early pottery in south china...early pottery found in the yellow and the yangzi river valleys site...

Early Pottery in South China

TRACEY L-D LU

introduction

In this paper, ‘‘early pottery’’ is defined as ceramics dated to approximately10,000 years ago or earlier, which have been discovered from the Japanese Archi-pelago, the Russian Far East, the Yellow and the Yangzi River Valleys, to SouthChina (Tables 1 and 2). Pottery discovered in the Japanese Archipelago are datedto between 15,000 and 12,000 years ago (Tsutsumi 2000), or even up to 17,200b.p. (Kuzmin 2006); those found in the Russian Far East are dated between13,300 and 12,300 years ago, or 16,500–14,100 b.p. (Kuzmin 2006; Zhushchi-khovskaya 1997). Potsherds found in North China are dated to between 12,000and 10,000 years ago (Guo and Li 2000; Zhao et al. 2003), those found in theYangzi River Valley are dated probably up to 18,000 years ago (Boaretto et al.2009), and pottery found in South China is dated to approximately 12,000 yearsago (Institute of Archaeology CASS et al. 2003). It seems that pottery was manu-factured by di¤erent groups in di¤erent natural and cultural contexts at the end ofthe Pleistocene or the beginning of the Holocene1 in various places of East Asia,although it is not clear whether pottery was invented in one center or in multi-centers.

There are many hypotheses on the origin of pottery, including the ‘‘architec-tural hypothesis,’’ the ‘‘culinary hypothesis,’’ which proposes that pottery wasinvented for cooking cereals and/or shells, the ‘‘resources intensification’’ hypoth-esis, and the ‘‘social/symbolic elaboration’’ theory (Rice 1999 : 5–14). However,prehistoric pottery manufactured in di¤erent natural and cultural contexts usuallydi¤ers in terms of morphology, function, and symbolic meanings. Thus, it is nec-essary to carry out an in-depth and contextualized analysis in order to understandthe impetus for, and the consequences of, this technological development in dif-ferent regions.

In North China, potsherds dated between 12,000 and 10,000 years ago havebeen found in three archaeological sites, namely Hutouliang and Nanzhuangtouin Hebei Province, and Donghulin near the present Beijing City (Table 1; Guoand Li 2000; Yan 2000; Zhao et al. 2003). Detailed reports of these sites have notbeen published. However, based on available data, the archaeological assemblagesof the three sites apparently are not the same.

Tracey L-D Lu is a Professor in the Anthropology Department of The Chinese University ofHong Kong Shatin, N.T. Hong Kong.

Asian Perspectives, Vol. 49, No. 1 ( 2011 by the University of Hawai‘i Press.

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Discovered on a terrace of the Sanggan River in Hebei Province, North Chinain the 1990s, the Hutouliang ceramics are fragments of flat-bottomed vessels firedin very low temperatures and without decoration, associated with microblades,microcores, flaked stone implements, ornaments made of shell and antler, bonesof wolf, wild horse, boar, deer, ox, wild goat, and several species of rodents, aswell as the remains of three hearths (Guo and Li 2000). The potsherds have beenproposed to represent fragments of containers dated to around 11,000 years ago(Guo and Li 2000).

Found in the late 1980s and dated to approximately 10,000 to 9000 years ago,the Nanzhuangtou potsherds consist of two di¤erent types of pottery, althoughboth are fired at low temperatures. The first type is crumbled and grayish withcrushed tiny pieces of shell and quartz as inclusions, and cord-mark or appliqué asdecorations, while the second type comprises yellowish brown potsherds of rela-tively more solid walls without decoration (Guo and Li 2000). Other findings atNanzhuangtou include stone grinding slabs and rollers, ground bone arrowheads,drills, and the remains of deer, rodent, wolf, bird, fish, tortoise and shells, as wellas two pits and two hearths (Guo and Li 2000). Charcoal remains have beenfound on the surface of some potsherds (Guo and Li 2000), indicating a possiblecooking function.

Stone and organic artifacts similar to those found in Nanzhuangtou, plus flakedstone tools and shells, large quantities of deer bones and shells, traces of a hearth,and a burial, were found in Donghulin in the 1990s (Zhao et al. 2003). Probablybuilt by slab building with quartz grains as tempering agent, the plain Donghulinpotsherds have been dated to approximately 10,000 years ago (Zhao et al. 2003).

Apparently, potsherds found in the above three sites in North China are asso-ciated with two di¤erent stone toolkits. While the Hutouliang pottery is asso-ciated with the microblade tradition dated from the terminal Pleistocene to theMiddle Holocene in North China, the Japanese Archipelago, and NortheastAmerica (i.e., Gai 1991; Smith 1974), the Nanzhuangtou and Donghulin pot-sherds are discovered together with grinding slabs and rollers, as well as otherstone and organic implements, but without the microblades. Obviously, early pot-tery was produced by prehistoric groups using di¤erent toolkits, although it is notclear at this stage whether the di¤erent toolkits indicate di¤erent subsistence strat-egies.

A similar phenomenon can also be observed in Japan, where early potterydecorated with appliqué is associated with two major lithic traditions, namelythe microblade tradition and the bifacial-flake tradition, the latter sometimeswith edge-ground axes (Ikawa-Smith 1976 : 513). In North China’s context, themicroblade tradition is a toolkit primarily for hunting-gathering activities, butmicroblades with grinding slabs and rollers may indicate a broad spectrum subsis-tence strategy with the possibility of developing into cereal cultivation (Lu 1998).However, while the Hutouliang lithic assemblage seems to suggest that the groupprimarily lived on hunting and gathering, the presence of pottery, if really servingas a storage facility, might suggest a certain degree of sedentism. As the Hutou-liang excavation report has not been published, further discussion is not possibleat this stage.

Grinding slabs and rollers, on the other hand, were often used by people col-lecting and/or cultivating grass seeds in prehistoric North China (Lu 1999, 2006).

asian perspectives . 49(1) . spring 20106

Although details of the Nanzhuangtou and Donghulin sites are not yet available,the toolkits found in the two sites suggest that grass exploitation might have beenpart of the subsistence strategies, while the burial at Donghulin with grave goodsindicates the possibility of sedentism.

Early pottery has also been found in Xianrendong and Diaotonghuan in JiangxiProvince, Yuchanyan in Hunan Province, and Shangshan in Zhejiang Province,all located in the Yangzi River Valley (Table 1; Jiang and Liu 2006; Yan 2000).The potsherds of Xianrendong and Diaotonghuan are dated to more than 12,000years ago (Zhang 2000), the Yuchanyan potsherds, previously dated to between12,320G 120 and 14,810G 230 years ago (Yuan 2000), have now been dated to18,000 years ago (Boaretto et al. 2009), and the Shangshan potsherds are dated toapproximately 10,000–9000 years ago ( Jiang and Liu 2006).

Xianrendong, Diaotonghuan, and Yuchanyan are all cave sites, and the stonetoolkits found in these sites consist of both pebble tools and small flaked toolsmade of quartz, flint, and crystal. Large quantities of terrestrial animal, fish, andbird remains have been found in the three sites, as well as rice phytoliths (Yuan2000; Zhang 2000; Zhao 1998). Zhao (1998) has argued that the early Xianren-dong and Diaotonghuan occupants were rice collectors, and the succeeding oc-cupants became rice cultivators, while Yuan (2000) also argues for rice cultivationat Yuchanyan.

