ebsco enology & viticulture

Food Industry Watch

EBSCO Food Industry Watch • Copyright © 2011EBSCO Publishing Inc. • 800-653-2726 • www.ebscohost.com

Viticulture & EnologyPractices within the Billion Dollar Industry

January 2011

Watch List• Each of the 50 states now has at least one winery.

There were more than 5,400 bonded wineries in the United States at the end of 2006—more than double the number in 1999 (Insel, 2008).

• The retail value of wine produced in the United States in 2005 was $23.8 billion. About 90 per-cent of the volume of wine produced in the United States comes from California (Insel, 2008).

• Researchers at Cornell University are studying the precision application of botrytis sprays (Landers & Wilcox, 2009). See:http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/pubs/vitcon/pdf2008/17.pdf

Key Takeaways • Enology is the science that deals with wine and

wine making. Grapes are the highest value fruit crop in the US ($35 billion), and direct employ-ment by the grape and wine industry has grown by nearly a third since 2001. The three largest grape/wine-producing regions in the US are Cali-fornia, Washington, and New York.

• Grape growers should obtain a soil analysis prior to planting. The run-off from the common practice of nitrogen (N) supplementation of grape musts can affect local waterways and water tables.

• The process of winemaking begins with harvest-ing and de-stemming the grapes, and continues with: Crushing and primary fermentation, cold and heat stabilization, secondary fermentation and bulk aging, malolactic fermentation, laboratory testing, blending and fining, preservation, filtration and bottling.

• The most interesting genetically modified (GMO) yeasts are glycerol and malolactic yeast. The most important GMOs in the future will be those capable of releasing terpenoids (organic chemi-cals used for aromatics).

• Bacterial wine spoilage from Brettanomyces/Dekkera yeasts or bioamines can be managed by manipulating wine acidity or adding sulfur diox-ide.

• The demand for lower-alcohol wines has increased in the last decade. There are various techniques for lowering alcohol content, including ethanol extraction from the wine and reduction of sugar content of the musts.

Related Reports• Horticulture

• Weed Management

Food Industry Watch


Viticulture & Enology

Executive Summary Viticulture refers to the cultivation or culture of grapes and encompasses vineyard development, maintenance, and productivity; soil management; pest management; irrigation and harvest methods.

Grape growers should obtain a soil analysis prior to planting, to discover which amendments are needed. The run-off from the common practice of nitrogen (N) supplementation of grape musts can affect local waterways and water tables. Nitrogen amounts can be reduced without affecting vine performance; this also decreases production costs. Foliar fertilizers are effective in providing equal or better vine nutrition and fruit composition than soil fertilizers. They’re more expensive, but could result in increased yield or fruit quality.

Efficient grapevine irrigation is crucial, and grow-ers should mulch for water retention, use organic matter appropriately, and use erosion prevention techniques.

Viticulturalists need to select appropriate varieties and rootstocks, select appropriate training systems for the site and variety of rootstock; estimate and modify yield through hand pruning; and increase air flow and spray penetration into the canopy.

A solid integrated pest management program should include: Exposing fruit to reduce disease; selecting reduced-risk pesticides or bio-control agents; spraying fungicide pre-bloom and post-bloom; and rotating agrichemicals to prevent resistance. Pesticide sprayer settings must be tailored to the canopy development stage and equipment and practices chosen to reduce spray drift. There is increasing interest in biological con-trol agents (BCAs) to suppress botrytis bunch rot in grapes.

The winemaker decides when to harvest grapes based on the level of brix, titratable acidity, and pH

of the grapes. Manual harvesting is preferred in the US.

Enology is the science that deals with wine and wine making. Grapes are the highest value fruit crop in the US ($35 billion), and direct employment by the grape and wine industry has grown by nearly a third since 2001. The three largest grape/wine-producing regions in the US are California, Washington, and New York.

The process of winemaking begins with harvest-ing and de-stemming the grapes, and continues with: Crushing and primary fermentation, cold and heat stabilization, secondary fermentation and bulk aging, malolactic fermentation, laboratory testing, blending and fining, preservation, filtration and bot-tling.

