaria agallocha) are

utilized to produce high-alpha (dissolving) pulps for the manufacture of viscose-rayon

pulp and fibre, cellophane, cellulose acetate and other cellulose derivatives (Latif 1965;

Kai et al. 1975; Chapman 1976; Walsh 1977; Murshed & Mian 1987). Cellulose

xanthate, a relatively unstable compound derived from Rhiziphora species, is the most

important among cellulose derivatives. Its importance is usually seen in the production

Uses of mangroves

of viscose rayon for all normal textile needs, tire cords, industrial belts, cellophanes, and

as a potential raw material for the production of rayon-grade dissolving pulp. Pulpwood

of R. mucronata has been exported from the Philippines to Japan for such manufacture

(Walsh 1977). Before the era of synthetic yarns, man had learnt to make very fine sieves

with fibers from the screw palm (Pandanus spp.), Hibiscus tiliaceus, and Thespesia

populnea and finely split bamboos, reeds and sedges to catch crustaceans. The bark of

Ceriops tagal produces good quality dyes and is useful in batik manufacture and

decorating mats.

The coconut palm (Cocos nucifera), which can be considered a mangrove associated

plant, is one of the most valuable (if not the most valuable) trees in Sri Lanka and some

of its products are key elements in Sri Lankan culture. Almost every part of the plant has

some traditional use or commercial value, and among coastal dwellers it is a source of a

well established cottage industry. The husk of the fruit is used in making masks, and the

fibre is used to make ropes, door mats, brooms and different types of brushes, upholstery

filling and mattresses, and is a major contributor to the coir industry. Particle boards are

made from by-products of the coir industry. The petioles from the leaves make excellent

brooms. The timber provides wood carvings and ‘shells’ for drums. Ornaments, spoons

and percussion musical instruments are manufactured from the shells. Tender leaves and

the inflorescence are ‘decorative’ items in functions such as weddings, religious

ceremonies and funerals alike. Trunks of Calophyllum inophyllum and Terminalia

catappa are used for making ‘lali’, which is a canoe shaped drum, truncated at both ends

for transmitting messages.

The earliest historical record of the use of mangrove bark to extract tannins dates from

1760 in south America (Wilson & Merrill 1931; Walsh 1977; Hoque 1982). The use of

the red mangrove Rhizophora mangle and other species along the tropical Atlantic Ocean

coasts of America as well as Ceriops spp. for extraction of tannin for the leather industry

and for dyeing purposes continues today (Chinese Academy of Forestry 1981; Yusof &

Ali 1987; Yaga 1987; Ounjittichai et al. 1987;Higake 1987). Tannins impart flavour to

wines and are being increasingly used in the manufacture of plastics, paints, ceramics

and water softening agents (Atal et al. 1978). It is used as an adhesive material necessary

in the laying and gluing-up stages of plywood/particle board manufacture. It also serves

as an important constituent of ink, rust preventives and insecticides. Moreover, because

of its viscous property, tannin is also used in deep sea oil-drilling. C. decandra and

Rhizophora spp. are rich sources of gallotannin (Ravi & Kathiresan 1990). In central

16

17Uses of mangroves

America, the direct use of mangroves for charcoal production and the extraction of

tannin have been so extensive as to result in large scale mangrove removal and

degradation (Macintosh & Zisman 1997). Though the importance of bark tannins has

declined in many Asian countries, mangrove tannin is still used in Sri Lanka, India and

Bangladesh for curing of leather and fish nets (Balasooriya et al. 1982; FAO 1982).

Food from mangroves

In central America, archaeological evidence has confirmed the use of mangrove

fuelwood in salt production dating back to before the Spanish period. Along the coastal

lagoons of west Africa the villagers produce salt by using a technique of boiling brackish

water placed in a clay bowl over a fire made from Avicennia spp. The ash from the leaves

of A. africana is a substitute for salt, and salt is extracted from wood ash. Potassium

carbonate and sodium chloride (salt) are obtained from Salicornia brachiata and

Aegialitis rotundifolia respectively. Extracts of the heartwood of Avicennia alba and A.

officinalis have tonic properties, and fruits of Rhizophora spp. and Sonneratia caseolaris

are reported to yield a wine and a fruit drink respectively.

In the Sundarbans of Bangladesh and India, a local industry is the production of honey.

Annually swarms of Apis dorsata and A. mellifera (species of honey bees in the

Sunderbans and west Africa respectively) build large honey combs and produce wax and

wild honey (Macintosh & Zisman 1997). In northern India Pongamia pinnata is an

important summer food plant for a variety of wild solitary and social bees (Apoidea)

(Jain & Dhingra 1991). A tract of approximately 200,000 hectares of mixed mangrove

species can produce up to 20 tonnes of honey annually (Field 1995). The bulk of the

honey is produced from the pollens of Ceriops and Avicennia marina. The best quality

honey is produced from Aegialitis rotundifolia and Cynometra ramifolia. The scented

white fragrant flowers of Sonneratia caseolaris open at night for the bats to feed on the

hundreds of stamina and at the same time pollinate the flowers.

The tender leaves of Avicennia marina and Pluchea indica, the radicals of B.

gymnorrhiza and B. sexangula, the fruits, seeds and seedlings of Avicennia marina, A.

officinalis, B. sexangula, Oncosperma filamentosum, the fleshy fruits and the terminal

buds of Oncosperma tigillaria are universally used as a vegetable, and some of the

products are traded in the markets. The fruits of the two Brugueira species are eaten as

a betel substitute. The hypocotyls of Bruguiera spp. and fruits of Sonneratia caseolaris

are the staple food of some Papua New Guineans. The tender leaves of the plant are eaten

Uses of mangroves

as a curry and the water from the boiled leaves is used as an anti-poison by Sri Lankans.

The fiddleheads of Acrostichum aureum are edible. The kernel of the fruit of Terminallia

catapa is rich in lipids and is eaten by Australian aborigines, Fijians and coastal dwellers

in Sri Lanka (James 1983; Sotheeswaran & Sharif 1994) and is a valuable seasonal food

in parts of coastal Irian Jaya (Polunin 1983). Interesting mangrove recipes for the curious

traveller involve the use of Avicennia ‘fruit’ dip, and ‘olives’ from the same plant (Field

1995). The skin from the fruit is removed and boiled and the fruit is then soaked in wine

made from Nypa palm, blended with oil, salt and pepper and mixed with yogurt to

produce the fruit dip. ‘Olives’ are made by removing the tannins in strong brine

solutions. The fruits of Kandelia candel and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza contain starch and

if they are sliced, soaked in water to flush out the tannins and then ground to a paste, they

can make excellent cakes or sweetened stuffing for pastry. In Oceania, the fruit of B.

eriopetala are treated in the same way, but instead of making a paste, they are air dried,

or boiled and eaten with coconut cream.

The seeds of Inocarpus fagifer (or fagiferus; Tahitian chestnut) can be eaten when roasted or

boiled and the young leaves are said to be edible. R. racemosa, and Philoxerus vermicularis

are utilized in smoking fish, because their smoke adds color and flavor to the fish.

The inflorescence of the palm family is tapped in many countries to obtain a sugary sap for

processing into alcoholic drinks, sugar and vinegar. The sugar sap of the inflorescence of

the common nypa palm (Nypa fruticans) and the coconut palm Cocos nucifera provide a

diversity of products. Yeast is isolated from coconut and nipa tuba in the Philippines

(Yamagata et al. 1980). Ethanol is made by distilling the fermented sugary phloem sap and

the principal carbohydrate present in the fresh sap is sucrose (Paeivoeke et al. 1984). Other

products obtained from the nypa palm include cooking oil and cigarette wrappers, an edible

jelly and a sort of salt are made from the ashed leaflets. One reason why people in the

paddy fields or in the mangroves prefer nypa palm to paper for cigarette wrappers is that

they can become humid with no loss of smoking value.

The alcoholic drink produced from the fermented sweet sap of the ‘tapped’ young

inflorescence of the coconut palm is named ‘toddy’ (referred to as ‘rah’) by the Sri

Lankans. This practice is restricted to the coconut plantations along the coast. ‘Toddy’ is

distilled to produce a drink popularly known as ‘arrack’, the most popular alcoholic

drink in Sri Lanka. The buttresses of Heritiera spp. are used to make holders for clay

pots to collect ‘toddy’. Series of coconut palms are inter-connected at the level of the

18

19Uses of mangroves

canopy with two lines of ropes made from coconut fibre. The ‘toddy’ collectors walk

from one tree to the next on one rope while holding on to the other rope, to collect the

toddy, thus avoiding climbing each individual tree. The unfermented sweet sap is boiled

to obtain a sweet syrup (or ‘treacle’), or sugar candy (referred to as ‘pani’ and ‘jaggery’

respectively), both of which are substitutes for sugar. These two products are much

sought after in preparing traditional sweets during the festive seasons. The combination

(‘kiri pani’) of yogurt (‘curd’) and treacle (‘pani’) is the most popular dessert.

