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EcologyWe have become, by the power of a glorious evolutionary accident called intelligence, the stewards of life's continuity on earth. We did not ask for this role, but we cannot abjure it. We may not be suited to it, but here we are.- Stephen Jay GouldEcology the scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organism and their physical environment.

Ecosystem a community of living things in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system.[2] These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.[3] As ecosystems are defined by the network of interactions among organisms, and between organisms and their environment,[4] they can be of any size but usually encompass specific, limited spaces[5] (although some scientists say that the entire planet is an ecosystem3Coral Reef Ecosystem

Biotic factors biological influences on organismsAbiotic factors physical components of an ecosystem

Observation, experimentation and modeling3 techniques used to study Ecosystems

Plants are leafing out and flowering sooner each year than predicted by results from controlled environmental warming experiments, according to data from a major new archive of historical observations assembled with the help of a NASA researcher.Researchers use experiments that manipulate the temperature of the environment surrounding small plots of plants to gauge how specific plants will react to higher temperatures. The observed plant responses can then be incorporated into models that predict future ecosystem changes as temperatures around the globe continue to rise. But when a group of scientists compared these results to a massive new archive of historical observations, they found that the warming experiments are dramatically underestimating how plants respond to climate change.The results were published online in the journal Nature on May 2. In addition to quantifying how a broad collection of plant species have responded to date to rising temperatures, the study suggests that the way warming experiments are conducted needs to be re-evaluated.

6Primary producers first producers of energy rich compounds that are later used by other organisms

Primary Producers and Consumersabout 10% of the energy at one level is available the next

Consumers organisms that rely on other organisms for energy and nutrients

Energy flows through an ecosystem in a one-way stream from primary to various consumers

Energy pyramids show the relative amount of energy available at each trophic level of a food chain or web.

A pyramid of biomass illustrates the relative amount of living organic matter available at each trophic level of an ecosystem. A pyramid of numbers shows the relative number of individual organisms at each trophic level in an ecosystem.11Water Cycle water continuously moves between oceans, the atmosphere, and land. Sometimes outside living organisms and sometimes inside them

Minnesota aerial viewOver 15,000 lakes. More shoreline than Florida

BWCA map of canoe trip

Great LakesLake Superior enough water in Lake Superior to fill the other great lakes and have enough left over for another Lake Ontario.

Water in Lake Superior would cover the lower 48 states to a depth of 5 feet15US rainfall map

The light blue section in the center of the map spanning the majority of the United States from South Dakota to Texas is the Ogallala Aquifer.

Ground water of the world Purple basins hold easily extracted ground water.Green areas are tougher to extract or not high qualityYellow are local and shallow water sources.

Just as the distribution of lakes and rivers varies around the world, so too does the distribution of aquifers. Major basins (purple) hold abundant, relatively easily extracted groundwater. More complex basins (green) might contain multiple aquifers separated by impermeable rock or have layers of saltwater as well as fresh. Local and shallow aquifers provide only limited quantities of water. Map created by Peder Engstrom and Kate Brauman of the Institute on the Environments Global Landscape Initiative. Data provided by BGR & UNESCO (2008): Groundwater Resources of the World 1 : 25 000 000. Hannover, Paris18The rate at which rain, snow and surface waters are able to replenish groundwater.

The rate at which rain, snow and surface waters are able to replenish groundwater varies tremendously from one place to another, mostly due to geology and climate. Along with aquifer size and type, the recharge rate determines the extent to which groundwater can be sustainably withdrawn for human use. 19China water resources

China ground water map Beijing area

Carbon cycle a biogeochemical cycle that includes living things and the abiotic environment

Some regions or processes produce carbonOther regions absorb it.

Carbon is exchanged, or "cycled" among Earth's oceans, atmosphere, ecosystem, and geosphere. All living organisms are built of carbon compounds. It is the fundamental building block of life and an important component of many chemical processes. It is present in the atmosphere primarily as carbon dioxide (CO2), but also as other less abundant but climatically significant gases, such as methane (CH4). Because life processes are fueled by carbon compounds which are oxidized to CO2, the latter is exhaled by all animals and plants. Conversely, CO2 is assimilated by plants during photosynthesis to build new carbon compounds. CO2 is produced by the burning of fossil fuels, which derive from the preserved products of ancient photosynthesis. The atmophere exchanges CO2 continuously with the oceans. Regions or processes that predominately produce CO2 are called sources of atmospheric CO2, while those that absorb CO2 are called sinks. 23CO2 levels, global temperatures and Sea level time line