Shangshan, on the other hand, is an open site located on a small mound in theYangzi Delta. Discovered in 2001 and excavated since then, the site has yieldedpits, postholes, flaked stone tools, stone balls, grinding slabs, and pottery vesselswith rice husks as inclusions ( Jiang and Liu 2006). It has been argued that Shang-shan was a sedentary site and rice was domesticated ( Jiang and Liu 2006). It seemsthat early pottery found in the Yangzi River Valley were produced and used byprehistoric groups, who were probably rice collectors and/or cultivators.

While early pottery found in the Yellow and the Yangzi River Valleys mighthave facilitated grass seed processing and consumption, which in turn acceleratedextensive grass-seed collection as a prelude to cultivation (Lu 1999, 2005), potteryfound in the Russian Far East might have related to fishing and fish oil processing,and those found in the Japanese Archipelago might have been used for cookingvarious food ingredients and processing nuts (Ikawa-Smith 1976; Tsutsumi 2000).In summary, early ceramics were manufactured and used, more or less contem-poraneously, by groups living on diversified subsistence strategies in geographicregions from cold-temperate, temperate, and subtropical to tropical ecozones inprehistoric East Asia after the Last Glacial Maximum, and served various functions(Lu 2005), manifesting the diversity of human cultures adapting to di¤erentenvironments.

It is also worth noting that the early pottery in North China and the JapaneseArchipelago occurred after the florescence of the microblade tradition, the latterexemplifying not only a technical development of e‰ciently utilizing naturalresources for tool making, but also a broad-spectrum subsistence strategy, includ-ing the collection of nuts and/or wild grasses, in the period between the terminalPleistocene and the early Holocene (Ikawa-Smith 1976; Lu 1999, 2005). InNorth China, early pottery is also associated with grinding slabs and rollers. Allthese are important cultural changes in the transitional period from the terminalPleistocene to the early Holocene in East Asia (Lu 1999, 2005). Further, the

lu . early pottery in south china 7

occurrences of early pottery in so many geographically and climatically di¤erentregions in East Asia may suggest prehistoric human diaspora and/or culturalexchanges, which is an issue requiring considerable in-depth typological studiesand NAA analysis of pottery in the future.

Undoubtedly, early ceramics found in all the above sites are very important,and those found in the Yellow and the Yangzi River Valleys might have relatedto the origin of agriculture. However, details of the aforementioned archaeologi-cal sites in the Yellow and the Yangzi Valleys have not been published. There-fore, this article will focus on the natural and cultural contexts, the chronology,and the characteristics of the early pottery found in South China dated to approx-imately 12,000–10,000 years ago, and the driving force and significance of the or-igin of pottery in respect to the prehistoric cultural developments in South Chinaand adjacent areas. Although pottery in South China may not be the earliest interms of absolute dates, it illustrates the process of the origin and development ofpottery in the prehistoric epoch in this region in terms of both manufacturingtechnique and typological evolution. Thus an analysis of the early pottery inSouth China will provide new insights for our understanding of the origin anddevelopment of pottery in East Asia.

the natural context

In this article, South China refers to the present administrative areas south of theFive Mountain Range, consisting of the present Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian,and Hainan Provinces, and the two special administrative regions of Hong Kongand Macau (Zhang and Fu 1997) (see Fig. 1). Generally speaking, this is a sub-tropical to tropical landmass, with a precipitation of over 1600 mm, and very richand diversified natural resources (Zhang and Fu 1997). Geographically, both thenorthern and central areas of South China are hilly with limestone bedrocks andcaves, but the southern part is quite flat. The Pearl River, which is the majorwater resource in this area, runs through the southern part of South China (Fig.1). In the northern part, there are several small rivers and streams, like the ZiRiver and the Hongshui River, which are tributaries of the Yangzi and the PearlRiver, respectively (Fig. 1). These rivers are channels for human diaspora and cul-tural exchange within South China and between South China and adjacent areas.

Since the 1980s, many scholars have been working on the prehistoric environ-ment and human exploitation of natural resources in this area. Pollen analysishas been conducted at the Niulandong, Miaoyan, Zengpiyan, and Dingsishanarchaeological sites, as well as in other natural deposits in Guangdong, Guangxi,and Hainan Provinces (i.e., Chen 1999; Lu 2003a; Yuan et al. 1999; Zheng2000). Stalagmitic analysis has been conducted in several caves in northern SouthChina. Animal remains discovered in several caves also provide useful information.

The results of these analyses indicate that, after the Last Glacial Maximum, theclimate in South China gradually became mild and warm (Liu 1997; Lu 2003a,2008; Zheng 2000). There was a sudden cool change at around 11,000 years agocomparable to the Younger Dryas in Europe, but the temperature increased andreached a similar level to that of the present by 10,000 years ago (ibid.). Ever-green and deciduous trees, various species of fern, and the grass family have beenfound in both natural and archaeological deposits dated from 12,000 years on-


ward, many of which bear edible seeds, nuts, stems, leaves, or roots, or can beused for medical treatments or textile manufacturing (Lu 2003a, 2008; Zheng2000).

Remains of tubers, including taro [Colocasia sp. (L.) Sohott], have been dis-covered in cultural deposits dated from 12,000 to 7000 years ago in the Zengpi-yan cave by flotation and starch residue analysis, although a more precise identifi-cation of wild or domesticated species is not feasible (Lu 2003b; Zhao 2003).Flotation and pollen analysis suggest that there were more than 20 genera and/orspecies of plants, including Asian plum (Prunus mume Sieb et Zucc), Alchornea,hickory (Carya sp.), wild grape (Vitis sp.), Castanopsis, bamboo (Bambuscideae),legumes (Leguminosae), crucifers (Cruciferae), several other species of the grassfamily (Gramieae), pine (Pinus sp.), acorn (Quercus sp.), soapberry and soapnuts(Sapindus sp.), tree ferns (Cibotium sp.), and a few species of ferns available toprehistoric peoples (Lu 2003b, 2009a; Zhao 2003). These plants would have pro-vided edible parts, being tubers, fruits, leaves, or seeds, in di¤erent seasons to pre-historic people in South China.

Zooarchaeological studies conducted at Niulandong, Miaoyan, and Zengpiyanalso manifest very rich animal species in the region. Based on published data, themost commonly found species in archaeological deposits in South China areseveral species of deer and freshwater shellfish (Yingde City Museum et al. 1999;Institute of Archaeology CASS et al. 2003; Zhang et al. 1999) (Table 3). At

Fig. 1. Archaeological sites mentioned in the text: 1. Xianrendong, Diaotonghuan; 2. Yuchanyan;3–5. Dayan, Zengpiyan, and Miaoyan, all in the present Guilin City; 6. Niulandong; 7. Liyuzui;8. Dingsishan.


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.G

oose

þP

has

ianid

aeþ

Gal

lus

sp.

Wild

chic

ken

þP

hasi

anus

sp.

Ph

easa

nt

þC

ora

chfo

rmes

Eury

stom

us

cf.

orie

nta

lis

Eas

tern

bro

ad-

bille

dro

ller

þ

Aves

indet

.þ

Mam

mal

iaM

amm

als

Inse

ctiv

ora

Inse

ctiv

ore

sC

roci

dura

ssp

.þ

Riv

ers,

stre

ams,

ponds,

and

wet

land

Chir

opte

raB

ats

Cav

esIa

ioþ

Hip

posi

dero

sar

miq

erþ

Pri

mat

esH

ylob

ates

sp.