The ‘water’ of the immature coconut fruit (referred to as ‘kurumba or ‘thambili’) mixed

with the tender kernel is a popular beverage. It is a rich source of potassium and sodium

chloride, and in emergencies, the sterile water was used in rural hospitals as a substitute

for saline. The mature kernel of the fruit is processed to produce coconut ‘milk’ or

powder which is the basis of Sri Lankan and Thai cuisine. The grated dried kernel

(copra) is commonly known as desiccated coconut which is processed to yield coconut

oil and used in cooking as well as in the manufacture of soap. The oil is also used as a

hair ‘cream’ and as a fuel to illuminate traditional lamps. Cattle food (‘poonak’) is a by-

product of this process. Copra and copra meal are used occasionally as feed for prawns.

An alternative source of tea are the leaves of five mangrove species, B. cylindrica,

Ceriops decandra, R. apiculata, R. lamarckii and R. mucronata (Kathiresan 1995).

Leaves of Osbornia octodonta are used as a flavoring agent. The flowers of Oncosperma

tigillaria are added to rice as seasoning. A widely spread wild variety of rice has been

used in spite of its low yield in Papua New Guinea. Very often the wild rice Porteresia

coarctata can provide energy food to bridge difficult times. Large mangrove areas in

Vietnam were converted to rice cultivation. Efforts are being made to isolate DNA series

from the genome of the wild grass and introduce it into the genome of rice to increase

tolerance of those varieties to be cultivated in salinity affected soils (Vannucci 1989).

Medicinal uses

When asked the question, ‘Can you use this mangrove plant as medicine?’ the local

inhabitants from many mangrove areas answered in the affirmative and went on to

describe its various uses. However, the response to the question, ‘What do you do when

you are sick?’ was often, ‘We go to the hospital or to the clinic!’ when such a facility is

available nearby. This may be the case with some mangrove dwellers. The total population

of countries with mangroves in their coastal zones amounts to almost three quarters of the

world’s population, and these areas are the most affected by tropical diseases associated with

Uses of mangroves

insect vectors (Giglioli 1980). In the developing world most of the mangrove areas consist

of rural settlements, at the lowest level of the socio-economic scale, and with a high

incidence of tropical diseases and problems of biting or noxious insects such as mosquitoes

and biting midges (sometimes wrongly called sand flies). The increase in popularity of

western medicine, aid from developed countries and the introduction of a public health

system has intensified the use of such medical facilities among some rural populations

including mangrove dwelling and mangrove-dependent people (Subudhi et al. 1992).

However this does not and should not undermine the potential of mangroves as a

pharmaceutical resource. In the developed world the mangrove zone is established as a

resort area with a high level of sophistication, costly public health facilities and

technologies to fight these diseases. In spite of the available facilities, extracts and

chemicals from mangroves are widely used by mangrove dwellers for bush medicine.

The extraction of novel natural chemical compounds by chemists, in addition to those

already known to the pharmacopoeia of the people, continues to this day. Numerous

mangroves and mangal associates are used as folk medicinal, insecticidal and piscicidal

plants (Vieira et al. 1968; Subudhi et al. 1992). Linne (the Swedish botanist) named one

of the most widespread and important species of mangroves Avicennia in honor of the

famous Arab physician and philosopher Abu Sina (980-1036 AD), whose name he

latinized as Avicennia; for this purpose. The Arabs developed a rich pharmacopoeia from

many different species of mangroves.

More recently metabolites, some with novel chemical structures, and belonging to a

diversity of ‘chemical classes’, have been characterized from mangroves and mangal

associates. Among the latest additions are an array of substances from gums and glues to

alkaloids and saponins and other substances of interest to modern industry and medicine.

Benzoquinone and naphthoquinone derivatives, naphthofurans, flavonoids, polyphenols,

rotenone and flavoglycans, sesquiterpenes, di- and triterpenes and related limonoids,

essential oils, sterols, carbohydrates, O-methyl-inositols, sugars and iridoid glycosides,

alkaloids and free amino acids, pheromones, gibberellins, phorbol esters, oxygen

heterocyclics, sulfur compounds, lipids and hydrocarbons, long chain aliphatic alcohols

and saturated acids, free fatty acids including PUFAs are among these classes (Table 3).

Mangrove plants are a rich source of steroids, triterpenes, saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids

and tannins (Simes et al. 1959; Arthur et al. 1966; Saxena 1975; Aynechchi et al. 1982;

Sinha & Dogra 1985; Kinoshita et al. 1990; Oswin & Kathiresan 1994; Bandaranayake

1994, 1996, 1998a, 1998b). Plant saponins which are glycosides of both triterpenes and

20

21Uses of mangroves

sterols, are soluble in water and possess the property of forming stable ‘soapy’ froth

when shaken with water. The use of saponins as natural detergents and fish poison was

known to primitive people. The interesting pharmacological properties associated with

the Chinese drug ‘ginseng’, which is considered a panacea and a drug for longevity, are

attributed to the various saponins present in it (Shibata 1982). Plant saponins, such as

dioscin, are commercially sought after as starting materials for the synthesis of steroidal

hormones (Correll et al. 1955).

Plant saponins have other interesting biological activities (Mahato et al. 1988a and

1988b) such as spermicidal (Kamboj et al. 1976), molluscicidal (Marston &

Hostettmenn 1985), antimicrobial, inflammation-inhibiting, and cytotoxic activities

(Mahato et al. 1988a and 1988b). Avicennia officinalis produces pharmacologically

significant steroidal saponins and sapogenins. Limonoids (modified terpenes) have

attracted much attention recently because of their marked insect antifeedant and growth

regulating activity (Champagne et al. 1992). There are many types of flavonoids such as

flavans, catechins, chalcones, flavonones, flavones, flavanols and isoflavonoids (Mabry

et al. 1970; Subramanian & Vedantham 1974; Subba Raju & Srimannarayana 1978;

Subramanian & Krishnamoorthy 1990; Subrahmanyam et al. 1992; Tempesta 1992).

Geissman and Crout (1969) and Orzechowski (1962) reviewed the role of flavonoids as

therapeutic agents. For some time it has been recognized that several classes of

flavonoids show antioxidant activity toward a variety of oxidizable compounds (Larson

1988). The majority of natural products used in medicine today are alkaloidal in nature

and they normally exert some type of pharmacological activity, usually on the nervous

system. Evidence from both in vivo and in vitro experiments indicates that the basic

nitrogen compounds such as amino acids and alkaloids include many representatives that

are potent inhibitors of various biological oxidative processes (Larson 1988; Collins et

al. 1990).

Tannins are water soluble polyphenols which differ from most other natural phenolic

compounds in their ability to precipitate proteins such as gelatin from solution. This

property, sometimes called astringency, is the reason for their past and present use in the

tanning of animal skins and is the basis of a qualitative chemical test for the presence of

tannins in plant extracts (Balasooriya et al. 1982). Polyphenols present in medicinal

plants and present in food and beverages contribute to the prevention of diseases. They

are one of the important components of the defense strategies developed by plants.

Tannins deter herbivores and microorganisms from predation. Tannins are distributed in

Uses of mangroves

two groups according to their structures: proanthocyanidins which are phenolic polymers

(condensed tannins), and hydrolysable tannins which are polymers of phenolic esters

(Seshadri & Venkataraman 1959; Seshadri & Trikha 1971a and 1971b). Several

biological activities such as cytotoxic, anti-neoplastic, antibacterial, antiherpetic,

anthelmintic, are reported for tannins and many proanthocyanidins and they provide

defense against herbivores or invading parasites (Fong et al. 1977; Stafford 1988). Their

potential value as cytotoxic and antineoplastic agents and as antimicrobial agents, for

example in wood preservation or prevention of dental caries, has been demonstrated

(Scalbert 1991).

Extracts from different mangrove plants are reported to possess diverse medicinal

properties (Walsh 1977; Rollet 1981; FAO 1985; Tomlinson 1986; Sultana et al. 1986;

Barr et al. 1988; Vannucci 1989; Premanathan et al. 1992 and 1993; Field 1995; Pare et

al. 1993). Common uses of mangroves in ‘bush’ medicine are given in Table 1.

Novel inhibitors of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase have been characterized from the

Malaysian tree Calophyllum inophyllum (Patil et al. 1993). Chemicals identified from

Calophyllum inophyllum are prospective lead compounds for anticancer drugs (Iinuma

et al. 1994a and 1994b; Tosa et al. 1997). A triterpenoidal saponin isolated from

Acanthus illicifolius and a novel alkaloid isolated from Atriplex vesicaria have revealed

antileukemic activity and the alkaloid may be an active bactericidal component (Kokpol

et al. 1985; Pezzuto et al. 1993). A. vesicaria which is also rich in tannins is an antitumor

agent. Extracts of Brugueira sexangula bark were active against two tumors, Sarcoma

180 and Lewis Lung carcinoma (Loder & Russell 1966 and 1969). A chemical and

pharmacological survey of plants in the Australian region revealed that several mangrove

plants possess antiviral activity. Among them were several plants from the mangrove

habitat which included species of Avicennia, Bruguiera, Excoecaria, Heritiera, Juncus,

Rhizophora, Sonneratia, and Barringtonia asiatica, Camptostemon schultzi, Podocarpus

dispermus, and Cyanometra iripa (Collins et al. 1990).

Sixteen different mangrove plants have been tested for antiviral activity. A. illicifolius, A.

marina, B. cylindrica, E. agallocha, R. mucronata, R. lamarkii. Salicornia brachiata,

Sesuvium portulacastum, Sueda maritima, and S. monica exhibited antiviral activity

against TMV. Of these, the extracts of the seeds of B. cylindrica and the leaves of E.

agallocha exhibited the highest activity(>70%) (Padamakumar & Ayyakkannu 1994).