Nitrogen cycle

The nitrogen cycle is the process by which nitrogen is converted between its various chemical forms. This transformation can be carried out through both biological and physical processes. Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. The majority of Earth's atmosphere (78%) is nitrogen,[1] making it the largest pool of nitrogen. However, atmospheric nitrogen has limited availability for biological use, leading to a scarcity of usable nitrogen in many types of ecosystems. The nitrogen cycle is of particular interest to ecologists because nitrogen availability can affect the rate of key ecosystem processes, including primary production and decomposition. Human activities such as fossil fuel combustion, use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers, and release of nitrogen in wastewater have dramatically altered the global nitrogen cycle.[2]25The nitrogen cycle is affected by human activities.Crops, fertilizers, emissions have more than doubled N2, available to to living things.

As a result of extensive cultivation of legumes (particularly soy, alfalfa, and clover), growing use of the HaberBosch process in the creation of chemical fertilizers, and pollution emitted by vehicles and industrial plants, human beings have more than doubled the annual transfer of nitrogen into biologically available forms.[10] In addition, humans have significantly contributed to the transfer of nitrogen trace gases from Earth to the atmosphere and from the land to aquatic systems. Human alterations to the global nitrogen cycle are most intense in developed countries and in Asia, where vehicle emissions and industrial agriculture are highest26Phosphorus cycle

The phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Unlike many other biogeochemical cycles, the atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movement of phosphorus, because phosphorus and phosphorus-based compounds are usually solids at the typical ranges of temperature and pressure found on Earth. The production of phosphine gas occurs only in specialized, local conditions.On the land, phosphorus (chemical symbol, P) gradually becomes less available to plants over thousands of years, because it is slowly lost in runoff. Low concentration of P in soils reduces plant growth, and slows soil microbial growth - as shown in studies of soil microbial biomass. Soil microorganisms act as both sinks and sources of available P in the biogeochemical cycle.[1] Locally, transformations of P are chemical, biological and microbiological: the major long-term transfers in the global cycle, however, are driven by tectonic movements in geologic time.[2]Humans have caused major changes to the global P cycle through shipping of P minerals, and use of P fertilizer, and also the shipping of food from farms to cities, where it is lost as effluent.

27In the presence of sunlight and water, the productivity of an ecosystem is limited by the availability of nutrients.

ClimateA regions climate is defined by year after year patterns of temperature and precipitation.This is a 30 year running average map for Minneapolis, MN

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Global ClimateGlobal Climate is shaped by many factors:Trapped solar energyLatitude and transport of heat by winds.Transport of heat by ocean currents.Presence of mountain ranges.Orbital changes and energy fluctuations from the sun.

by many factors, including solar energy trapped in the biosphere, latitude and transport of heat by winds and ocean currents.

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Major Greenhouse gases

A niche is the range of physical and biological condition in which a species lives and the way the species obtains what it needs to survive and reproduce.

A niche is the range of physical and biological condition in which a species lives and the way the species obtains what it needs to survive and reproduce.42competition helps determine the number and kinds of species in a community and the niche each species occupiesSea Anemones competing for territory

By causing species to divide resources, competition helps determine the number and kinds of species in a community and the niche each species occupiesCompetition is an interaction between organisms or species, in which the fitness of one is lowered by the presence of another. Limited supply of at least one resource (such as food, water, and territory) used by both can be a factor.[1] Competition both within and between species is an important topic in ecology, especially community ecology. Competition is one of many interacting biotic and abiotic factors that affect community structure. Competition among members of the same species is known as intraspecific competition, while competition between individuals of different species is known as interspecific competition. Competition is not always straightforward, and can occur in both a direct and indirect fashion.[2]According to the competitive exclusion principle, species less suited to compete for resources should either adapt or die out, although competitive exclusion is rarely found in natural ecosystems. According to evolutionary theory, this competition within and between species for resources plays a very relevant role in natural selection, however, competition may play less of a role than expansion among larger groups such as families.[2]

43Resource partitioning: some species coexist in spite of apparent competition for the same resource. Usually it is discovered that they occupy slightly different niches.