Gib

bon

þSubtr

opic

alfo

rest

,lo

wla

nd,

and

hills

Mac

aca

mula

tta

Short

-tai

lm

acaq

ue

sp.

sp.

þ"

"

Roden

tia

Apo

dem

usFie

ldm

ou

seþ

Var

ious:

step

pe,

dry

land,

etc.

Mic

rotu

sbr

andt

ioid

esþ

Mic

rom

yscf.

Min

utu

sE

ura

sian

har

ves

tm

ouse

þ

Rat

tus

sp.

Rat

þþ

þH

um

anco

mm

ensa

lR

attu

scd

uar

dsi

þN

iviv

ente

rfu

lves

cens

Ches

tnu

tw

hit

e-bel

lied

rat

þ

Hys

trix

brac

hynra

subr

ista

taþ

þsp

.þ

Subtr

opic

alar

ea

(Con

tinued

)

Ta

ble

3(C

ontinued

)

spec

ies

eng

lish

na

me

zen

gpi

ya

ni

zen

gpi

ya

nii

mia

oy

an

niu

lan

do

ng

ha

bita

ta

nd

ch

ara

cte

rist

ics

Ath

eruru

ssp

.R

atþ

þR

hizom

yssi

nen

sis

Bam

boo

rat

þþ

sp.

sp.

Subtr

opic

albam

boo

stan

ds

Lep

ori

dae

Var

ious:

step

pe,

fore

stL

epus

sp.

Har

eþ

þþ

þM

amm

alia

Mam

mal

sC

arniv

ora

þþ

Can

idae

Ailuro

poda

mel

anol

euca

fove

alis

Gia

nt

pan

da

þB

amboo

and

fore

st

Urs

us

thib

etan

usB

lack

bea

rþ

þM

ois

tdec

iduo

us

fore

stA

rcto

nyx

collar

isH

og

bad

ger

þþ

þFo

rest

up

to3500

mel

evat

ion.

Wei

ght

714

kg

Viv

erra

sp.

Ori

enta

lci

vet

þFo

rest

,bush

/mea

dow

s.W

eight

5–

11

kg.

Lutr

asp

.R

iver

ott

ers

þFre

shw

ater

river

san

dst

ream

sP

anth

era

tigr

isT

iger

þþ

Fo

rest

tosa

van

na.

Pan

ther

asp

.L

eopar

dþ

Var

ious

Vulp

essp

.F

ox

þH

illy

/fore

star

eas

Must

ela

sp.

Po

leca

tþ

þþ

Ste

ppe

Viv

erri

cula

mal

acen

sis

foss

ilis

Ras

seþ

Fo

rest

,bush

/mea

dow

s.W

eight

2–

4kg

Pag

um

asp

.M

asked

pal

mci

vet

þ(S

ub)t

ropic

alfo

rest

Fel

iste

mm

inck

iG

old

cat

þV

ario

us

Fel

ism

icro

dus

Sm

all

wild

cat

sp.

sp.

sp.

þN

ycte

reute

spr

ocyo

noi

des

Rac

coo

ndo

gþ

þþ

sp.

Riv

erval

ley,

fore

st,

and

step

pe

Mel

esm

eles

Bad

ger

þFo

rest

and

den

sely

veg

etat

edar

eas

Art

iodac

tyla

Bovi

nae

Buba

lus

sp.

Bu¤

alo

þþ

þM

ois

tbush

/fore

stB

ison

sp.

Ox

þ

(Con

tinued

)

Cer

vus

uni

colo

rSam

bar

þþ

Var

ious.

Pre

fer

wooded

area

.W

eight

109

–260

kg

Cer

vus

nip

pon

Sik

adee

rþ

þFo

rest

/gra

ss.

Wei

gh

t26

–33

kg

Cer

vus

sp.

AL

arge

dee

rþ

þW

oo

dla

nd

of

tem

p.–

subtr

opic

al.

Wei

ght

45

–109

kg

Cer

vus

sp.

BM

ediu

m-s

ized

dee

rþ

þ

Cer

vus

sp.

CSm

all-

size

ddee

r1

þþ

Cer

vus

sp.

DSm

all-

size

ddee

r2

þL

ijia

ngo

ceru

ssp

ecio

sus

Lijia

ng

dee

rþ

Hyd

ropo

tes

sp.

Chin

ese

wat

erdee

rþ

(Sub)t

ropic

alri

ver

/lak

esid

eor

gra

ssy

mounta

ins

Pse

uda

xis

sp.

þM

untiac

us

muntjak

Muntj

acþ

þFo

rest

/den

seveg

etat

edar

eas

wit

hw

ater

Cap

rinae

indet

.þ

Cap

rico

rnis

sum

atra

ensi

sSum

antr

ase

row

þsp

.R

ugged

mounta

ins/

fore

stri

dge/

bush

Sus

scro

faW

ild

boar

þFo

rest

Sus

sp.

þþ

þþ

Tota

lver

tebra

te23

24

16

37

Tota

lsp

ecie

s33

*34

*30

**

37

**

*

Sourc

es:

Chen

1999;

Inst

itute

of

Arc

hae

olo

gy

CA

SS

etal

.2003;

Zhan

get

al.

1999.

*O

nly

spec

ies

found

inth

efi

rst

and

seco

nd

phas

esof

Zen

gpiy

anar

elist

edher

e.A

tota

lof

47

spec

ies

of

shell,

20

spec

ies

of

bir

d,

37

spec

ies

of

mam

mal

,plu

sfi

sh,

etc.

,hav

ebee

nfo

und

inth

ew

hole

stra

tum

atZ

engp

iyan

,to

taling

108

spec

ies.

**

Ther

ear

efo

ur

laye

rsin

Mia

oyan

but

the

cult

ura

lch

ronolo

gy

isno

tre

port

ed.

The

spec

ies

list

edher

ear

efr

om

the

whole

stra

tum

.*

**

Only

mam

mal

shav

ebee

nre

port

edfo

rth

eN

iula

ndong

Cav

e.

Ta

ble

4.

Co

mpa

rin

gP

ott

ery

Ves

sels

an

dA

sso

cia

ted

Arc

ha

eolo

gic

al

Rem

ain

sin

the

Ya

ng

ziR

iver

Va

lley

an

dS

ou

thC

hin

a

the

ya

ng

ziri

ver

va

lley

sou

thc

hin

a

site

s/d

ate

pott

ery

type

s

ass

oc

iate

d

arc

ha

eolo

gic

al

rem

ain

ssi

tes/

da

tepo

tter

yv

esse

ls

ass

oc

iate

da

rch

aeo

log

ica

l

rem

ain

s

Xia

nre

ndon

gC

ave,

pre

-cer

amic

,18,0

00

–14,0

00

b.p.

?

Not

pre

sent

Fla

ked

peb

ble

tools

,sm

all

lith

icflak

es,

pie

rced

shel

lan

dgro

und

bone

imple

men

ts

Day

anC

ave,

Phas

eI;

Upper

Pal

aeolith

ic,

15,0

00

b.p.

?

Not

pre

sen

tF

laked

unif

acia

lpeb

ble

too

ls,

smal

lam

ount

of

anim

albones

and

fres

hw

ater

shel

ls

Xia

nre

ndon

g,

13,0

00

b.p.

?T

ransi

tional

?