Grape quality is affected by variety, weather, soil minerals and acidity, time of harvest, and pruning method. There are perceptible sensory differences in wines produced with biodynamically grown and organically grown grapes.

The most interesting genetically modified yeasts produce enhanced levels of glycerol and malolac-tic yeast; both are generally recognized as safe, or GRAS by the FDA. The most important GMOs in the future will be those capable of releasing terpenoids (organic chemicals used for aromatics).

Bacterial wine spoilage from Brettanomyces/Dekkera yeasts or bioamines can be managed by manipulating wine acidity or adding sulfur dioxide.

The demand for lower-alcohol wines has increased in the last decade. There are various techniques for lowering alcohol content, including ethanol extrac-tion from the wine and reduction of sugar content of the musts.

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Business Options & Best PracticesViticulture

Viticulture is defined as the cultivation or culture of grapes. It encompasses vineyard development, maintenance and productivity, soil management, pest management, irrigation and harvest. The main issues in viticulture currently include (VineBalance, 2010):

• Managing pests and nutrients

• Maximizing terroir

• Grape breeding

• Improving yield and fruit quality

• Anthocyanins, tannins and phenolics

• Soil management to reduce erosion, runoff and leaching and improve soil health

• Integrated pest management (IPM) techniques for insect, disease and weed control

• Nutrient management, especially nitrogen fertilization

• Pesticide storage and handling and modern spray technologies

• Vineyard floor management including cover crops and water use

• Canopy management techniques to enhance fruit quality and reduce disease pressure

Sustainable Viticulture

Sustainable viticulture is a long term approach to managing wine grapes which optimizes

wine grape quality and productivity by using a com-bination of biological, cultural and chemical tools in ways that minimize economic, environmental, and health risks (Ohmart, 2010). Most people agree that the sustainable viticulture movement in the US began with sustainable agriculture, which grew out of organic farming practices and the ‘green revolu-tion’ of the 1950s and the earth movement of the

1970s (Vinewise, 2004). Sustainable viticulture, as in sustainable agriculture, is economically viable, socially supportive and ecologically sound. Grow-ers must make a multitude of choices regarding the practices they use to manage vine growth, weeds, diseases, insects, and soil fertility (Vine Balance, 2009).

Soils & Nutrients

As with any kind of agriculture, growers should always obtain a soil analysis prior to planting/growing grapes, so they know which (and how many) amendments (nutrients, organic matter, compaction, drainage, pH) they will need. Other issues include (Vine Balance, 2009):

• Soil and water conservation structures (diversion ditches, buffer strips)

• Tile drainage

• Efficient nitrogen use and timing of nutrient applications

• Safe and secure storage of fertilizers

Nitrogen supplementation of grape musts has become common practice because surveys have shown that much of the grape musts used are sub-optimal for yeast nutrients, especially nitrogen, and nitrogen deficiencies are linked to slow and stuck fermentations and sulphidic off-flavor formation (Vilanova, et. al., 2007).

However, run-off from nitrogen (N) application can affect local waterways. One Australian study showed that nitrogen fertilizer amounts could be reduced without affecting vine performance, which would decrease production costs and reduce the risk of N leaching out of the soil profile to water tables or waterways. Application rates of 40–50 kg N/ha appeared to be sufficient to achieve optimal vegeta-tive growth and desired berry juice N concentrations (Barlow, et. al., 2009).

In a recent Ontario, Canada grape study, foliar fertil-izers were found to be effective in providing equal or

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better vine nutrition and fruit composition than the control where fertilizer was applied to the soil, in the traditional way. Applications of combined fish fertilizer, seaweed extract, and Monty’s Evergreen performed the best. The cost of the foliar program exceeded that of the soil applied program by $230/ha, but this could be compensated for by increases in yield or improve-ments in fruit quality (Wiens & Reynolds, 2008).