Extracts of seaweeds, seagrasses and mangroves from the southeast coast of India have

22

23Uses of mangroves

been tested in vitro for antiviral activity against Newcastle disease, vaccinia, Semliki

Forest, encephalomyocarditis and hepatitis B viruses. The leaf extracts of B. cylindrica

and bark of R. mucronata showed antiviral activity against all the viruses tested

(Premnathan et al. 1992). Two systematic antiviral resistance-inducing proteins have

been isolated from the leaves of Clerodendrum inerme (Olivieri et al. 1996). Pongamia

pinnata, an Indian medicinal plant used in the Ayurvedha and Siddha traditional

medicine systems for the treatment of clinical lesions of skin and genitalia also possess

antiviral properties (Elanchezhiyan et al. 1993).

Acanthus illicifolius, Avicennia marina and E. agallocha showed significant analgesic

activity but were less effective when compared to morphine (Kokpol et al. 1985;

Padamakumar et al. 1993). A triterpenoidal saponin isolated from Acanthus illicifolius is

useful in the treatment of paralysis, asthma, rheumatic pains and has revealed analgesic and

anti-inflammatory activities (Minocha & Tiwari 1980 and 1981; Jongsuvat 1981). The

spirit extracted from Clerodendron inerme and A. illicifolius is anti-inflammatory. The

leishmanicidal activity of the spirit from A. illicifolius due to the presence of

2-benzoxazolinone, compares well with existing chemotherapeutic agents against

Leishmania presently available in the market (Kapil et al. 1994). Ipomoea pes-caprae

exhibits anti-inflammatory activity and is a traditional medicinal plant used in Thailand for

the treatment of various types of inflammation including jellyfish sting and dermatitis.

According to folk medicine the fruits of the large glabrous shrub Lumnitzera racemosa are

curative in skin disorders. Chemicals identified from the plant exhibited antihypertensive

activity (Lin et al. 1993). Three of the eleven hydrolyzable tannins characterized from the

leaves of the plant, and chemicals characterized from the Chinese tallow Sapium sebiferum

possess hypertensive activity (Hsu et al. 1994). The root of Balanites aegyptiaca is

anthelmintic, and the edible leaf has been regarded as an effective medicine for sleeping

sickness. Clerodendron inerme is reported to exhibit uterine stimulant activity and

febrifugal and pesticidal properties (Achari et al. 1990). Antifungal compounds have been

characterized from Diospyros spp., H. littoralis and X. granatum (Prasad & Simlot 1982;

Chittawong 1987; Okorie & Taylor 1977; Chou, et al. 1977).

The young unripe fruits of X. moluccensis strongly inhibit the respiratory reactions of

mitochondria from rat liver (Kubo et al. 1976). The bark pressings of Xylocarpus

granatum and X. moluccensis, referred to as the ‘puzzle-nut trees’ by Fijians are a cure

for fevers including those caused by malaria (Alvi et al. 1994). Extracts from the bark of

Uses of mangroves

Table 1. Medicinal uses of mangrove plants.

Botanical name Uses

Acanthus illicifolius *** aphrodisiac, asthma, blood purifier, (Fr), diabetes, diuretic, dyspepsia,hepatitis, leprosy (Fr, L, R) neuralgia, paralysis, ringworms,rheumatism, skin diseases, snake bites, stomach pains, (B, Fr, L).

Acanthus ebracteatus *** antiseptic, blood purifier, boils, (Fr), colds, (B, Fr), gangrenouswounds, (B), rheumatism, (L), skin allergies, (B), snake bites, (B, Fr, L).

Acrostichum aureum ** boils and wounds, (Rhizome), rheumatism, (L).

Aegiceras majus ** haemataria, leprosy, ulcers, (L, B).

Atriplex vesicaria * leukemia, (B).

Aegiceras corniculatum ** asthma, diabetes, rheumatism, (L,B)

Avicennia africana *** cancer, cure for thrush, gangrenous wounds, lice, mange, ring worms,skin parasites, tumors, (B), ulcers, (B).

Avicennia alba *** antifertililty, skin diseases, tumors, ulcers, (Resin).

Avicennia ebracteatus *** blood purifier, boils, snake bites, (Fr).

Avicennia germinans *** incontinence, rheumatism, (B).throat pains, ulcers of the mouth, (L, B).

Avicennia marina *** rheumatism, small pox, ulcers, (St).

Avicennia officinalis *** aphrodisiac, diuretic, hepatitis, (Fr, L), leprosy, (B).

Avicennia nitida *** cure for thrush, (B, L), tumors, ulcers, (Resin and Seeds).

Avicennia tomentosa *** rheumatism, (B, St).

Bacopa monniera *** nerve tonic, (L).

Balanites aegyptica * abdominal pains, intestinal disorders, malaria, purgative, sleepingsickness, syphilis, (L).

Bruguiera cylindrica. *** hepatitis, (Fr, L, R).

Bruguiera caryophylloides *** ulcers

Bruguiera exaristata *** antitumor, (B).

Bruguiera gymnorhiza *** eye diseases, (Fr).

Bruguiera parviflora *** antitumor, (B).

Bruguiera sexangula *** antitumor, (B).Bruguiera rumphii *** diabetes, (B, L).

Bruguiera sexangula *** antitumor, (B).

Caesalpinia bonducella,(bonduc) * antitumor, rheumatism, (B, L).

Calophyllum inophyllum * anticancer, disinfectant, (B, L), bone fracture, (Fr), eye diseases, (B).

24

25Uses of mangroves

Table 1. (continued)

Botanical name Uses

Carapa obovata ** diarrhoea, febrifuge, (Fr)..Carapa moluccensis ** diarrhoea, febrifuge, (Fr).

Cerbera manghas * purgative, (B), rheumatism, (Fr, Seed).

Ceriops decandra * hepatitis, ulcers, (B, Fr, L).

Ceriops candolleana * diabetes, (B).

Ceriops tagal * stops hemorrhages, (B).

Clerodendron inerme * antiseptic, arrests bleeding, (L), asthma, hepatitis, ringworm, stomachpains, (L, B, Latex), uterine stimulant, (L).

Concocarpus erecta *** catarrh, (R), febrifuge, (L), gonorrhoea, malaria, stops bleeding, (B).Derris uliginosa *** arrests haemorrhages, (Fr), antispasmodic, stimulant, (B).

Derris trifoliata *** laxative, (L, R, T).

Excoecaria agallocha *** epilepsy, (L, Sap), conjunctivitis, dermatitis, haematuria, leprosy, (L,Sap, St), purgative, (L, sap), toothache, (Sap).

Fagara zanthoxyloides * dental hygiene, (St).

Heritiera littoralis *** diarrhoea, (St).

Hibiscus tiliaceus * ear infections, (Flowers).

Hippomane mancinella * conjunctivitis, (L, Sap).

Ipomoea pes-caprae * jelly fish sting dermatitis, (L).

Kandelia rheedii *** diabetes, (B, Fr, L).

Lumnitzera coccinea ** thrush, (L).

Lumnitzera racemosa ** antifertility, asthma, diabetes, snake bite, (Fr).

Murrayella periclados * antibiotic, (B).

Nypa fruiticans *** asthma, diabetes, leprosy, rheumatism, snake bite, (L, Fr).

Pluchea indica ** fever, (L, R), gangrenous ulcers, (L), rheumatism, scabies, (L, shoots),sinusitis,(B, St),.

Oncosperma tigillarius ***Pongamia pinnata * clinical lesions of skin and genitalia, (B, L, St), fever, (L), piles,

rheumatism, (L), scabies, (L), sinus, (B), skin diseases, stomach painand intestinal disorders, (B), tumors, wounds, ulcers, (Whole plant).

Rhizophora apiculata *** antiemetic, antiseptic, diarrhoea, haemostatic, (B), hepatitis, (B, Fl, Fr,L), stops bleeding, typhoid, (B).

Rhizophora lamarckii *** hepatitis, (Flowers, L).

Uses of mangroves

Table 1. (continued)

Botanical name Uses

Rhizophora mangle *** angina, boils and fungal infections, (B), antiseptic, diarrhoea,dysentery, elephantiasis, fever, malaria, leprosy, (B, L), minor bruises,(B), plaster for fractured bones, (B), tuberculosis, (B, L).

Rhizophora mucronata *** elephantiasis, febrifuge, haematoma, (B), hepatitis, (B, Flower, Fr, L,R), ulcers, (B).

Rhizophora racemosa *** stops bleeding, (Fl, L).

Salicornia brachiata *** hepatitis, (L, St).

Sapium sebiferum * stress, (B).

Scaevola sericea * antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, coughs, diabetes, eye infections, gastro-intestinal disorders, headache, stings and bites, (B, L).

Sesuvium portulacastrum * hepatitis, (L).

Sueda maritima * hepatitis, (L).

Sueda monoica * hepatitis, (L).

Sonneratia acida *** arrests haemorrhages, (B, L), asthma, febrifuge, ulcers, (B).

Sonneratia alba *** poultice in swellings and sprains, (Fr).