No

rest

ora

ble

ves

sels

Peb

ble

and

smal

llith

icflak

es,

gro

und

bon

ean

dpie

rced

shel

lto

ols

,ri

cephyto

lith

,sh

ells

,an

imal

bones

,et

c.

Day

anP

has

eII

,13,0

00

–12,0

00

b.p.

;tr

ansi

tion

alper

iod

Tw

opie

ces

of

fire

clay

Peb

ble

tools

,gro

und

bone

and

pie

rced

shel

lto

ols

,sh

ells

,w

ild

anim

albones

,tw

oflex

edbu

rial

sw

ith

ou

tgra

ve

go

ods

Yuch

anyan

Cav

e,13,0

00

–12,0

00

or

18,0

00

b.p.

?

Round-b

ott

om

fu,

wal

lsu

pto

2cm

thic

k;

incl

usi

ons—

char

coal

and

quar

tz;

cord

-mar

kon

inte

rio

ran

dex

teri

or

Peb

ble

and

smal

llith

icflak

es,

gro

und

bon

ean

dpie

rced

shel

lim

ple

men

ts,

rice

husk

and

ph

ytolith

,sh

ells

,an

imal

bones

,et

c.

Day

an,

Phas

eII

I,Z

engpiy

anP

has

eI,

Mia

oyan

,12,0

00

–11,0

00

b.p.

?

Round-b

ott

om

fuby

han

dpin

chin

g,w

alls

up

to3.6

cmth

ick;

cord

-mar

k‘‘w

iped

out’’

Peb

ble

tools

,gro

und

bone

and

pie

rced

shel

lto

ols

,sh

ells

,w

ild

anim

albones

and

pla

nts

;ri

cephyto

lith

Shan

gsh

an,

open

site

,Z

hej

iang,

10,0

00

–8000

b.p.

?

Fu,

pot,

big

bas

ins

wit

hflar

ing

up

fro

ma

smal

lan

dflat

bott

om

;so

me

wit

hco

rd-m

ark,

stam

pin

g,

and

inci

sio

n

Fla

kes

and

peb

ble

tools

,so

me

gro

und

too

ls;

rem

ains

of

pile

hole

s,ri

cephyto

lith

,gra

ins,

etc.

Zen

gpiy

anP

has

eII

,D

ingsi

shan

Phas

eI,

10,0

00

–9000

b.p.

Fu

and/o

rro

und-

bott

om

po

t;sl

abbuildin

g;in

clusi

on-

calc

ite;

cord

-mar

k;

appliqué

and

inci

sion

Peb

ble

tools

,gro

und

bone

and

pie

rced

shel

lto

ols

,sh

ells

,w

ild

anim

albones

;te

kti

teflak

esfo

und

inD

ingsi

shan

(Con

tinued

)

Pen

gto

ush

anan

dB

ashid

ang

9000

–8000

b.p.

Pla

nt

asin

clusi

on;

fuan

dro

un

d-b

ott

om

po

t,st

and,

pla

te,

bow

l,bas

in,

dis

h,

and

trip

od

ves

sels

;han

dpin

chin

gan

dsl

abbu

ildin

g

Fla

ked

and

gro

und

ston

eto

ols

,ri

cegra

ins,

dom

esti

cate

d(?

)pig

,ox,

and

chic

ken

,w

ild

anim

alan

dfi

shbo

nes,

ho

use

s/vi

llag

e,bu

rial

sw

ith

sto

ne

or

po

tter

yas

gra

ve

goods;

pro

tect

ive

dit

ch

Day

anP

has

eIV

,Z

engpiy

anP

has

eII

I,9000

–8000

b.p.

Fu

and/o

rro

und-

bott

om

pot;

calc

ite

and

quar

tzas

incl

usi

ons;

cord

-m

ark;

appliqué

and

inci

sion;

rela

tivel

yhig

hfi

ring

tem

per

ature

Peb

ble

tools

,occ

urr

ence

of

gro

un

dst

one

axe

and

adze

,gro

un

dbone

and

pie

rced

shel

lto

ols

;w

ild

anim

albo

nes

and

fres

hw

ater

shel

ls

Zao

shi

and

Hujiaw

uch

ang

8000

–7000

b.p.

Fin

epott

ery;

whit

e,gra

yis

hw

hit

e,an

dpai

nte

dpott

ery;

pla

tew

ith

ring

foo

t,po

ts,

fu,

bas

in,

dis

h,

bo

wl,

lid

and

stan

d

Gro

und

stone

axes

,kniv

es,

adze

s,ch

isel

s;ri

cere

mai

ns,

dom

esti

cate

d(?

)pig

,w

ater

bu

¤al

o,

go

at;

wild

anim

alan

dfi

shbones

,sh

ells

,house

s;kiln?

Zen

gpiy

anP

has

eIV

,D

ingsi

shan

Phas

esII

and

III,

8000

–7000

b.p.

Fu,

rou

nd-b

ott

om

pot;

tech

niq

ues

sim

ilar

topre

vio

us

on

es;

wal

lsth

inner

;on

lyco

rd-m

ark

pre

sent

Peb

ble

and

gro

und

tools

,gr

ound

bone

and

pie

rced

shel

lto

ols

;w

ild

anim

albon

esan

dsh

ells

;fo

ur

squ

atti

ng

buri

als

wit

ho

ut

gra

ve

goo

ds

bu

tw

ith

sto

nes

(Zen

gpiy

an);

vari

ous

buri

als

atD

ings

ishan

wit

hlim

ited

gra

ve

goods

Tan

gjia

gan

g6600

–6200

b.p.

Fu,

pot,

urn

,bas

in,

pla

te,

hig

h-f

oote

dcu

p,

bo

wls

,tr

ipo

dves

sel,

stan

dan

dlid

Fla

ked

and

gro

und

ston

eax

es,

adze

s,ch

isel

s,sp

ades

,ab

rader

s,sp

indle

whorl

s;buri

als

wit

hpott

ery

asm

ajor

gra

ve

goods

Day

anP

has

eV

,Z

engpiy

anP

has

eV

,7000

–6000

b.p.

Fin

epott

ery;

fu,

pot,

pla

tes

wit

hri

ng

foot,

bow

ls,

bas

ins,

stan

ds

Gro

und

ston

eto

ols

;ei

ght

flex

edbu

rial

sw

ith

sto

ne,

bo

ne,

and

shel

lto

ols

asgra

vegoods

inD

ayan

;n

opott

ery

bu

ried

wit

hth

edea

d

Dax

i6400

–5300

b.p.

Fu

,pot,

jar,

bas

in,

bow

l,pla

te,

etc.

Open

site

s;gro

und

stone

tools

;ho

use

s,buri

als

wit

hgra

ve

goods

Din

gsi

shan

Ph

ase

IV,

Xia

ojin

Phas

eII

,6000

–5000

b.p.

Gra

yis

hw

hit

ece

ram

icD

om

esti

cate

dri

ce.

Wel

l-gr

ound

sto

ne

too

ls.

Ric

egra

ins

and

phyto

lith

Sourc

es:

Fu

2004;

Hunan

Inst

itute

of

Arc

hae

olo

gy

1993,

1999;

Jian

gan

dL

iu2006.

Miaoyan, more than 65 percent of animal bones are remains of several species ofdeer, dominated by sika deer and sambar (Zhang et al. 1999 : 187). The quantityof shell remains increased substantially in Dayan, Zengpiyan, and other depositsdated to after 12,000 years ago, suggesting that shellfish became an importantfood resource for human beings (Table 4). It seems that there were abundant ter-restrial animals and freshwater shellfish as resources for people living in SouthChina after the Last Glacial Maximum.