Vineyard Floor & Water Management/Irriga-tion

Growers should mulch for water retention, use organic matter appropriately, and use erosion pre-vention techniques. Other issues involved include (VineBalance, 2010):

• Using seeded cover crops and maintaining per-manent cover between rows

• Hilling up vines to prevent winter injury

• Investigating non-chemical and post-emergent weed management techniques

• Use weed mapping technology to highlight prob-lem areas and species

Efficient grapevine irrigation is also very important, as it influences wine quality and even plant survival in regions affected by seasonal drought. But grow-ers should control irrigation in order to optimize source-to-sink balance and avoid excessive vigor. The results of one study of two grapevine varieties (Moscatel and Castelão) showed that the amount of water applied can be decreased by 50% (i.e., deficit irrigation [DI] and partial root drying [PRD]) with no negative effects on production and even some gains of quality (in the case of PRD) (Chaves, et. al., 2007). The partial root zone drying (PRD) irrigation technique has been shown not to affect grape berry ripening and composition greatly (Bindon, et. al., 2008).

Canopy Management

Canopy management is an important aspect of viti-culture because it affects grape yields, quality, vigor,

and the prevention of grape diseases. Problems such as uneven grape ripening, sunburn, and frost damage can be addressed by skillful canopy management. The canopy is often trained on trellis systems to guide its growth and make it accessible for harvest. So in addition to selecting appropriate varieties and rootstocks, growers also need to select appropriate trellis systems for the site and variety/rootstock; esti-mate and modify grape yield by pruning, as well as shoot and cluster thinning; and increase air flow and spray penetration into the canopy through leaf trim-ming and hedging (Vine Balance, 2009).

Integrated Pest Management

A good IPM program would include the follow- ing procedures:

• Fruit exposure for reduced disease pressure

• Scouting for insects and diseases

• Utilizing thresholds for efficient pest manage-ment

• Selecting reduced-risk pesticides

• Spot treatment of pests

• Critical fungicide spray timing (pre-bloom and post-bloom)

• Rotating agrochemicals to prevent resistance

Pesticide Management

If pesticides are used, make sure to store them safely and securely; tailor spray settings to canopy develop-ment state and choose equipment and practices that reduce spray drift and increase deposition (Vine Bal-ance, 2009).

BioControl

There is increasing interest in the use of biological control agents (BCAs) and plant resistance stimulants to suppress botrytis bunch rot in grapes, caused by Botrytis cinerea. Numerous different filamentous fungi, bacteria and yeasts have been selected as potential BCAs for control of grey mould. But bio-suppression of B. cinerea in vineyards, using BCAs

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and resistance stimulants, has been inconsistent compared to controlled glasshouse or laboratory conditions. “Research to improve field efficacy has focused on formulation improvement, the use of BCA mixtures and combinational approaches involving BCAs and plant resistance stimulants with comple-mentary modes of action” (Elmer & Reglinski, 2006).

Pruning

Hand versus machine pruning can have an effect on phenolic composition and wine quality. In at least one study, machine-pruned berries were lighter and had higher concentrations of anthocyanins, tannins and total phenolics (which affect taste, color and mouth feel in wines). However, machine wines had the lowest quality scores. In this study, high berry anthocyanins, total phenolics and tannin concen-tration measures were not good indicators of wine quality scores. Changes in vineyard treatments and, in particular, vintage influences, produce incremen-tal, but potentially important, changes to berry size, berry composition and wine quality. This study is unique in its focus on the commercial reality of pro-ducing wines to a specific style and quality, while bringing scientific rigor to investigating the relation-ships between berries and wine quality in a specific vineyard across a number of vintages (Holt, et. al., 2008).

Harvesting

Grapes are either harvested mechanically or by hand. The winemaker decides when to harvest grapes based on the level of sugar (called Brix), acid (TA or Titratable Acidity as expressed by tartaric acid equivalents), and pH of the grapes. Other consider-ations include phenological ripeness, berry flavor, and tannin development (seed color and taste).

Mechanical harvesting saves time and requires a minimum investment of manpower per harvested ton; but it can include leaf stems and leaves, moldy

grapes, canes, metal debris, rocks and even small animals and bird nests. Mechanical harvesting is seldom used for premium winemaking in the US for this reason, and manual harvesting is usually the pre-ferred method. It requires the use of knowledgeable labor to not only pick the healthy clusters of grapes but also to handle them gently and leave behind the clusters that are not ripe or contain bunch rot or other defects, in order to prevent inferior quality fruit from contaminating a tank of wine (Robinson, 2003).