Sonneratia apetella *** hepatitis, (L).

Sonneratia caseolaris *** bleeding, hemorrhages, piles, sprain poultices, (Fr).

Sonneratia ovata *** checks hemorrhages, (juice).

Spinifex longifolius * analgesic, antiseptic, internal pains, (Whole plant).

Xylocarpus granatum ** cholera, fever, malaria, (B).

Xylocarpus moluccensis ** aphrodisiac, (Fr), fever, malaria, (B).

*** mangroves** mangrove minors* mangrove associatesB barkL leavesFr fruitsR rootsSt stems

26

27Uses of mangroves

Table 2. Classification of mangrove flora.

Family Species

Acanthaceae * Acanthus ebracteatus* Acanthus flexicaulis* Acanthus illicifolius* Acanthus volubili

Aizoaceae * Sesuvium portulacastrum (vine)

Amaryllidaceae *** Crinum penduculatum

Anacardiaceae * Gluta tour tour* Gluta velutina

Apocynaceae * Alstonia macrophylla* Cerbera floribunda* Cerbera mangas* Cerbera odollam* Ervatamia pandacaqui* Strophanthus cumingii

Araliaceae * Schefflera odorata

Asclepiadaceae * Rhabdadenia biflora (paludosa) (vine)*** Cyananchium (Cyanchum) carnosum* Dischidia nummularia (saccata) (epiphyte)* Finlaysonia obovata* Hoya coronaria* Hoya parasitics (epiphyte)** Ischnostemma carnosum (vine)

Aspleniaceae * Asplenium nidus** Gymnanthera nitida (vine)

Asteraceae * Sarcolobus carinatus* Sarcolobus globulus* Asplenium macrophyllum (fern)* Asplenium nidus (fern)* Thespidium basiflorum* Pluchea indica* Sphaeranthus africanus

Avicenniaceae (verbanaceae) *** Avicennia africana*** Avicennia alba*** Avicennia balanophora*** Avicennia bicolor*** Avicennia eucalyptofolia*** Avicennia germinans*** Avicennia integra Avicennia lanata*** Avicennia marina/variety resinifera*** Avicennia nitida*** Avicennia officianalis*** Avicennia schaueriana*** Avicennia tomentosa

Batidaceae (Bataceae) * Batis maritima*** Batis argillicola

Uses of mangroves

Table 2. (continued)

Family Species

Bignoniaceae * Amphitecna latifolia* Anemopaegma chrysoleucum (vine)* Anemopaegma phryganocydia(vine)* Cydista equinoctialis* Dolichandrone spathacea* Phryganocydia phelloosperma (vine)* Tabebuia palustris

Bombacaceae ** Camptostemon moluccensis** Camptostemon philippinense** Camptostemon schultzii

Boraginaceae * Heliotropum curassavicum

Bromeliaceae * Tillandsia usneoides

Capparaceae ** Capparis sepiaria

Casuarinaceae ** Casuarina equisetifolia

Celastraceae * Cassine viburnifolia

Chenopodiaceae * Arthrocnemum indicum* Atriplex stocksii*** Haloscarcia halocnemoides*** Haloscarcia indica* Salicornia brachiata* Salsola kali* Suaeda arbusculoides** Suaeda fruticosa** Suaeda maritima* Suaeda monoica* Suaeda nudiflora*** Suaeda virginicus* Tecticornia australasica

Combretaceae * Combretum spp.* Concocarpus erectus* Concocarpus procumbens*** Laguncularia coccinea*** Laguncularia concocarpus*** Laguncularia racemosa** Lumnitzera littorea** Lumnitzera lutea** Lumnitzera racemosa** Lumnitzera rosea* Terminalia catappa

Compositae (Asteraceae) * Pluchea indica* Sphaeranthus indicus* Tuberostylis axillaris* Tuberostylis rhizophorae (epiphyte?)

Convulvulaceae * Ipomoea pes-caprae* Stictocardia tiliaefolia

Cycadaceae * Cycas rumphii

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29Uses of mangroves

Table 2. (continued)

Family Species

Cyperaceae * Cladium procerum* Clerodendrum inerme* Cyperus ferruginea* Cyperus javanicus* Cyperus polystachyos* Cyperus rotundus* Cyperus stoloniferous* Eleocaris dulcis* Fimbristylis cymosa* Fimbristylis ferruginea* Fimbristylis rara* Schoenoplectus littoralis* Scirpus littoralis

Davalliaceae * Thoracostachyum sumatrum* Humata repens (fern)

Ebenaceae * Diospyros compacta (ferrea)*** Diospyros Littorea variety germinata* Diospyros melanoxylon

Ericaceae * Vaccinium piperifolium (epiphyte)

Euphorbiaceae ** Excoecaria acuminata** Excoecaria agallocha** Excoecaria dallachyana** Excoecaria guinensis*** Excoecaria halocnemoides*** Excoecaria indica*** Excoecaria ovalis*** Excoecaria parviflora** Glochidion littorale** Glochidion mindorense** Glochidion perakense* Hippomane mancinella** Mallotus papillaris** Sapium indicum

Flacourtiaceae * Flacourtia jangomas* Scolopia macrophylla

Flagellariaceae * Flagellaria indica

Goodeniaceae * Scaevola plumieri* Scaevola sericea* Scaevola taccada

Gramineae * Aeluropus lagopoides (grass)* Cynodon dactylon (grass)* Cyperus rotundus* Myriostachya wightiana* Porteresia coarctata (grass)* Sporobolus virginicus* Urochondra setulosa

Guttifera * Calophyllum inophyllum* Garcinia bankana

Uses of mangroves

Table 2. (continued)

Family Species

Juncaceae * Juncus acuminatus

Lecythidaceae * Barringtonia acutangula* Barringtonia asiatica* Barringtonia conoidea* Barringtonia inlyta* Barringtonia racemosa

Leguminosae (Fabaceae) *** Cyanometra iripa(Subfamily: Caesalpinoideae) * Cynometra ramifolia

* Caesalpinia bonduc (vine)* Caesalpinia crista (vine)* Caesalpinia nuga (vine) ** Sophora tomentosa

Leguminosae (Fabaceae) * Aganope heptaphylla (vine)(Subfamily: Papilionoideae) * Bauhinia binata

* Cumingia philippinensis* Dalbergia amerimnon (vine)*** Dalbergia candenatensis (vine)* Dalbergia ecastophyllum (vine)* Dalbergia torta* Dalbergia heterophylla (vine)* Dendrolobium umbellatum (vine)* Derris araripensis (vine)* Derris heptophylla (vine)* Derris heterophylla (uliginosa) (vine)* Derris lianoides (vine)* Derris nicou (vine)*** Derris trifoliata (vine)* Derris urucu (uliginosa) (vine)* Desmodium umbellatum (vine)* Intsia bijuga (Afzelia bijuga)* Inocarpus fagifer (fagiferus) (vine)* Inocarpus papuanus (vine)* Mora oleifera* Mora excelsa* Muellera moniliformis (fruticans)* Peltophorum pterocarpum* Pithecellobium umbellatum* Pongamia pinnata* Pongamia velutina* Smythea lanceata (vine)

Liliaceae * Crinum pedunculatum

Loranthaceae * Amyema gravis (epiphyte)** Amyema mackayense (epiphyte)** Amyema thalassium (epiphyte)* Dendrophthoe pentandra* Loranthus quinquenervis

Lythraceae *** Lysiana maritima * Pemphis acidula* Pemphis madagascariensis

30

31Uses of mangroves

Table 2. (continued)

Family Species

Lycopodiaceae * Viscum ovalifolium* Lycopodium carinatum (fern)* Lycopodium phlegmaria (fern)

Malpighiaceae * Crena patentinervis* Tristellateia australasiae* Brachypteris ovata

Malvaceae * Hibiscus tilaceus* Pavonia rhizophorae* Pavonia spicata (scabra)*** Thespesia acutiloba (acutissima)*** Thespesia populneoides (populnea)*** Thespesia australasica

Melastomaceae * Conostegia polyandra* Medinella crassifolia (epiphyte)* Melastoma villosum* Ochthocharis bornensis* Ochthocharis javanica* Pogonanthera reflexa

Meliaceae * Agalaia cucullata* Agalaia odorata* Agalaia roxburghiana** Amoora cucullata* Carapa granata (grandiflora)* Carapa obovata** Carapa moluccensis** Carapa procera** Xylocarpus granatum** Xylocarpus mekongenesis** Xylocarpus moluccensis

Mimosaceae * Acacia holosericea

Moraceae * Ficus annulata* Ficus bracteata* Ficus crassiramea* Ficus diversifolia* Ficus microcarpa* Ficus obscura* Ficus sundaica

Myristicaceae * Horsfieldia irya* Meropa angulata* Morinda citrifolia* Myristica hollrungii* Myristica subalulata* Myrsine umbellulata

Myrsinaceae *** Aegiceras corniculatum (majus)** Aegiceras floridum** Ardisia elliptica (granatensis)** Ardesia littoralis** Myrsine umbellulata** Rapanea porteriana** Rapanea umbellulata

Uses of mangroves

Table 2. (continued)

Family Species

Myrtaceae * Cathormion umbellatum** Melaleuca acaciodes ** Melaleuca leucadendra (leucadendron)** Melaleuca octodonta

Oleandraceae ** Osbornia octodonta

Orchidaceae * Nephrolepis acutifolia (fern)* Agrostyphyllum spp. (epiphyte)* Bulbophyllum xylocarpi (epiphyte)* Bulbophyllumdixeni(epiphyte)* Cymbidium canaliculatum* Dendrobium crumentum (affine) (epiphyte)* Dendrobium discolor (rhizophoreti) (epiphyte)* Dendrobium flavidilum (epiphyte* Dendrobium indivisum (epiphyte)* Dendrobium gemellum (epiphyte)* Dendrobium pensile (epiphyte)* Dendrobium salaccensis (epiphyte)* Dendrobium secumdem (epiphyte)* Dendrobium spurium (epiphyte)* Dendrobium sublatum (epiphyte)* Dipodium spp. (epiphyte)* Eria albido-tomentosa (epiphyte)* Lusia zollingeri (epiphyte)* Lygodium scandens (epiphyte)* Paphiopedilum exul (epiphyte)* Phreatis minutaflora (vine)* Polystachya flavescens (vine)* Taeniophyllum spp. (epiphyte)* Trichoglottis misera. (epiphyte)* Vanda spp.