To summarize, the natural context of early pottery in South China was a sub-tropical to tropical environment with rich and diversified natural resources. Theprehistoric residents in this area could have exploited plant and animal species liv-ing in di¤erent habitats and available in di¤erent seasons. Based on the author’sexperiments, if a person relied on plant roots (taro, yam, and bamboo shoots,etc.) and shellfish as his/her staple food, he/she only needed to spend about 2–3hours daily on subsistence activities, and any return from hunting would be anextra bonus (Lu 2006). It seems that people living in South China from the ter-minal Pleistocene to the early Holocene were ‘‘a¿uent foragers’’ supported byabundant and relatively easy access to diversified natural resources, the seasonalityof which would have been quite stable.

the archaeological context

Based on archaeological discoveries to date, the peopling of South China can betraced back to at least the Pleistocene era (Xie 2006). The archaeological remainsdated from the Middle to the Upper Pleistocene in South China are characterizedby pebble tools made by direct percussion (He 1988), which belonged to thepebble tool industry in the vast areas from the Yangzi River Valley to mainlandSoutheast Asia and lasted well into the Holocene in South China.

Archaeological data presented in this article come primarily from several ar-chaeological sites discovered since the 1980s, and dated from the terminal Pleisto-cene to the early Holocene in South China, namely the cave sites of Dayan, Liyu-zui, Niulandong, Miaoyan, and Zengpiyan in the north, and the shellmidden siteDingsishan in the south (Table 2). All of the cave sites are situated in hilly areas,whereas Dingsishan is located on top of a terrace along the Yong River near thepresent Nanning City, Guangxi Province. Based on the stratigraphies and findingsof these sites, a chronology of the local archaeological cultures in this area can beproposed.

The terminal Pleistocene of about 15,000 years ago can be illustrated by thebottom deposit of Dayan, in which unifacial pebble tools produced by direct per-cussion and a small amount of animal bones and freshwater shells have been dis-covered. In the succeeding layers dated to between 13,000 and 12,000 years ago,pebble tools still dominated, but grinding occurred as a new technique and wasinitially used to produce bone and shell implements, associated with two piecesof fired clay. A small amount of animal bone and shell have also been found.This phase is defined as a transitional period from the Palaeolithic to the Neo-lithic, characterized by the occurrence of grinding techniques and fired clay (Fu2004). Flaked pebble tools and ground bone and pierced shell implements havebeen found in layers dated to 12,000 and 10,000 years ago in both Dayan and the


bottom layer of Zengpiyan, as well as substantial amount of animal and shell re-mains, and early pottery (Fu 2004) (Table 2).

Thus the toolkit associated with early pottery in South China and adjacentareas consists of pebble tools, ground bone tools, and pierced shell implements.This toolkit dominated the prehistoric cultures in this region from approximately12,000 to 7000 years ago (Table 4). The author’s preliminary use-wear analysisindicates that the bone drills might have been used to deal with plant and othersoft materials (Lu 2003c). Meanwhile, the occurrence of pierced shell implementsis also worth noting. Based on ethnographic data in Japan, MacNeish proposedthat the pierced shell implements might have been used to cut grass, even rice(MacNeish 1998 : 19). Recently, rice and millet remains, as well as shell reapingknives, have been found in Taiwan, and a similar function has been assigned tothe shell knives (Tsang 2005). Rice phytoliths have been found in Zengpiyan andthe early phases of Dayan, but it remains unclear whether rice was collected forfood or for other purposes, and the function of the pierced shell implementsrequires further investigation. Nevertheless, these new implements must havebeen made in that period to meet new demands for subsistence strategies and/orother purposes.

Remains of plants, nuts, and animal bone indicate that the prehistoric groups atthis time were mainly hunters and gatherers (Fu 2004; He 1988; Yuan 2000).Two burials have been found in Phase II of the Dayan assemblage, contempora-neous to the fired clay (Fu 2004). No grave goods have been discovered. On theother hand, several natural stones had been placed on the skull and the limbs ofthe dead (Fu et al. 2001), which may indicate some beliefs or rituals not compre-hensible to us at present. This type of burial has also been found in Zengpiyandated to 8000–7000 years ago (Table 4).

Grave goods did not occur in the Guilin area in South China until around7000–6000 years ago (Table 4). Whether the presence of grave goods indicatesreduced mobility, conceptual changes about death and afterlife, or the emergenceof the notion of private ownership, or all of the above; and whether such changeswere the results of local development or cultural contact with other areas, remainunclear. Whatever the case, no grave goods have been found prior to 8000 b.p. inthe Guilin area. While grave goods have been found in Phase V of the Dayanassemblages, which is dated to about 7000 years ago, the quantity and quality ofthese grave goods between burials are not significant.

Further, archaeological data to date suggest that the toolkits and other remainsfound in South China from 12,000 to 7000 years ago were without much changeexcept the occurrence of ground stone tools (Table 4), although the techniques ofmaking these tools as well as making pottery somehow developed during thislong span of time. In Dayan and Zengpiyan, no special treatments, decorations,or any other special labor/e¤orts have been detected on any stone or organicimplements dated prior to 7000 years ago. Thus, none of them can be identifiedas bearing special meanings or symbols, which, if present, may indicate the exis-tence of individuals holding special social status. The artifacts found in Dayan andZengpiyan seem to have been produced by regular methods including direct per-cussion and/or grinding, and have been used for practical purposes by members ofthese groups. Therefore, there seems to be no visible evidence for the occurrence


of stratified societies in South China before 7000 years ago, when early potterywas manufactured in this region.

In summary, the above archaeological data indicate that, up to the MiddleHolocene or 7000 years ago, the prehistoric societies in northern South Chinawere not stratified, and the early pottery dated to between 12,000 and 10,000years ago was made by egalitarian societies living in caves and subsisting throughhunting and gathering.

early pottery in south china

The origin and development of pottery from fired clay to shaped vessels in prehis-toric South China can be best illustrated by the stratigraphy and associated dis-coveries in Dayan and Zengpiyan (Table 4). As mentioned above, two pieces offired clay have been found in Phase II of the Dayan assemblage, one piece beingcylindrical and another one dish-like with a concave surface (Fu 2004). Althoughnot vessels, they apparently had been manipulated by human beings into certainshapes and had been fired. Details of these two pieces have not been published,but they apparently manifest an attempt to combine clay, water, and fire to pro-duce a new material, and should be viewed as a prelude to the origin of pottery.

After the occurrence of the two fired clay objects, potsherds occurred in PhaseIII in Dayan and Phase I in Zengpiyan, representing the earliest ceramics in SouthChina to date. Pottery of this initial period is characterized by very thick andcrumbled walls up to between 2.9 and 3.6 cm, with un-sieved, often coarse,crushed calcite or quartz as tempering agent, and a cracked surface without in-tended decoration (Fig. 2). The potsherds are built by hand-pinching, and werefired in temperatures of approximately 600–700 �C, with the earliest ones foundin Zengpiyan fired at probably below 250 �C (Fig. 2; Wu et al. 2003). The ear-liest pottery is often plain, but traces of pressed marks of plant stems have beenfound on certain parts of the surface, which might have been remains of the‘‘wiping o¤ ’’ or ‘‘smoothing o¤ ’’ e¤orts made by the prehistoric potters’ hands,signs that these marks were not intended decoration. All of these characteristicsindicate a very initial stage of pottery manufacturing. Based on cross-comparisonbetween potsherds found in the Yangzi River Valley and those in South China, aswell as results of radiocarbon dating, the early pottery manufactured in SouthChina is dated to approximately between 12,000 to 11,000 years ago (Institute ofArchaeology CASS et al. 2003).