Enology

Enology is the science that deals with wine and wine making. Whereas viticulturists study all aspects of grape production after preparatory work in the biological sciences (plant biology, plant pathology, plant physiology, entomology, meteorology and soil science), enologists study wine and fermented bever-age technology, after preparation in the fundamental sciences related to fermentation (chemistry, math, physics, biochemistry, microbiology, molecular and cellular biology) (University of California - Davis, 2010).

Economics of Winemaking

Approximately 900,000 acres in the US are devoted to grape growing—mostly for wine—for a total crop value of $35 billion. Grapes are the highest value fruit crop in the US, and more than one mil-lion workers owe their livelihood to the US wine and grape industry. If all the suppliers are included (bottle, tank, label, and barrel makers, distributors, retailers, and servers), this is a $33 billion industry. Direct employment by the industry has grown by nearly a third since 2001 (Insel, 2008).

The three largest grape/wine-producing regions in the US are California, Washington, and New York. Each state has a university that offers Viticulture and Enology programs both at the undergraduate and graduate levels: University of California-Davis, Wash-ington State University and Cornell University.

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Process

The process of winemaking begins with harvesting and de-stemming the grapes, and involves the fol-lowing steps (Robinson, 2003):

1. Crushing and primary fermentation: The skins are left in contact with the juice for red wines, while most white wines are processed without de-stemming or crushing and are transferred directly from picking bins to the press. Yeast is already present on the grapes (giving them a powdery appearance), and fermentation can be done with this natural yeast, but can produce unpredictable results. As a result, cultured yeast is often added to the must. During primary fer-mentation, the yeast cells feed on the sugars in the must and multiply, producing carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. Pigeage refers to the French term for the traditional stomping of grapes in open fer-mentation tanks.

2. Cold and heat stabilization: Cold stabilization is a process used in winemaking to reduce tartrate crystals (generally potassium bitartrate) in wine. During heat stabilization, unstable proteins are removed by absorption onto bentonite, prevent-ing them from precipitating in the bottled wine.

3. Secondary fermentation and bulk aging: The secondary fermentation and aging process takes place in either air-locked large stainless steel ves-sels or oak barrels and takes 3-6 months.

4. Malolactic fermentation (for red wines and sometimes white): During or after the alcoholic fermentation, specific strains of bacteria convert malic acid into the milder lactic acid. This fer-mentation is often initiated by inoculation with desired bacteria. It can improve the taste of wine.

5. Laboratory testing: Tests on Brix (sugar, salt, acid and tannin content), pH, titratable acidity, residual sugar, free or available sulfur, total sulfur, volatile acidity, and percent alcohol are run periodically.

6. Blending and fining: Wine can be mixed before bottling to achieve the desired taste. Fining agents, (e.g., gelatin, egg whites, bull’s blood, bone char and skim milk powder) are used during winemak-ing to remove tannins, reduce astringency, and remove microscopic particles that could cloud the wines.

7. Preservation: Sulfur dioxide (to prevent or stop malolactic fermentation, bacterial spoilage, and help protect against the damaging effects of oxygen) and potassium sorbate (to control of fungal growth, including yeast, especially for sweet wines) are sometimes used as preservatives

8. Filtration: Used for clarification and microbial sta-bilization of the wine.

9. Bottling: Sulfite is added for preservation and to prevent unwanted fermentation; bottles are sealed with a cork (synthetic or real) or screw cap, which are increasingly popular. A capsule is added to the top of the bottle, which is then heated for a tight seal.

Current Issues in Enology

Grape Quality

Grape quality, which determines the quality of the wine more than any other factor, is affected by variety, weather during the growing season, soil minerals and acidity, time of harvest, and pruning method. Winemakers and viticulturists now focus on the concept of achieving “physiological” ripeness in the grapes or more complete ripeness of tannins and other phenolic compounds in the grapes that con-tribute to the color, flavor, and aroma of wine.

One study showed that there were perceptible sensory differences in wines produced with bio-dynamically grown and organically grown Merlot grapes. In the study, wine grapes were raised biody-namically or organically on a commercial vineyard with wines produced from 2001 to 2004. The 2003

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organically grown wine was preferred, and the 2004 organically grown wine was higher in musty/earthy aroma and flavor, astringency and bitterness, and had a longer finish compared to the same vintage of biodynamically grown wine. Results indicate percep-tible sensory differences between the 2003 and 2004 biodynamically and organically grown wines (Ross, et. al., 2009).