Palmae (Arecaceae) * Calamus aqualitis* Calamus erinaceus* Cocos nucifera* Euterpe cuatrecasana* Livistona benthamii*** Nypa fruticans* Oncosperma filamentosum (filamentosa)* Oncosperma horridum (horrida)* Oncosperma tigillarium* Phoenix reclinata*** Phoenix paludosa (spinosa)* Raphia vinifera

Pandanaceae * Pandanus affinis* Pandanus odoratissimus* Pandanus spiralis

Pellicieraceae ** Azteca spp.*** Pelliciera rhizophoreae

Pittosporaceae * Pittosporum ferruginea

Plumbaginaceae ** Aegialitis annulata** Aegialitis rotundifolia

32

33Uses of mangroves

Table 2. (continued)

Family Species

Poaceae * Cynodon dactylon* Sporobolus virginicus* Xerochloa imberbis

Podocarpaceae * Podocarpus polystachyus

Polypodiaceae * Crypsinus spp. (fern)* Drynaria quercifolia* Drymoglossum piloselloides (fern)* Lecanopteris sinosum* Platycerium coronarium (fern)* Pyrrosia adnascens

Pteridaceae ** Acrostichum aureum (fern)** Acrostichum danaeifolium (fern)** Acrostichum speciosum (fern)

Rhamnaceae * Colubrina asiatica* Smythea lanceata

Rhizophoraceae *** Bruguiera caryophylloides*** Bruguiera conjugata*** Bruguiera cylindrica*** Briguiera eriopetala*** Bruguiera exaristata*** Bruguiera gymnorrhiza *** Bruguiera hainesii*** Bruguiera parviflora*** Bruguiera sexangula*** Cassia fistula*** Ceriops candollena*** Ceriops roxburghiana variety . decandra*** Ceriops tagal variety. Australis*** Ceriops timoriensis*** Kandelia candel*** Rhizophora apiculata*** Rhizophora candel*** Rhizophora conjugata*** Rhizophora harrisonii*** Rhizophora lamarckii*** Rhizophora mangle*** Rhizophora mucronata*** Rhizophora racemosa*** Rhizophora samoensis*** Rhizophora selala*** Rhizophora stylosa

Rubiaceae ** Guettarda mindorense** Guettarda speciosa* Hydnophytum formicarum (epiphyte)** Hydnophytum membranaceum** Hydnophytum philippinens** Morinda bracteata** Mymecodia echinata* Mymecodia tuberosa (antoinii) (epiphyte)* Rustia occidentalis*** Scyphiphora hydrophylacea

Uses of mangroves

Table 2. (continued)

Family Species

Rutaceae * Merope angulata* Merope gangulata* Paramignya angulata* Paramignya longispina

Salsolaceae *** Salsola foetida*** Salsola persica

Salvadoraceae *** Salvadora oleoides** Salvadora persica

Sapindaceae * Allophyllus cobbe * Dodonaea viscosa

Sapotaceae * Planchonella obovata* Pouteria obovata

Sonneratiaceae *** Sonneratia alba*** Sonneratia acida*** Sonneratia apetala (lanceolata)*** Sonneratia Caseolaris*** Sonneratia griffithii*** Sonneratia gulngai*** Sonneratia ovata

Sterculaceae *** Heritiera fomes*** Heritiera globosa*** Heritiera littoralis*** Heritiera minor** Heritiera ornithocephala** Kleinhovia hospita

Tamoricaceae * Tamarix gallica

Theaceae * Pelliciera rhizophora

Tiliaceae ** Brownlowia argentata** Brownlowia lanceolata** Brownlowia tersa

Typhaceae * Typha domingensis

Urticaceae * Poikilospermum suaveolens (epiphyte)

Verbenaceae * Clerodendrum inerme* Premna integrifolia* Prema obtusifolia* Teijsmanniodendron hollrungii* Vitex pinnata

Vitaceae * Colummela trifolia

*** Major mangrove components** Minor mangrove components* Mangal associates

References: Chapman 1976 and 1987; Rollet 1981; Aksornkoae & Kongsangchai 1982; Berjak et al. 1982; Ong& Gong 1983; Saenger et al. 1983; Tomlinson 1986; Umali et al. 1987; Lovelock 1993; Field 1995.

34

35Uses of mangroves

Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, Ceriops tagal, C. decandra, Xylocarpus granatum,

X. moluccensis and Laguncularia racemosa are considered to have astringent,

antidiarrhoea, antiemetic and haemostatic properties (Kokpol et al. 1990a). Extract from

Derris uliginosa and Ipomoea pes-caprae is a stimulant and antispasmodic (Pongprayoon

et al. 1992). The fermented juice of the Sonneratia fruit is useful for arresting haemorrhage

(Bose et al. 1992). The mature fruits of X. moluccensis are used as aphrodisiacs.

In Thailand and Java the leaves and roots of Pluchea indica (known as ‘kukronda’ among

the Thai people) have been reported to possess astringent and antipyretic properties and

are used as a diaphoretic in fevers. Fresh leaves are used in the form of poultices against

atonic and gangrenous ulcers. Cigarettes prepared from the chopped stem bark are smoked

to relieve the pain of sinusitis. In Indo-China the leaves and young shoots are crushed,

mixed with alcohol, and applied to the back in cases of lumbago, and also are used for

rheumatic pains and in baths to treat scabies (Mukhopadhyay et al. 1983).

Excoecaria agallocha (koeora) has been the subject of numerous chemical

investigations. According to the Indian ‘materia medica’ a soft reddish substance

(‘Tejbala’) obtained from the lower part of the trunk of E. agallocha was reputed as an

‘aphrodisiac tonic’. This may be the cause of its over-exploitation, as happens with all

plant and animal products ‘reputed’ to be aphrodisiacs. However, E. agallocha may have

been exploited in these regions for other reasons. Being a member of the Euphorbiaceae,

it exudes an acrid milk sap, or latex rich in alkaloids (Kawashima et al. 1971;

Ramamurthi et al. 1991a and 1991b). In traditional medicine this sap and decoctions

from different parts of the plant (mainly the leaves) are used for different purposes, such

as purgatives, and against epilepsy (Reddy et al. 1991). A paste made from the wood is

applied externally on ulcers and leprous sores or, alternatively, the ulcers and sores are

exposed to the smoke from the wood. Excoecaria paste is used as a cure for leprosy

wherever the tree grows in the Asia-Pacific region.

The balsam from the bark of Calophyllum inophyllum is used as a cicatrisant, and in

Asian medicine an infusion from the leaves is a remedy for eye diseases (Iinuma et al.

1994a and 1994b). The littoral shrub, Fagara zanthoxyloides, found in Nigeria and in the

coastal sands north of the Casamance River in Senegal, is used in dental hygiene as

‘chewing sticks’ against the bacteria Bacteroides gingivalis and B. melaninogenicus

(Berghen 1982; Rotimi et al. 1988). Leaves of Cerbera manghas are reduced to a pulp

by chewing, and are employed for stuffing hollow teeth (Pillai 1985). Brahmi (Bacopia

Uses of mangroves36

monniera), a reputed nerve tonic in Indian ayurvedic literature, improves the learning

performance of rats (Singh & Dhawan 1982).

In Koh Kong province in Cambodia, a fungus called sam bok sramoch (‘home for the

ant’) found among the mangroves is dried and used as medicine for lung disease (Olsen

1997). Two antimicrobial substances have been obtained from a mangrove isolate of the

fungus Preussia aurantiaca (Poch & Gloer 1991).

Toxicants from mangroves

A number of mangroves and associates contain poisonous substances which also show

biological activities such as antifungal, antibacterial, antifeedant, molluscicidal and

pesticidal properties (Chou et al. 1977; Chapatwala et al. 1981; Teixeira et al. 1984;

Marston & Hostettmenn 1985; Thangam & Kathiresan 1988, 1989, 1991, 1992 and

1993; Ravelonjato et al. 1992; Achary et al. 1993; Ghatak & Bhusan 1995) and a number

of mangrove insecticidal plants seem to have been recognized first as fish poison. The

synthetic insecticides DDT, BHC, and malathion are commonly used world-wide in

mosquito control. However, these chemicals are well known to cause environmental

pollution. To overcome this, natural insecticides of plant origin have been investigated.