1. The Competitive Exclusion Principle ( Gause's principle). When two species compete for exactly the same resources ( or occupy the same niche), one is likely to be more successful. As a result, one species outcomes the other, and eventually, the second species is eliminated.

2. Resource partitioning: some species coexist in spite of apparent competition for the same resource. Close study, however, reveals that they occupy slightly different niches. by pursuing slightly different resources or securing their resources in slightly different ways, individuals minimize competition and maximize sucess. Dividing up the resources in this manner is called resource partitioning.

44Predators can affect the size of prey populations in a community and determine the places prey can live and feed

Herbivores affect both the size and distribution of plant populations in a community. They can determine the places that certain plants can survive and grow

Herbivores can affect both the size and distribution of plant populations in a community and can determine the places that certain plants can survive and grow. Wild boar damage in Missouri46Keystone Species Sea Otter eats urchins which eat kelp. The decline of otters led to the decline of the kelp.

A keystone species is a species that has a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to its abundance.[1] Such species are described as playing a critical role in maintaining the structure of an ecological community, affecting many other organisms in an ecosystem and helping to determine the types and numbers of various other species in the community.The role that a keystone species plays in its ecosystem is analogous to the role of a keystone in an arch. While the keystone is under the least pressure of any of the stones in an arch, the arch still collapses without it. Similarly, an ecosystem may experience a dramatic shift if a keystone species is removed, even though that species was a small part of the ecosystem by measures of biomass or productivity. It became a popular concept in conservation biology.[2] Although the concept is valued as a descriptor for particularly strong inter-species interactions, and it has allowed easier communication between ecologists and conservation policy-makers, it has been criticized for oversimplifying complex ecological systems

473 types of Symbiosis:Mutualism, parasitism, commensalismRemora and Whale Shark - commensalism

3 main classes of symbiotic relationships in nature: mutualism, parasitism, and commensalism.Mutualism both benefit,parasitism one is harmed, commensalism one benefits, other not harmed48

Mutualism Butterfly with Flower Coral with algae

Isopod parasite of fish

Primary Succession Succession from nothing pioneer species

Ecosystems change over time, especially after disturbances, as some species die out and new species move in.52Secondary SuccessionForest Recovery from the Cavity Lake Fire BWCA

Secondary Succession in healthy ecosystems following a natural disturbance often reproduces the original climax community. Ecosystems may or many not recover from human-caused distrubances.53Biomes major ones include tropical rain forest, desert, grassland, temperate forest, boreal forest and the three main ones in MN. Northern mixed forest, big woods and prairie.

Biomes are described in terms of abiotic factors like climate and soil type, and biotic factors like plant and animal life.54Major Biomes of the World

Aquatic Ecosystems include Fresh and Marine

Aquatic organisms are affected primarily by the waters depth (photic zone sunlight, aphotic zone no sunlight and benthos on the bottom, temperature, flow, and amount of dissolved nutrients.56Freshwater ecosystems include Rivers and Streams, Lakes and Ponds, Wetlands

Plankton micro and macroscopic organisms that live in the water57Estuaries wetland formed where a river meets the sea. They are important spawning and nursery grounds. New Orleans estuary

Estuaries serve as spawning and nursery grounds for many ecologically and commercially important fish and shellfish species.58The ocean is divided into zones based on depth and distance from shore.

Levels of Biological Organization

Ecological organization begins with populations.Things that affect an organism at the subcellular level can end up affecting the population and multiple ecosystems as well.

Biological organization, or the hierarchy of life, is the hierarchy of complex biological structures and systems that define life using a reductionistic approach.[1] The traditional hierarchy, as detailed below, extends from atoms (or lower) to biospheres. The higher levels of this scheme are often referred to as ecological organisation.Each level in the hierarchy represents an increase in organisational complexity, with each "object" being primarily composed of the previous level's basic unit.[2] The basic principle behind the organisation is the concept of emergencethe properties and functions found at a hierarchical level are not present and irrelevant at the lower levels.[3]Organisation furthermore refers to the high degree of order of an organism (in comparison to general objects).[4] Ideally, individual organisms of the same species have the same arrangement of the same structures. For example, the typical human has a torso with two legs at the bottom and two arms on the sides and a head on top. It is extremely rare (and usually impossible, due to physiological and biomechanical factors) to find a human that has all of these structures but in a different arrangement.The biological organisation of life is a fundamental premise for numerous areas of scientific research, particularly in the medical sciences.[3] Without this necessary degree of organisation, it would be much more difficultand likely impossibleto apply the study of the effects of various physical and chemical phenomena to diseases and body function. For example, fields such as cognitive and behavioural neuroscience could not exist if the brain was not composed of specific types of cells, and the basic concepts of pharmacology could not exist if it was not known that a change at the cellular level can affect an entire organism. These applications extend into the ecological levels as well. For example, DDT's direct effect occurs at the subcellular level, but affects higher levels up to and including multiple ecosystems. Theoretically, a change in one atom could change the entire biosphere.

