East European Communism and Its Collapse,Part II

Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924)

1917: Russian Communists (Bolsheviks) took power in

Russia They proclaimed the start of a world revolution against

capitalism From being behind the West, Russia seemed to jump ahead

of it – to the next, post-capitalist stage of world history Western Marxism, a product of developed capitalism, was

transplanted into a country which had just entered the capitalist stage

Russia’s challenge: to prove that modernization was possible without capitalism

Russia’s new role was a sign of the profound crisis of Western civilization

Other attempted socialist revolutions in Europe in the wake of World War I: Germany Hungary Estonia Bulgaria Finland Italy

To modernize Russia fast, the Communists resorted to dictatorial methods

The Soviet state undertook forced modernization of economy and society

The goals of keeping power and defending the state against foreign enemies became paramount

In the 1930s, Russia restored its imperial and autocratic traditions under Stalin’s dictatorship – and called it “victory of socialism”

The goal of social development was subjugated to the goal of security

The resulting model was deeply flawed, fit only for situations of extreme emergency (war)

Stalin as a young revolutionary (1902)

GULAG wards, 1930s

In the 1920s and 1930s, the rising forces in Eastern Europe are socialism and nationalism

Failure of old elites The peasantry moves to take over land Rise of working–class movements Nationalist mobilization The Great Depression Collapse of liberal democracies

The march of European dictators 1922: Italy, Spain 1923: Turkey 1926: Poland, Lithuania, Portugal 1929: Yugoslavia 1933: Germany 1934: Latvia, Bulgaria 1936: Hungary, Greece 1939: Spain again 1940: Romania

The ultimate test of the Russian state has usually been war The Romanov Empire failed that test in WWI – and fell By the time of the next test – WWII, the Russian state was

transformed into a more formidable machine The “socialist” organization of the country was aimed at

making the state more militarily capable A similar logic unfolded in Italy and Germany under

different forms of “socialism” They talked of “socialism”, but they meant winning world

wars

Read Preface to Timothy Snyder’s Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books, 2010

E-edition available from York Library: http://site.ebrary.com.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/lib/oculyork/

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September 1, 1939: Nazi Germany invades Poland

1940: Hitler in occupied Paris

Hitler and Mussolini in Munich, June 1940

Nazi propaganda poster: SS forces kill the Red beast of communism

German poster depicting Soviets: “The lower race”

The “master race” celebrating rapid conquest of Russia

Victims of German occupation

Hitler’s Empire, 1942

Moscow, October 1941

Women digging anti-tank moats near Moscow

Eastern Europe as the key arena of the struggle for the future of Europe

The crisis of the European civilization generated 2 alternative ideologies: one of the Left, the other from the Right

Both communism and fascism arose from the European periphery

Communism was a Eurasian rebellion against the West Fascism presented itself as a force to save Western

civilization from “Eastern barbarism” Western democracies were maneuvering between the

two – first supporting fascism, then communism

German POWs in Russia

Buchenwald, 1945: Survivors of Hitler’s “Final Solution”

The Red Army takes Berlin, May 1945

Western losses in World War II (incl. civilians) France – 0.65 mln. dead, 0.3 mln. wounded Britain – 0.4 and 0.3 mln. Italy – 0.5 and 0.35 mln. USA – 0.4 and 0.65 mln. Canada – 0.04 and 0.05 mln. Australia – 0.06 and 0.015 mln. Total – 2.4 mln. dead and 1.5 mln. wounded

HUMAN TOLL: 3.9 mln.

Eastern and Central European losses in World War II (incl. civilians)

Russia – 27 mln. killed, 15 mln. wounded Germany – 7 and 7 mln. Poland – 6 and 1 mln. Yugoslavia – 1 and 0.6 mln. Romania – 1 and 0.9 mln. Hungary – 0.5 and 0.5 mln. Total: 43 mln. killed and 25 mln. wounded

HUMAN TOLL: 68 mln.

Shattered states and societies Discredited elites Economies destroyed Legacies of ethnic warfare Masses in turmoil Intensive political struggles in each country In Western Europe, too:

Capitalism seriously undermined Socialism popular

In 1945, with the defeat of fascism, communism replaced it in Eastern Europe

Occupation by Soviet troops was a key factor – but the case of Yugoslavia showed that communist regimes could be established by internal forces

Attractiveness of socialism: rapid modernization on an egalitarian basis

Eastern European communism became a specific avenue of development (both social and national)

The Right is either eliminated or severely weakened The situation favours the Left East European Left in 1945: 3 types of left-wing forces:

Agrarian socialists Social Democrats Communists

Throughout East Europe, left-wing parties were banned since 1920s or 1930s

Only in Czechoslovakia the Left, including CP, was fully legal until the German occupation - and was dominant in politics

Now the Left is free to act and take advantage of the postwar crisis

Its issues are popular: Punishment of collaborators Building democracies Socialist reforms

East European Communists welcomed Soviet aid, but did they want to be Soviet puppets?