Terrestrial plant extracts, when combined with synthetic insecticides, have been reported

to reduce the required insecticide dose and hence reduce pollution. The synergistic

mosquito larvicidal activity of extracts of Dictyota dichotoma (algae growing on aerial

roots of Rhizophora spp.) and the stilt roots of R. apiculata have been investigated. The

extracts showed synergism with the insecticides and R. apiculata exhibited highest

synergistic activity with BHC (Thangam & Kathiresan 1991; Molyneux 1972). E.

agallocha is toxic to many young aquatic organisms (Krishnamoorthy et al. 1995). The

latex exhibits antimicrobial characteristics and larvicidal properties against the salt

marsh mosquito Culex sitiens (Reddy et al. 1991). Mangrove dwellers throughout south

and southeast Asia produce insecticides and larvicides that kill worms from Derris

eliptica, D. scandens, and D. uliginosa. The Malay tubah Derris urucu, D. nicou, and D.

sericea and D. trifoliata are good sources of rotenone, widely used as a commercial

insecticide (Mars et al. 1973; Lawanyawudhi 1982; Kokpol et al. 1990b; Payne 1991).

The root of Derris trifoliata is known colloquially as ‘dynamite’, because of its extensive

use as fish poison, and an amorphous saponin isolated, is recognized as the active

principal (Parente & Mors 1980). Constituents with piscicidal properties have been

characterized from fresh twigs and bark of Balanites aegyptiaca, E. agallocha, Aegiceras

majus, A. corniculatum and Heritiera littoralis (Ly 1986; Kokpol et al. 1990b). They are

37Uses of mangroves

rich sources of terpene glycosides (saponins) and flavonoids (Rao & Bose 1961 and

1962; Kawashima et al. 1971; De La Cruz et al. 1978, 1979 and 1984; Miles et al. 1985,

1986, 1987a, 1987b, 1989, 1991; Chittawong 1987 and 1988; Gomez et al. 1986 and

1989). The toxicity of aqueous extracts from different parts of Aegiceras corniculatum,

Excoecaria agallocha, Derris trifoliata and Heritiera littoralis were determined using

juvenile Nile tilapia, Sarotherodon niloticus, as test organism. Juvenile tilapia, under the

stress of mangrove toxicants, exhibited behavior similar to those described for fish

subjected to metabolic poisons like rotenone (Ohigashi et al. 1974; Wiriyachitra et al.

1985; Lho 1986; Gomez et al 1986; Kokpol et al. 1990a and 1990b; Reddy et al. 1991).

The seed of Barringtonia asiatica can be used as a small-scale fish poison.

Sapium indicum is an Indian poisonous plant and piscicidal agent, and the unripe fruit

contains an unusual metabolite which is an irritant (Taylor et al. 1981). The root, bark,

kernel, fruit and branches of the East African brackish water tree Balanites aegyptiaca

are lethal to mollusks and three potent molluscicides have been identified (Ufodike &

Omoregie 1994). Chemicals isolated from Heritiera littoralis, Xylocarpus granatum

demonstrated ichthyotoxicity and antifungal activities (Okorie & Taylor 1977).

E. agallocha exudes an acrid milk sap, or latex, which is a strong irritant and injurious

to human eyes, hence the name ‘blinding tree’. The latex of E. agallocha exhibits

antimicrobial characteristics (Kathiresan & Thangam 1987a and 1987b; Reddy et al.

1991; Krishnamoorthy et al. 1995) causing metabolic depression of the rice-field crab

Oziotelphusa senex and also inhibits the ATPase system in the gills and hepatopancreas

tissues of the crab. Soil bacteria and yeast react with the latex, which probably helps in

the detoxification of the latex in nature (Ramamurthi et al. 1991a and 1991b).

Hippomane mancinella, a tree indigenous only to the Florida Everglades commonly

called manchineel is one of the most ill-famed poisonous plant species in the Caribbean

and the North American continent (Adolf & Hecker 1975 and 1984) and has been the

subject of several investigations. The term manchineel literally means ‘the little apple

that makes horses mad.’ Even accidental contact with the plant (specially the leaves and

the fruits) causes bullous dermatitis and severe conjunctivitis (Guillet et al. 1985). The

fruits resembling small apples (hence named ‘guavas’ or ‘beach apples’) are very toxic

causing serious illness or even death to humans and livestock. The tree is known also as

a source of honey, which is reported to be nontoxic. The latex from the leaves, twigs and

bark of the tree, which is a rich source of alkaloids, ‘crystalline tannins’ and diterpenes,

Uses of mangroves38

inflicts severe inflammation and blisters on human skin and is particularly irritating to

the eye and mucous membranes. ‘Caribs’ poison their arrows with the latex (Rao 1974;

Adolf & Hecker 1975 and 1984; Morin 1985). The sap of velutina is extremely irritant

and toxic. The Cerbera odollam fruit is poisonous and is used as a means of committing

suicide by the Marquesans. Extracts of Lumnitzera racemosa have a reputation against

snake bite (Martz 1992).

Extracts from Clerodendrum inerme are a pest control which can act as surface

protectants of cow pea seeds against the pulse beetle (El-Ghar & El-Sheikh 1987).

Different parts of the plant Casuarina equisetifolia (Ironwood) caused acute catarrhal

and intestinal nephritis, and toxic hepatitis in the fish Tilapia hornorum. Compounds

with agrochemical activity and compounds which act as antifeedants towards boll weevil

(Anthonomus grandis) have been characterized from Arundo donax and Eleocharis

dulcis (Miles et al. 1993a, 1993b and 1994). Kubo et al. (1976) isolated the African army

worm Spodaptera exemta antifeedant metabolite from the premature fruit of the African

tree X. moluccensis. Insect antifeedant has been identified from X. granatum. Steam

volatiles of the young coconut bark contain many aromatic and aliphatic compounds and

the total extracts generated positive electroantennogram (EAG) responses of the coconut

pest, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Gunawardena 1994).

Fungi are rarely discussed, even though there may be some significant pathogens of

mangroves in the fungal flora. For example, a gall disease Cylindrocarpon didynum in the

Gambia is lethal and is estimated to have cost firewood valued at $40 million (Teas 1991).

Miscellaneous uses

In Iriomote Island, Japan, the germinated propagules of Rhizophora and Bruguiera spp.

are planted in pots for decorations (Field 1995). Chan and Salleh (1987) have shown that

pest species of mangrove plants could perhaps be turned into useful ones. For example,

the ribs of the Acrostichum speciosum, the giant fern pest, is used as support for

cultivated climbers such as beans. Alcoholysis or catalytic pyrolysis of Nyamplung

(Calophyllum inophyllum) seed oil yield a diesel oil-like (mineral oil-like) fuel (Adeyeye

1991; Patil et al. 1993; Agra et al. 1992). The bark, wood, seed and volatile oil from

species of Melaleuka are used in various applications (Brinkman & Xuan 1991;

Warnigati et al. 1992; Bishop 1995).

Direct herbivory of mangrove leaves, leaf buds, and propagules is variable among

39Uses of mangroves

different countries. In some countries mangrove forests are often used as grazing

grounds for buffalo, cattle, goats and sheep, and as an important source of forage, for

which the sprouts and young shoots of Avicennia are preferred. The gathering of leaves

of Avicennia, Suaeda and Porteresia, remains widespread in the Middle East and

southern Asia, for feeding camels, goats and sheep (Bhosle et al. 1976). In south Florida,

identified grazers of living plant parts (other than wood) include the white-tail deer, tree

crabs and insects including beetles, larvae of lepidopterans (moths and butterflies), and

orthopterans (grasshpppers and crickets) (Odom et al. 1982). In west Africa Paspalum

vaginatum and Acrostichum aureum serve as pasture and litter for ‘beddings’ for cattle,

and Philoxerus vermicularis is fodder for goats and sheep. The fronds and tender trunk

of the coconut palm is a ‘delicacy’ for elephants in Sri Lanka. In Borneo, young leaves

of Avicennia trees produce the best fodder and green manure, and ash from the bark of

B. eriopetala, B. gymnorrhiza and R. conjugata is used as fertilizer. Kandelia rheedii, D.

uliginosa, Dolichandrone spatheca and B. gymnorrhiza are useful plants for green

manure. The rice fields in Sumatra are cultivated according to a ‘brush fallow’ system,

and the fields are covered with brush (Melanostoma) and sedges, which provide much

needed fertilizer. Leaf and leaf litters of some mangroves have nutritive values (Bhosle

et al. 1976; Shinoda et al. 1984). Fully grown leaves of Ceriops decandra and E.

agallocha could be used, instead of natural withering of leaves, to decompose and enrich

the nutrient quality of water (Sil et al. 1995). Enteromorpha clathrata, a marine seaweed,

which can grow in saltmarshes and has the ability to conduct highly productive

agriculture in areas that are now deserted through seawater irrigation, can provide a new

resource for feed, food and biomass (Moll & Deikman 1995). The Chinese mangroves

are similar to the species of Indo-China and Philippines. Besides protecting and aiding

in the building-up of the coastal line, the mangroves provide edible fruits and useful

products such as marine algae as food for both humans and livestock, and leaves and

shoots as green manure (Shao-Ye 1980).