Genetically Modified Yeasts

Yeast is normally already present on the grapes, often visible as the powdery appearance of the grapes. Fer-mentation can be conducted with this natural yeast, but since this can give unpredictable results depend-ing on the exact types of yeast that are present, cultured yeast is often added to the must. A Slovenian study found that the most important and interesting genetically modified yeasts, in the opinion of enolo-gists, are those with enhanced production of glycerol and malolactic yeast, the last already approved as GRAS by the United States FDA. The most important GMOs in the future will be yeasts capable of releas-ing terpenoids, but also very important are malolactic yeasts and yeasts producing higher concentrations of glycerol and lower concentrations of acetic acid (Pla-huta & Raspor, 2008).

Microbiology & Spoilage Faults

The microbiology of wine is very complex, so it is dif-ficult to pinpoint the exact problem when spoilage does occur. Nonetheless, large-scale investigations on controlling wine spoilage have been conducted for many years in an attempt to improve wine qual-ity, and great progress has been made in the past decade.

Consequences of bacterial wine spoilage include mousy taint, bitterness, geranium notes, volatile acidity, oily and slimy-texture, and overt buttery characters. Management of wine spoilage bacteria can be as simple as manipulating wine acidity or adding sulfur dioxide. However, to control the more

recalcitrant bacteria, several other technologies can be explored including pulsed electric fields, ultrahigh pressure, ultrasound or UV irradiation, and natural products, including bacteriocins and lysozyme (Bar-towsky, 2008).

Strategies for control, monitoring, and risk manage-ment with specific regard for brettanomyces/dekkera yeasts are needed, since only small steps have been taken and there are still many factors to be researched. Brettanomyces/Dekkera yeasts have been respon-sible for turbidity or haziness and lack of color in wine and have become more prominent during the past decade partially due to winemaking trends such as the use of filtration and SO2, poor cellar hygiene, and improper sanitization of barrels (Oelofse, Pretorius & Du Toit, 2008).

Wine also contains biogenic amines (nitrogenous compounds found in various fermented foods) which pose some toxicological risks to humans. In recent years, researchers have found that biogenic amines are mainly produced by lactic acid bacte-ria (LAB) in wine. Knowledge of the metabolism of wine LAB will help to understand the impact of malolactic fermentation on wine quality and allow better control of malolactic fermentation during winemaking. There is currently no regula-tion of biogenic amines levels in wines in the US, the EU or other countries. Faster, more sensitive, and easier analytical methods need to be devel-oped to detect biogenic amines in wines as well as food. Factors that affect biogenic amines amounts in wine include: Technological factors and the fer-mentation conditions, (i.e., temperature, pH value changes, oxygen access, or sodium chloride con-tent of wine), and the malolactic fermentation. It is nearly impossible to produce wines without any biogenic amines that maintain all their sensory properties; but it is possible to produce wines with low levels of biogenic amines by controlling critical technological factors (Anli & Bayram, 2009).

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Low-alcohol Wines

Though the response from consumers and wine professionals has been mixed (Meillon, et. al., 2010), the demand for wines with lower alcohol content has increased in the last decade. There are various techniques for lowering alcohol content, including ethanol extraction from the wine and reduction of sugar content of the musts. One study showed that removing 2% ethanol by stripping or by distillation during fermentation are promising alternatives for reducing the alcohol content of wine without alter-ing the sensory quality of the product (Aguera, et. al., 2010).

Only a small part of the complexity of the grape-growing and winemaking process is scientifically well understood, but new technologies and meth-ods, such as systems biology have emerged as a way to assess the entire vine growing and wine making process from a more holistic perspective (Rossouw & Bauer, 2009).