The quantity of potsherds found in this early stage is often very limited, andonly one type of round-bottom pot can be reconstructed, known as a fu or potin Chinese archaeology (Fig. 2; Institute of Archaeology CASS et al. 2003). Todate, this type of vessel is the dominant utensil found in all the aforementionedarchaeological assemblages by 7000 years ago in South China. It was not untilaround 7000–6000 years b.p. that other types of pottery vessels occurred in SouthChina, such as jars, plates with a high ring foot, basins, and bowls, the latter threeusually used for serving food. This typological assemblage is quite di¤erent fromthat in the neighboring Yangzi River Valley, where fu also occurred by 12,000years ago or earlier as the only vessel (Yuan 2000), but various pots, bowls, dishes,and plates occurred by 8500 years ago (Pei 2000). This ceramic monomorphismin South China will be discussed further in the following sections.


Fig. 2. Early pottery found in Zengpiyan, South China. Top: potsherds found in Zengpiyan dated toapproximately 12,000 years ago (not to scale). Bottom: restored fu found in Zengpiyan dated to ap-proximately 12,000 years ago (scale–1 : 3). (Courtesy of Institute of Archaeology CASS et al. 2003)

While potsherds found in Phase III in Dayan and Phase I in Zengpiyan (Table4) represent the initial phase of pottery manufacturing in South China, potsherdsfrom the ensuing Phase II of the Zengpiyan assemblage bear some advanced char-acteristics. Slab building occurred as a new technique for vessel construction inthis period, and became the major technique for pottery manufacturing in thesucceeding Neolithic cultures in the region. The pottery walls were often thin-ner, and the grains of the tempering agent became smaller, although crushedcalcite was still the major material of the latter. The concept of decoration alsomade its appearance during this period, as the marks on pottery surfaces were nolonger ‘‘wiped o¤ ’’ by the potters; further, they seem to be in a relatively regularpattern.

Potsherds with similar characteristics have also been found in other areas innorthern Guangdong and southern Guangxi, such as in the Niulandong andDingsishan sites (Fig. 1), representing the second phase of ceramic developmentin South China. Low relief was present in Dingsishan (Table 4) as a clear indica-tion of decoration. However, when comparing these potsherds found in SouthChina to those found in the Pengtoushan and Bashidang assemblages in the mid-dle Yangzi River Valley, the former still have thicker and more crumbled walls,the inclusions are coarser, and the firing temperature lower. Based on culturalcomparison and radiocarbon dating, the second phase of ceramic development inSouth China should be between approximately 10,000 and 9000 years ago.

In summary, archaeological data to date suggest that pottery was manufacturedin South China by 12,000 years ago. As the process from fired clay to shaped ves-sels is clearly illustrated in Dayan, and the potsherds found in Dayan and Zeng-piyan bear the most ‘‘primitive’’ characteristics of ceramics, it seems that SouthChina is one of the places where pottery was indigenously made.

After its initial appearance, pottery manufacturing expanded to adjacent areas,and the techniques developed further in the ensuing Neolithic cultures, illustratedby relatively thinner walls, the application of the slab building method, sievedinclusions, comparatively higher firing temperature, and probably the initial oc-currence of decoration. However, the typological diversity and technological de-velopment of pottery in South China seem to have di¤ered from that in theYangzi River Valley until 7000 years ago, when the cultural influences of the lat-ter seem to have arrived in South China (Table 4). While di¤erent ceramic devel-opments in terms of typological diversity, decoration motifs and manufacturingtechniques in South China and the Yangzi River Valley further suggest that pot-tery was made independently in South China, the causes of this di¤erence shouldbe examined further.

discussion

Undoubtedly, the origin of pottery is a significant technological development.It may also indicate changes in other aspects of prehistoric cultures. Recentarchaeological discoveries in South China have provided novel informationto help us understand not only the chronological origin and development ofpottery, but also the impetus, the manufacturing process, and the natural andcultural contexts of this event. Meanwhile, more questions arise from these newdiscoveries.


Chronology

In South China, the majority of early potsherds are from cave sites, and all of thecave sites are located in limestone areas, which is problematic for radiocarbon dat-ing. Samples from all the sites listed in Table 4 have been subjected to 14C dating,and some of the results have been published (Table 5), but many of them are notconvincing. For example, a shell sample from trench No. 5, Layer 3 [T5 (3)] inNiulandong gave a result of 16,000 years b.p., but a bone sample from the samelayer only yields an absolute date of 7910 years b.p. (Table 5). Similar discrepan-cies can be observed in other dates that were run on bones and shells in Niulan-dong (Table 5). In another site, Miaoyan, dating was run on shell samples only,and some of the dates are not in sequence. While three samples from Layer 2 pro-duce a time range between 13,547 and 12,707 years b.p., one sample from theunderlying Layer 3 gives a younger date of 12,630 b.p. (Table 5).

Radiocarbon dating in limestone areas has been troublesome since its first ap-plication. In an attempt to solve this problem, the laboratories of the Institute ofArchaeology CASS, and the Archaeology Department, Beijing University con-ducted detailed sample gathering and testing in South China in the mid-1980s.The outcome is that 14C dates run on freshwater shells often produce much olderreadings than the true age of the samples, mainly due to the ‘‘contamination ofdead radiocarbon’’ (Yuan 1993). On the other hand, dating on grass, charcoal,and bones of animals fed on terrestrial resources may be close to their true ages;however, dating on bones of animals fed on water resources is also problematic(Yuan 1993). As the researchers were not certain about the standard di¤erencesbetween results tested on shells and that on other materials, no fixed value ofadjustments were provided, although it was proposed that dates on shell samplescould be a few hundred to 2500 years older then they actually were (Yuan1993). Up to that time, there were no reliable solutions for the problem of radio-carbon dating in limestone areas (Yuan 1993).

As discussed above, the dates’ testing on shells in Niulandong is more than7000 years older than that on bones, which means that the deviation on shellsamples could be much greater than 2500 years if the dates on bones are to betrusted (Table 5). Further, not all bones are reliable. As large amounts of shellhave been found in all of the cave sites in South China, it is highly probable thatfreshwater shellfish were a staple food of prehistoric human groups living in lime-stone areas from the beginning to the Middle Holocene. Based on the aforemen-tioned research outcome, bones of humans ingesting freshwater species can beproblematic, as they tend to yield dates older than their true age. On the otherhand, terrestrial animal bones may be more reliable (Yuan 1993).