Asians gather shells to produce lime in kilns. In Vietnam and in the Philippines, farmers

supplement their income by collecting and sorting shells from the mangrove mud flats

for the same purpose and for tourists (Velasco 1980). Crab shells have found their way

into mass production of high-technology products such as artificial skin, and drainage

pipe pollutant removers. The crab shells contain the polymer chitin and its derivative

chitosan. These are used in making non-allergic contact lenses, a major industry initiated

by the USSR Academy of Sciences. Crab shells are also used as wastewater filters for

the textile industry. Dyes used in the printing of fabrics are discharged with the waste

Uses of mangroves40

water and chitin from the crab shells when combined with calcium decolorize (remove

the dye) the water which is then recycled (Aldon & Dagoon 1997).

An alternative economic activity is the exploitation of the fish, mollusks and crustaceans

that abound in the mangrove areas. Although impossible to quantify, hunting also

remains a significant activity in many areas and extends to illegal exploitation of rare and

endangered species for sale as skins and stuffed specimens for tourist markets (Chan &

Salleh 1987).

Mangroves are habitats for many vertebrates such as turtles, snakes, lizards, and frogs.

The famous Royal Bengal Tiger, declared an endangered species, along with sharks and

crocodiles, endangers the lives of honey and wax collectors. It is a permanent dweller of

the Sunderbans where its normal food consists of large herbivores such as wild pig and

deer, and fish, otters and birds. They compete with man, monkeys and birds for the

honey. Because mangroves present a more diverse structural habitat than most coastal

ecosystems, they harbor a greater variety of bird life than areas such as saltmarshes, mud

flats, and beaches. They also serve as breeding habitats. The main food of these birds are

small marine creatures. The composition of the avifauna community in mangrove

ecosystems is, in fact, highly diverse (Kjerfve et al. 1997). They can be divided into six

groups based on similarities in methods of procuring food. These groups (guilds) are the

wading birds (e.g. egrets, herons, ibis, pelicans), probing shore birds (e.g. plover, clapper

rail), floating and diving water-birds (e.g. ducks, cormorants, grebes, pintail), aerially-

searching birds (seagulls, terns ), birds of prey (e.g. eagles, vultures, hawks, owls) and

arboreal birds (composed mainly of birds that feed and/or nest in the mangroves) (e.g.

blackbirds, swallows, pigeons, cuckoos, robins, woodpeckers, thrushes, warblers,

swamp sparrows). Mangrove ecosystems play a seemingly important role in providing

wintering habitat for migrant birds. The birds produce considerable amounts of faeces,

which facilitate the trees growth and increase the amount of organic matter as feed for

aquatic creatures and benthos.

Saltmarsh plants are herbaceous flowering plants, many of which are conspicuously

succulent, and like mangroves are halophytes. In temperate climates these plants

constitute the major component of the saltmarsh communities covering large areas that

would be dominated by mangrove trees were the temperatures more favourable.

Saltmarshes have been used by people for centuries for hunting, fishing, grazing, and

harvesting shellfish. For example, Spartina patens marshes at times provide grazing

41Uses of mangroves

grounds for cattle. Mangroves and salt marshes provide an important habitat and food for

bees and foraging birds (e.g. geese) (Charman & Macey 1978; Pehrsson 1988; Ringius

1980; Massey et al. 1984; Jain & Dhingra 1991; Lange et al. 1992; Laing & Raveling

1993; Kuo et al. 1993; Burchmore 1993; Erwin et al. 1994; Mulder et al. 1996).

Widgeongrass (Ruppia maritima), dwarf spikerush (Eleocaris parvula), and seeds of

saltmarsh bulrush (Scirpus robustus) are food for the pintail waterfowl (Anas acuta)

(Prevost et al. 1978). During spring and fall, the greater snow goose (Chencaerulescens

atlantica) make migratory stopovers and graze on the substrate and vegetation of the

brackish tidal marsh in the St. Lawrence estuary. The birds feed mainly on the rhizomes

of Scirpus americanus (Belanger & Bedard 1994). In Venezuela, mangrove forests are

homes to large colonies of cormorants and to a lesser extent to pelicans. Several fur-

bearing species of importance to man inhabit saltmarshes, the more important species

being muskrats, raccoons, minks and nutria (Queen 1977).

Even today in Hong Kong, the use of mangroves as a natural sewage-treatment plants is

being considered. Enteromorpha, a benthic algae also found in salt marshes, is used as a

biological indicator in estuaries for pin-pointing aqueous (as opposed to sediment) metal

contamination (Say et al. 1990). Plants such as Bacopa monnieri, Melaleuca

quinquenervia and Scirpus lacustris can be used in biomonitoring of metal pollution in

closed water bodies (Heckman 1986; Gupta et al. 1994).

A number of investigations examining the ability of aquatic plants to purify waste waters

from domestic, industrial and agricultural sources is in progress (Montgomery & Price

1979; Gorham et al. 1980; Chaturvedi 1986; Fiedler et al. 1991; Gumbricht 1992;

Gassner & Neugebohrn 1994; Gupta et al. 1994; Vajpayee et al. 1995). The common

reed, Phragmites australis, which is both a freshwater and saltmarsh habitant, is used as

a ‘botanical’ approach to the treatment of waste water (Biddlestone et al. 1991). A

concentrated emulsion of the berry of Balanites aegyptiaca has been recommended for

treating ponds and canal dead-ends (Liu & Nakanishi 1982; Ufodike & Omoregie 1994).

In north Africa species of Atriplex are made use of to improve range land (El-Hamrouni

1986) and they are candidates for biomass production on marginal saline lands (Wallace

et al. 1982). Melaleuka leucadendron is a useful and versatile tree for acid sulphate soils

(Brinkman & Xuan 1991). In west Malaysia and parts of the Mekong Delta in Vietnam,

the acid sulphate soils carry a natural vegetation of mangrove in saline areas and

Melaleuca in the brackish areas.

Ultraviolet (UV) absorbing phenolic compounds and carotenoid-like pigments present in

Uses of mangroves42

the leaf epidermis of tropical mangroves have been shown to be protective against the

damaging effects of UV B radiation (Lovelock et al. 1992a; Lovelock & Clough 1992b).

Mangrove plants yield gibberellins which are plant growth regulators (Ganguly et al.

1970; Ganguly & Sircar 1974). Sex pheromone components have been identified from

an unnamed Planotortrix leaf roller moth species found on Avicennia resinifera (Foster

et al. 1987).

43Uses of mangroves

Table 3: Chemical classes identified from mangrove plants.

Chemical Class References

Alkaloids and aminoacids Arthur et al 1966; Barr et al 1988; Chou et al 1977; Collins et al1990; Joshi 1981; Loder and Russell 1966, 1969; Pezzuto et al 1993;Popp et al 1984; Prakash et al 1983; Wright and Warren 1967;Yamauchi et al 1987

Fatty acids, alcohols, lipids Bagachi et al 1988; Hogg and Gillan 1984; Kokpol et al 1993; Misraet al 1984, 1985, 1988; Sotheeswaran and Sharif 1994; Wannigamaet al 1981

Flavonoids and related compounds Achmadi et al 1994; Aynechi et al 1982; Kagan and Mabry 1969;

Kinoshita et al 1990; Lawanyawudhi 1982; Mabry et al 1970;Molyneux 1972; Nair et al 1979; Neilson et al 1986; Orzechowski1962; Ravelonjato et al 1992; Saxena 1975; Seshadri andVenkataraman 1959; Seshadri and Trikha 1971a, 1971b; Stafford1988; Subba Raju and Srimannarayana 1978; Tanaka et al 1981,1992; Tempesta 1992.

Miscellaneous Adolf and Hecker 1975, 1984; Achuthankutty 1990; Bose et al 1992;Calis et al 1994; Chapatwala et al 1981; Erickson et al 1995; Fauvelet al 1995; Foster et al 1987; Gangully et al 1970; Gangully andSircar 1974; Gunawardena 1994; Hoffman 1976; Hsu et al 1994;Jongsuvat 1981; Kapil et al 1994; Kato 1972; Kato et al 1975, 1980;Kokpol et al 1990b; Larson et al 1988; Leone De Pinto et al 1993;Lho 1986; Lin et al 1993; Liu and Nakanishi 1982; Ly 1986; Mileset al 1991, 1993a, 1993b, 1994; Mukhopadhyay et al 1983; Nahar etal 1986; Ohigashi et al 1974; Olivieri et al 1996; Oswin andKathiresan 1994; Patil et al 1993; Payne 1991; Poch and Gloer 1991;Pongprayoon et al 1992; Popp 1984a, 1984b; Rao 1974, 1977;Ramamurthi et al 1991b; Ravi et al 1990; Richter et al 1990; Shinodaet al 1984; Siddhanta et al 1991; Sil et al 1995; Simes et al 1959;Spencer and Flippen-Anderson 198..; Subrahmanyam et al 1992;Sutton et al 1985; Tanaka et al 1981; Taylor et al 1981; Untavale etal 1977; Yamauchi et al 1987.

Oxygen heterocycles Goh and Jantan 1991; Iinuma et al 1994a, 1994b; Tosa et al 1997.