Related OrganizationsAmerican Journal of Enology and Viticulture American Society for Enology and Viticulture California Sustainable Winegrowing Alliance Cornell University Viticulture and Enology Program University of California – Davis: Viticulture and Enology Program University of California – Davis: The National Grape Registry Washington State University Viticulture and Enology Program

ReferencesAgnew, R.H., Mundy, D.C., Spiers, T.M., & Greven,

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Aguera, E., Bes, M., Roy, A., Camarasa, C., & Sablayrolles, J.M. (2010). Partial removal of etha-

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Anli, R., & Bayram, M. (2009). Biogenic amines in wines. Food Reviews International, 25(1), 86-102. Retrieved September 23, 2010, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=35854919&site=ehost-live

Barlow, K., Bond, W., Holzapfel, B., Smith, J., & Hutton, R. (2009). Nitrogen concentrations in soil solution and surface run-off on irrigated vineyards in Australia. Australian Journal of Grape & Wine Research, 15(2), 131-143. Retrieved September 23, 2010, from EBSCO Online Database Aca-demic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=39881125&site=ehost-live

Bartowsky, E.J. (2008). Under the microscope. Bac-terial spoilage of wine and approaches to minimize it. Letters in Applied Microbiology. The Australian Wine Research Institute. Retrieved September 27, 2010, from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1472-765X.2008.02505.x/pdf

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Bories, A., & Sire, Y. (2010). Impacts of winemak-ing methods on wastewaters and their treatment. South African Journal of Enology & Viticulture, 31(1), 38-44. Retrieved September 20, 2010, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Com-plete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=51907729&site=ehost-live

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Elmer, P., & Reglinski, T. (2006). Biosuppression of Botrytis cinerea in grapes. Plant Pathology, 55(2), 155-177. Retrieved September 23, 2010, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Com-plete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=20060351&site=ehost-live

Holt, H., Francis, I., Field, J., Herderich, M., & Iland, P. (2008). Relationships between berry size, berry phenolic composition and wine quality scores for Cabernet Sauvignon (Vitis vinifera L.) from dif-ferent pruning treatments and different vintages. Australian Journal of Grape & Wine Research, 14(3), 191-202. Retrieved September 23, 2010, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=34850036&site=ehost-live

Insel, B. (2008). The U.S. wine industry. Business Economics, 43(1), 68-73. Retrieved September 23, 2010, from EBSCO Online Database EconLit with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eoh&AN=0991530&site=ehost-live

Landers, A. & Wilcox, W. (2009). Precision applica-tion of botrytis sprays. Progress report. Cornell University, Research and Extension. Retrieved September 20, 2010, from http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/pubs/vitcon/pdf2008/17.pdf

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Meillon, S., Dugas, V., Urbano, C., & Schlich, P. (2010). Preference and acceptability of partially de-alcoholized white and red wines by consumers and professionals. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 61(1), 42-52. Retrieved September 27, 2010, from http://www.ajevonline.org/cgi/con-tent/abstract/61/1/42

Oelofse, A., Pretorius, I., & Du Toit, M. (2008). Significance of brettanomyces and dekkera during winemaking: A synoptic review. South African Journal of Enology & Viticulture, 29(2), 128-144. Retrieved September 23, 2010, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=35157245&site=ehost-live

Ohmart, C. (2010). What is Sustainable Viticulture? Vineyard Views. Retrieved September 16, 2010, from http://www.lodiwine.com/whatissustainable-viticulture.pdf

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Plahuta, P., & Raspor, P. (2008). Comparative analysis of genetically modified yeasts in wine-making. Journal of Wine Research, 19(2), 95-107. Retrieved September 23, 2010, from EBSCO Online Database Hospitality and Tourism Com-plete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=hjh&AN=35582067&site=ehost-live

Ross, C., Weller, K., Blue, R., & Reganold, J. (2009). Difference testing of merlot produced from bio-dynamically and organically grown wine grapes. Journal of Wine Research, 20(2), 85-94. Retrieved September 23, 2010, from EBSCO Online Data-base Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=44398065&site=ehost-live

Ross, K., & Golino, D. (2008, October). Wine grapes go green: The sustainable viticulture story. Califor-nia Agriculture, 125-126. Retrieved September 23, 2010, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=35152094&site=ehost-live

Rossouw, D., & Bauer, F. (2009). Wine science in the omics era: The impact of systems biology on the future of wine research. South African Journal of Enology & Viticulture, 30(2), 101-109. Retrieved September 23, 2010, from EBSCO Online Data-

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