Given the relative reliability of radiocarbon dates run on terrestrial animalbones, the six dates from Layers 3–8 in Trench No. 5 in the Niulandong assem-blage may be accurate. These six dates and their corresponding layers are con-sistent, and the dates are in a good sequence (Table 6). However, with the un-certainty of dating in limestone areas in mind, the excavators of Niulandongproposed that Phase I belonged to the Upper Palaeolithic epoch, and should bebetween 12,000 and 11,000 years ago; Phase II should be Mesolithic and datedbetween 11,000 and 10,000 years ago; and Phase III should be Neolithic anddated between 10,000 and 8000 years ago (Yingdeshi Bowuguan deng 1999). As


Ta

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KW

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11,3

20G

240

Ibid

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7(3

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imal

bon

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nven

tional

KW

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12,4

10G

250

Ibid

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has

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T5

(5)

anim

albon

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nven

tional

KW

G,

9320G

110

Ibid

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5(6

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tional

KW

G,

10,3

20G

200

Ibid

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1(6

)sh

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BK

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200

Ibid

.P

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I(1)

T5

(3)

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nven

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KW

G,

7910G

100

Ibid

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16,7

80G

300

Ibid

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5(4

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8940G

100

Ibid

.T

9(3

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8150G

120

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60G

150

Ibid

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1(4

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35G

100

Ibid

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3(2

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25G

200

Ibid

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9(3

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14,5

60G

350

Ibid

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100

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40G

100

Ibid

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oca

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3,

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tional

BK

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80

Ibid

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1(1

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BK

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70G

100

Ibid

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iaoyan

Lay

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ethod

unknow

nB

K,

20,9

20G

430

Chen

1999

Lay

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unknow

nB

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18,1

40G

320

Ibid

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nven

tional

ZK

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38G

237

Ibid

.L

ayer

4Shel

l,m

ethod

unknow

nB

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13,7

10G

270

Ibid

.L

ayer

3Shel

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unknow

nB

K,

12,6

30G

450

Ibid

.L

ayer

2Shel

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ethod

unknow

nB

K,

12,7

30G

370

Ibid

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l,co

nven

tional

ZK

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07G

155

Ibid

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l,co

nven

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ZK

,13,5

47G

168

Ibid

.

(Con

tinued

)

Liy

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PV

,7820G

100

Yuan

1993

Phas

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,upper

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anbone,

conven

tional

PV

,10,5

10G

150

Ibid

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um

anbone,

conven

tional

PV

,11,4

50G

150

Ibid

.P

has

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Shel

l,co

nven

tional

BK

,12,8

80G

220

Ibid

.Shel

l,co

nven

tional

PV

,18,5

60G

300

Ibid

.Shel

l,co

nven

tional

PV

,21,0

20G

450

Ibid

.P

has

eII

,lo

wer

Shel

l,co

nven

tional

BK

,23,3

30G

250

Ibid

.D

ingsi

shan

Phas

eII

Shel

l,co

nven

tional

ZK

,10,3

65G

113

Fu

2004

Abbre

via

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of

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tori

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of

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.

potsherds have been found in Phase III, its presence in the present GuangdongProvince, or eastern South China, can be dated to 10,000 years ago. These datesmay also serve as a reference for other archaeological remains in South China.Based on structural analysis, potsherds found in Niulandong might have belongedto the second phase of early pottery in South China, contemporaneous to thatfound in Phase II of the Zengpiyan assemblage. The radiocarbon dates in Niulan-dong are consistent with this proposal.

When carrying out excavation at Zengpiyan in 2003, we designed the sam-pling strategy to collect three sets of samples—charcoal, bone, and shell—fromnarrow cross sections of the stratigraphy for 14C dating in order to tackle theproblem of dating in limestone areas, and we planned on sending the samplesfrom the same layers to two to three laboratories for testing to compare theresults. However, this plan could not be fully implemented due to the insu‰-ciency or poor quality of bones found in many cultural layers at Zengpiyan.Eventually, only samples of charcoal and shells have been dated, and the resultsand corresponding cultural layers and depth are listed in Table 7.

While these 14C dates illustrate a chronological framework for the Zengpiyanarchaeological assemblage from approximately 12,000 to 7000 years ago, thereare still problems. The first one is the discrepancy between the stratigraphic depthand the 14C dates of some samples. For example, a charcoal sample from LayerDT6 (27) tested by the laboratory of the Australian National University yields areading of 10,520G 280 years ago, but another charcoal sample tested by thesame laboratory from the layer beneath, DT6 (28), yields a much younger readingof 9130G 160 b.p. (Table 7). The results of some shell samples have the sameproblem. For instance, the reading of two shell samples in Layer DT4 (25) aremuch older than the shell sample from Layer 26 below (Table 7). Shells fromLayer DT6 (27) at the depth of 246–212 cm yield a chronological reading of10,996G 68 years bp, but another two samples from DT4 (20) at the depth of144–135 cm provided dates of almost the same age (Table 7). The second prob-lem is the discrepancy between dates resulting from shell samples and charcoalsamples. It is apparent that the dates obtained on shells are about 1000–2000 yearsolder than the majority of the charcoal samples (Table 7). If the dating results oncharcoal are more reliable (Yuan 1993), then the dates on shells are not accurate.

The above problems are not unique in Zengpiyan, as the recent 14C results atYuchanyan (Boaretto et al. 2009) show similar problems. For instance, two char-

Table 6. 14C Dates from Trench No. 5 of Niulandong, Guangdong

stratigraphic units radiocarbon dates (b.p.) calibrated dates (b.p.)* cultural phase

T5 (8) KWG, 11,320G 240 13764–13022 Phase IT5 (7) KWG, 10,780G 220 13004–12633 Phase IT5 (6) KWG, 10,320G 200 12777–11693 Phase IIT5 (5) KWG, 9320G 110 10685–10288 Phase IIT5 (4) KWG, 8940G 100 10215–9895 Phase III (1)T5 (3) KWG, 7910G 100 8994–8592 Phase III (1)

* Using Stuiver et al. 1998a, Calibration Program 4.3 at http://depts.washington.edu/qil, calibratedby the author.


coal samples from Layer 3E of about 254 cm deep in Yuchanyan are dated to11,855G 50 and 12,735G 70 b.p. respectively, which are almost the same oreven younger than the dates obtained on charcoal and bone samples from about129 to 217 cm deep. Further, the charcoal sample RTB 5471 from the deepestlayer at 305–314 cm of T5 is dated to 12,825G 50 b.p., which is at least 2000–5000 years younger than several samples (Nos. RTB 5115, 5463, 5464, 5465,5466, and 5470) from layers at a depth of around 252 to 264 cm (for the originaldata, please see Table 3 in Boaretto et al. 2009). The author of this paper is not a14C dating expert and cannot provide a full analysis of this methodological issue,but it is obvious that samples dated on charcoal and/or bones in limestone areasare not without problems, and that 14C dating in limestone areas of Chinarequires much more study.

In addition, it must be emphasized that the archaeologists’ ability to recognizedi¤erent cultural layers and deposits is essential for the reliability of absolute dates,particularly in caves. The stratigraphy of cave deposits can be very complicated, asdeposits of di¤erent periods could have been accumulated at di¤erent locations atthe same horizontal level (or similar depth), as prehistoric peoples of di¤erenttimes might have occupied varying locations inside the cave. If such di¤erenceshave not been detected during excavation and sample gathering, it is possible thatthe samples perceived from the same cultural layer might in fact have been fromdi¤erent periods. Consequently, absolute dates tested on these samples could bemisleading. To reduce possible errors, sample gathering for absolute dating shouldbe conducted within a narrow cross section of one trench, and samples should becollected from as many layers as possible within this cross section.