60Factors that affect population size are the birthrate the death rate, and the rate at which individuals enter or leave the population.

Factors that affect population size are the birthrate the death rate, and the rate at which individuals enter or leave the population.61Under ideal conditions with unlimited resources, a population will grow exponentially. Logistic growth is when the population growth slows and stops after exponential growth.

Under ideal conditions with unlimited resources, a population will grow exponentially.62Acting separately or together, limiting factors determine the carrying capacity of an environment for a species

63Density dependent limiting factors include competition, predation, herbivory, parasitism, disease and overcrowding

Density dependent liming factor a place for a nest

Density independent affect all populations in a similar way regardless of density. Unusual weather, fires, oil spills

Human population has changed over time.

Humans affect regional and global environments through agriculture, development, and industry.

Humans affect regional and global environment through agriculture, development, and industry in ways that have an impact on the quality of Earths natural resources including soil, water and air68Sustainable development preserves ecosystems

Sustainable development provides for human needs while preserving the ecosystems that produce natural resources.69Renewable resource non-renewable resource

70Protecting SoilDesertification Deforestation

Dry climates with overgrazing, seasonal drought can turn farmland into desert.

Loss of forest land affects soil and can lead to erosion and massive soil composition change.711930s desertification in the US. The Dust bowl

Biological Magnification mercury collects in the tissues of each animal and becomes more concentrated as you go up the food chain.

Twin Cities Metropolitan Sewage Treatment Plant. An excellent facility returning water that is cleaner than the river.

Bacteria, hormones, industrial chemicals, fertilizers, oil, etc.74Air Pollution smog, acid rain, particulates, greenhouse gasesBeijing Paris

Damages buildings, lung tissues, animals and plants, causes respiratory failure. 75Acid RainRain is naturally acidic CO2 + HOH = H2CO3 pH = 6If pollutants like NO3 or SO3 are in the air (burning coal) SO3 + HOH = H2SO4. pH = 2Many creatures cannot take pH below 4.Even buildings and statues are at risk.

Acid Rain US

Situation has improved as cleaner and less coal is burned.Better cars, burning cleaner fuel has helped as well.MN is not a problem since prevailing winds blow our air to chicago.

US improvement in air quality tied to shift in fuels, efficiency and a leveling in miles driven

Biodiversitys benefits to society include contributions to medicine and agriculture and the provision of ecosystem goods and services

Biodiversity total of all the genetically based variation in all organisms.Ecosystem diversity variety of habitatsSpecies diversity - # of speciesGenetic diversity different genes in a species80Humans reduce biodiversity by altering habitats, hunting, introducing invasive species, releasing pollution and climate change

The current loss of biodiversity and the related changes in the environment are now faster than ever before in human history and there is no sign of this process slowing down. Many animal and plant populations have declined in numbers, geographical spread, or both. Species extinction is a natural part of Earth's history. Human activity has increased the extinction rate by at least 100 times compared to the natural rate.

Comparing different types of measurements of biodiversity loss is not simple. The rate of change in one aspect of biodiversity, such as loss of species richness, does not necessarily reflect the change in another, such as habitat loss. Moreover, some aspects of biodiversity loss are not easily measured, for instance the fact that the same species are increasingly found at different locations on the planet and that overall biodiversity is decreasing.

The Living Planet Index, compiled by the WWF, provides an indication of the declines in the overall abundance of wild species.81To conserve biodiversity, we must protect individual species, preserve habitats, ecosystems, and make certain that human neighbors of protected areas benefit from participating in conservation efforts.

By recognizing a problem in the environment, researching that problem to determine a solution, and then using that information to make behavorial changes we can have a positive impact on the global environment

Bald Eagle populations began to recover soon after the ban on DDT in 1973. There are currently over 30 nests in the twin cities area alone. This compares with 120 nests in all of MN in 1972.83