Quinones Ali et al 1980; Gomez et al 1989; Kapadia et al 1997; Tezuka et al1973

Steroids and related compounds Akihisa et al 1990; Ghosh et al 1985; Kokpol et al 1985, 1990a;Misra et al 1984; Parente and Mors 1980; Rao and Bose 1959, 1961,1962; Sinha and Dogra 1985

Terpenoids and related compounds Achari et al 1990, 1992; Alvi et al 1994; Bell and Duewell 1961;

Champagne et al 1992; Chittawong 1987, 1988; Connolly et al 1993;Evans 1994; Ghosh et al 1985; Hensens and Lewis 1966; Kawashimaet al 1971; Kokpol et al 1985; Mahato et al 1988a, 1988b; Majumdarand Patra 1976a, 1976b, 1977, 1978, 1979a, 1979b, 1979c, 1980;Miles et al 1985, 1986, 1987a, 1987b, 1989, 1991; Minocha andTiwari 1980, 1981; Misra et al 1985; Mulholland and Taylor 1992;Okorie and Taylor 1997; Pare et al 1993; Pascoe et al 1986; Raha etal 1991; Rao and Bose 1959, 1961, 1962; Srivastava et al 1962;Subrahmanyam et al 1992; Subramanian and Vedantham 1974;Sultana et al 1986.

45

The mangrove dweller was necessarily a fisherman. The rural indigenous diet of many

mangrove dwellers consists primarily of fish, and subsistence consumption of fisheries

is extensive. Subsistence fishing methods are generally simple. Many marine products

could be gathered by hand or with the assistance of weirs, while in areas such as the

northern coast of Irian Jaya and the Tanibars, Malaysia and Vietnam fishermen hunt for

fish. Hunting often employs poisons, gill and cast nets, plunge-baskets or stake traps and

spears (Polunin 1983). In south Sumatra fixed fishing gears are the most commonly used.

The bag nets (tuguk) are set up in series perpendicular to the current across the estuary.

The cone- shaped nets are fastened to ‘nibong’ poles, which also keep the mouth of the

big net open. These big nets will strain fish and shrimps from the water following the rise

and fall of the tides. In the use of long-line in mangrove rivers, practiced normally during

the low tidal range, fish are lured and caught by baited hooks. A baited long-line has

about 300 hooks and its ends are fixed to stakes with markers. Unbaited long-line is used

mainly for catching scaleless fish such as rays. Malaysians utilize three types of traps to

catch crabs. Simple baited traps, crab lift nets and crab hooks. The collapsible lift net

consists of a small square piece of netting stretched out by two diagonally-crossed pieces

of rattan or bamboo attached to sinkers. At the junction of the cross-pieces, a wire bait-

holder and a rope carrying a float are fixed. The collapsible net has entrances at both ends

and is stretched out by galvanized iron hoops. In the third method, the fisherman scouts

around the forest for crab holes. Once a hole is located, the hook is pushed in, to pull the

crab out. In east Java young boys and girls collect ‘chanos’ fry with small buckets and

small triangular push nets. Sometimes the fry are lured into a trap, which is no more than

a man-made shallow pool enclosing several compartments. The collection of cockles

from either natural or cultured beds is an important traditional fishing activity (Umali et

al. 1986). Fishermen in Malaysia, Sumatra and Vietnam collect cockles (e.g. Anadara

granosa) buried in the mangrove mud by hand or with rakes either to be consumed or

traded in the market. It is common in mangrove villages to rear fish and crabs in small

ponds or pens within the mangrove waters, closer to homes, in the backyards or under

stilt houses, fenced with mangrove poles. Traditionally, the small fish ponds are

restocked by opening them to the tide. In Vietnam crustacean aquaculture has been

integrated with coastal rice farming (polyculture). Marine shrimps migrate at spring tides

on the tidal flats and farmers use fallow rice fields to trap and grow shrimps. Juvenile

mangrove crabs (‘mud crabs’) are ‘cultured’ in small backyard ponds, cages, boxes or

TRADITIONAL FISHERIES

Traditional fisheries46

fallow rice fields. The cages and boxes for rearing fish are made of a variety of materials,

including mangroves, and at times are suspended in mid-stream from floats or tethered

to poles. Ponds, cages and boxes are covered with coconut fronds or Gracilaria to serve

as shelters, to increase surface area for attachment by crabs and to reduce cannibalism

(Hung 1992; Chong 1993; Aldon & Dagoon 1997). Compartmented hollow blocks

within the cages also minimize fighting among crabs. They are fed with propagules of

Rhizophora, rice bran, copra, cassava roots, shrimp-head waste, trash fish, house waste

and garbage (Hung 1992; Chong 1993; Aldon and Dagoon 1997; Olsen 1997). An

alternative traditional method of rearing fish and crustaceans is to build rafts with capture

nets, in which fish are reared, and to moor the rafts adjacent to the mangrove forest (Field

1995). A semi-capture, semi-captive type of fishery called brush pile fishery is practiced

in south India and in Sri Lanka. Twigs and branches, mainly of Rhizophora mucronata,

R. apiculata and Lumintzera racemosa are used to form ‘brush piles’ or ‘brush parks’

(locally called mas athu). The fishermen build up small forests of cut mangrove tree

branches that they push into the mud in the shallow waters of estuaries and lagoons.

These look like giant bundles of brooms protruding above maximum high tide. The total

area of the ‘brush’ may vary from 1 m2 to 50 m2. This device creates an ecological niche

where fish gather and grow. These mini ‘forests’ are harvested after several months and

are renewed annually. Brush parks constructed with Avicennia marina produced the

highest yields (Costa & Wijeyaratne 1994). The fishermen also plant mangrove tree

saplings to increase their mud flat dwelling area by trapping silt, and to attract shrimp

and fish. Fish ponds and pens, cage culture or brush pile and other regular artisanal

fishing methods are inexpensive, use locally available materials, and are not destructive

of the ecosystem.

Traditional fishing is intensive in Madagascar, and relies extensively on mangrove forest

products to produce fishing traps and canoes. Fishermen build out of mangrove wood a

dyke-like structure (valakira), mainly to catch prawns. Here the people use the dead

wood of Avicennia marina or the green wood of Ceriops tagal to cook (boil) prawns and

fish which are dried on mangrove lattice (Rasolofo 1997).

47

It is clear that mangroves are potentially of great commercial value. This is not often

recognized. It is unfortunate that in many parts of the tropical world mangrove forests are

‘reclaimed’ indiscriminately. Mangroves need to be protected from destruction and there is

a need to recognize mangrove forestation as an acceptable land use system (Bennett and

Reynolds 1993). Conservation of mangrove resources has become a global issue. Mangrove

ecosystems provide a unique and valuable range of resources, services and products but they

have always been an undervalued resource. For instance, the production of ‘traditional

products’ from mangroves can be better exploited. Rollet (1981) compiled a bibliography of

mangrove literature that cited more than 6000 references to research reports and journal

articles for the period 1600-1975. The great bulk of past (Snedaker,1974 and 1982; Walsh

1974) and recent publications are devoted to vegetation or the biology and ecology of

mangroves and to the problems of management.

Two important reasons justify the study of the chemical constituents of mangroves.

Firstly, mangroves are one of the easiest tropical forest types to generate. They have the

ability to grow where no other vascular plants can. Because of their extreme habitats

these plants have evolved special methods of survival. Production of unique chemicals

may be one such strategy. Marine organisms and plants produce novel metabolites

unique to the environment. It is therefore reasonable to assume that the mangrove plants

produce metabolites which may in turn be unique to them and are of interest to the

‘curious’ chemist (Table 3). Studies of potential commercial importance are needed,

focusing on the extraction of tannins and the use of the plants for the production of

methanol, acetic acid and coal tar. Secondly, the chemistry of mangrove plants is of

growing importance because of their great potential as a source of novel agrochemicals

and compounds of medicinal value (Tables 1 and 3). They may also provide a new source

for many already known biologically active compounds. Numerous mangroves and

mangal associates are used in folklore medicine and have found applications as

insecticides and piscicides (Table 1). Even though there are some recent investigations

of the chemical constituents describing several novel compounds, the exploration of

mangroves for pharmacologically important compounds is still in its infancy (Table 3).

A knowledge of the chemical constituents of these plants is desirable, not only for the

discovery of new therapeutic agents, but also because such information may be of further

value to those interested in ‘deciphering’ the actual value of folkloric remedies.

CONCLUSION

Conclusion48

In conclusion, mangroves should be the object of conservation practices, not only for

their own sake, but most of all for the purpose of a balanced, sustainable non-degrading

type of use of the tropical coastal zone.

49

This review report is the result of communication with scientists associated with mangrove

research, and many people, specially mangrove dwellers, from Asia and southeast Asia. My

thanks are due to all those who provided useful information. Critical comments and

suggestions from Drs. E. Wolanski and D. Johnston are gratefully acknowledged.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

51

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Achari, B., Giri, C., Saha, C.R., Dutta, P.K. and Pakrashi, S.C. (1992). A neo-clerodane

diterpene from Clerodendron inerme. Phytochemistry 31:338-340.

Achary, P.M.R., Subudhi, S. and Das, C.C. (1993). Laboratory evaluation of Ipomoea

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Achmadi, S., Syahbirin, G., Choong, E.T. and Hemingway, R.W. (1994).

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