Therefore, in addition to radiocarbon dating, typological and structural analysisof artifacts integrated with cross-cultural comparison, particularly on potteryitems, are also necessary for establishing the chronology of both ceramics and ar-chaeological cultures in limestone areas. The tentative chronology listed in Table4 is primarily based on comparisons between pottery found in South China and inthe Yangzi River Valley, particularly in open sites along rivers, such as the Peng-toushan and Bashidang sites (Table 4). The major criteria of such analysis andcomparison are pottery structures, formation methods, the thickness of walls,materials, and processing techniques of the tempering agents, the presence or ab-sence of intended decoration, firing temperatures, and other attributes that mayindicate di¤erent stages of pottery development. If similar attributes are found inarchaeological sites in both the Yangzi River Valley and South China, these sitesmay be dated to similar periods.2

The Impetus for the Origin of Pottery

As mentioned in the introduction of this article, several theories and hypotheseshave been proposed concerning the origin of pottery (Ikawa-Smith 1976; Lu1999; Rice 1999; Tsutsumi 2000). The occurrence of pottery in north China andthe Yangzi River Valley might have been related to wild grass collection andexploitation (Lu 1999), as early pottery found in the Yangzi River Valley (Xian-rendong and Yuchanyan) was in association with rice remains. Whether this isalso the case in South China (Niulandong and Zengpiyan) requires further study(Tables 1 and 2), as recent phytolith analysis conducted at Zengpiyan and Dayan


Ta

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tional

ZK

,10,9

44G

132

11,0

51

–10,8

75

226

–202

DT

6(2

4)

AM

SA

NU

,9060G

220

8600

–7850

232

–208

DT

6(2

1)

Con

ven

tional

ZK

,10,5

53G

93

10,7

70

–10,4

46

217

–188

DT

6(1

9)

AM

SA

NU

,8770G

210

8200

–7600

215

–202

DT

4(2

8)

AM

SB

A,

9490G

190

9200

–8600

208

–196

DT

6(1

6)

AM

SA

NU

,9270G

220

8850

–8200

202

–180

DT

4(2

7)

AM

SB

A,

9180G

100

8530

–8490

Phas

eII

I206

–167

DT

4(2

6)

Con

ven

tional

ZK

,10,5

71G

63

10,8

02

–10,4

53

DT

4(2

6)

AM

SA

NU

,9730G

60

9280

–9140

DT

4(2

6)

AM

SB

A,

9210G

240

8800

–7900

(Con

tinued

)

198

–175

DT

6(1

5)

Con

ven

tional

ZK

,10,8

28G

99

10,9

51

–10,8

36

197

–190

DT

4(2

5)

Con

ven

tional

ZK

,10,7

99G

83

10,9

27

–10,8

33

DT

4(2

5)

Con

ven

tional

ZK

,11,0

93G

85

11,1

32

–10,9

83

176

–148

DT

6(1

3)

AM

SA

NU

,9490G

230

9250

–8550

172

–157

DT

4(2

4)

AM

SB

A,

8460G

290

7950

–7050

169

–165

DT

4(2

3)

AM

SB

A,

10919G

84

10,9

41

–10,7

27

165

–148

DT

4(2

2)

Con

ven

tional

ZK

,10,5

99G

100

10,8

47

–10,4

51

196

–162

DT

4(2

1)

Con

ven

tional

ZK

,10,6

10G

82

10,8

46

–10,4

60

DT

4(2

1)

AM

SB

A,

10,1

60G

80

10,1

50

–9600

144

–135

DT

4(2

0)

Con

ven

tional

ZK

,10,8

63G

77

10,9

43

–10,8

70

DT

4(2

0)

Con

ven

tional

ZK

,10,9

75G

84

11,0

25

–10,9

02

DT

4(2

0)

AM

SB

A,

8970G

80

8270

–8160

163

–149

DT

4(1

9)

Con

ven

tional

ZK

,10,7

55G

70

10,9

03

–10,8

07

DT

4(1

9)

AM

SB

A,

9040G

150

8450

–8150

141

–132

DT

4(1

8)

AM

SB

A,

8890G

160

8260

–7800

149

–131

DT

4(1

7)

Con

ven

tional

ZK

,10,6

28G

59

10,8

45

–10,6

98

DT

4(1

7)

Con

ven

tional

ZK

,10,9

49G

104

11,0

26

–10,8

83

DT

4(1

7)

AM

SB

A,

8870G

80

8210

–7940

142

–133

DT

4(1

6)

AM

SB

A,

9070G

250

8650

–7800

158

–122

DT

6(1

1)

Con

ven

tional

ZK

,10,7

38G

102

10,9

04

–10,7

44

Phas

eIV

131

–124

DT

4(1

5)

Con

ven

tional

ZK

,10,6

33G

56

10,8

43

–10,7

10

DT

4(1

5)

AM

SB

A,

9010G

80

8290

–8160

124

–98

DT

4(1

4)

AM

SB

A,

6500G

120

5610

–5590

115

–62

DT

4(1

3)

Con

ven

tional

ZK

,10,5

88G

56

10,8

17

–10,4

61

DT

4(1

3)

AM

SB

A,

9010G

150

8450

–7900

DT

4(1

3)

AM

SA

NU

,9570G

280

9800

–8450

BT

2(1

3)

Con

ven

tional

ZK

,10,0

95G

70

10,0

04

–9495

112

–59

DT

4(1

2)

AM

SB

A,

9040G

100

8420

–8390

DT

4(1

2)

Con

ven

tional

ZK

,10,6

40G

150

10,8

81

–10,4

48

DT

4(1

2)

AM

SB

A,

8740G

170

8200

–7550

81

–38

BT

2(6

)C

on

ven

tional

ZK

,8998G

74

8292

–7994

Phas

eV

49

–26

BT

3(7

)A

MS

BA

,8790G

170

8200

–7600

BT

3(7

)C

on

ven

tional

ZK

,8538G

63

7597

–7536

(Con

tinued

)

Ta

ble

7(C

ontinued

)

dep

th

(cm

)

lay

ers

ing

rid

DT

4

lay

ers

ing

rid

DT

6

lay

ers

ing

rid

BT

3

lay

ers

ing

rid

BT

6

ma

ter

ial

an

d

met

ho

d

lab

.a

nd

14C

da

tes

(b.p

.)

ma

teri

al

an

d

met

ho

d

lab.

an

d14C

da

tes

(b.p

.)

ca

libr

ate

d

b.c

.(6

8.2

%)

cu

ltu

ral

pha

se

43

–25

BT

3(6

)C

on

ven

tional

ZK

,8342G

64

7501

–7340

Phas

eV

48

–32

BT

3(4

)C

on

ven

tional

ZK

,7783G

61

6677

–6561

21

–12

BT

2(5

)C

on

ven

tional

ZK

,8602G

68

7709

–7573

18

–9

BT

3(5

)C

on

ven

tional

ZK

,7979G

65

7043

–6781

42

–31

BT

3(2

)C

on

ven

tional

ZK

,1655G

35

a.d

.344

–427

His

tori

c43

–37

BT

2(3

)C

on

ven

tional

ZK

,717G

41

a.d

.1259

–1298

36

–12

BT

2(2

)A

MS

AN

U,

1010G

90

a.d

.960

–1160

Sourc

e:In

stit

ute

of

Arc

hae

olo

gy

CA

SS

etal

.2003.

in Guangxi, and another site—Xiantouling—in Guangdong, seems to suggestthat rice was exploited in South China as fuel when early pottery was produced(Lu 2009a, b).

On the other hand, shells have b

early pottery in south china...early pottery found in the yellow and the yangzi river valleys site...

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