Some did, others not Those who did not, tried to find other options And the West was more or less willing to treat them as

legitimate forces in the region But Stalin would not tolerate the slightest dissent from the

Kremlin line He was the Red Emperor And dissenters were severely punished Degree of Soviet control was determined by Soviet strategic

considerations Any leeway was possible only if Soviet interests demanded it

The logic of Soviet imperialism Geopolitics and security above all In 1945-47, Stalin considered it pragmatic to allow a degree

of freedom to East European countries “People’s Democracies” In 1948-49, he decided to go for full control and isolation

from the West East European Communists were to serve as the tools for

the Soviet takeover The issue of national independence It required a massive purge of East European Communist

Parties Installation of Soviet-type totalitarian regimes

The Soviet Bloc, 1949

1949: Celebrating Stalin’s 70th birthday, Molotov delivering report

After Stalin’s death in 1953, Eastern Europe began to move away from Stalinism as an unviable system--Extreme degree of state control over society – hard to

maintain, permanent emergency rule--Economic inefficiency of bureaucratic rule --War was no longer on the horizon; capitalism was stabilizing with the help of social reforms and US aid--The challenges of peace and prosperity--Communist elites needed more normal, stable regimes in

which they would be secure from challenges both from above and from below

Reforms were inevitable

Reforms were in the interests of both of the rulers and the ruled

BUT: Stalinist features at the foundation of communist power--Bureaucracy reigns as the New Class; no interest in sharing power--One-party systems--Control of information--Mechanisms of repression (security services, the military)

From the death of Stalin to the collapse of communism

In each communist country: attempts to develop viable political-economic systems which would:

--secure the dominance of communist elites,

and at the same time

--make socialism attractive – or at least acceptable - to the masses

Return to the past was impossible

Options for the future:

--National Stalinism (Albania, Romania, China)

--Reform socialism

--Capitalism

National Stalinism would simply prolong the agony. Reform socialism required a strong commitment to

democracy from the ruling elites. They needed to take big risks with democratization But the fear of losing power prevented them from taking

such risks Or, when some of them would venture risky democratic

strategies, Soviet hardliners would intervene (Hungary, 1956, Moscow, 1964, Czechoslovakia, 1968, Poland, 1981, Moscow, 1991)

Ultimately (in 1989-91), the elites opted for national capitalism

The key role of nationalism The nationalist-communist fusion in its various forms Sources of nationalist agendas in communist countries:

Nation-building processes were spurred on by state socialism National communist elites sought to reduce or overthrow

imperial control Part of the reform process, an element of democratization

Hungary, October 1956: Overthrowing Stalinism

Hungarian revolutionaries in Budapest

Prague, 1968: Soviets invade Czechoslovakia to suppress democratic reforms

1980: Solidarity movement in Poland challenges the Communist regime

The era of East European Communism started in 1917 with the Russian revolution

Its demise began also in Russia: in 1985 with Gorbachev’s reforms

Even though Gorbachev did not aim at abandoning socialism

Mikhail Gorbachev, the last leader of the Soviet Union

The logic of Gorbachev’s perestroika

Recognition that the Soviet system was in deep crisis

Need for fundamental reforms

Market socialism

Democratization

Negotiating an end of the Cold War with the West

Disarmament

Encouragement of similar reforms in Eastern Europe

Gorbachev in Berlin, October 1989

November 1989: the fall of the Berlin Wall, symbol of Cold War division of Europe

Prague, Nov. 1989

Bucharest, Dec. 1989

Moscow, August 1991: hard-liners attempt a coup to stop democratic reforms

The coup is defeated

The Communist regimes maintained peace and stability in Eastern Europe for half a century

They carried out intensive modernization policies Eastern European societies became industrialized, educated,

more egalitarian Resistance to Soviet control fostered nationalist movements Struggle for democracy and human rights went on As societies developed, their ability to challenge the states

grew As the Soviet model stagnated and the West regained its

strength, capitalism began to look more and more attractive By late 1980s, East European communist reforms evolved

into plans for Westernization

Under Gorbachev, Russia recognized that it could no longer offer an alternative to the West

The choice: To reform state socialism into democratic market socialism Or: To abandon socialism altogether and adopt the Western

capitalist model Gorbachev: attempted the first option Post-communist regimes in Eastern Europe opted for

capitalism Yeltsin’s Russia: did the same