CHAPTER VIEARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE, A.D. 250-600

HOUSE CHURCH AT DURA EUROPOS, NORTHERN MESOPOTAMIA, c. 231

- similar layout to that of the Hellenistic house at Priene- rectangular assembly hall of 5 m by 13 m for about 60 people

- DESCRIPTION: a normal domestic house converted for worship some time between 233 and 256, when the town was abandoned after conquest by the Persians

- an example of architecture of “labour”

SANTA SABINA, ROME, c. 422-432

- southwest direction of facade- DIMENSIONS: 61 m by 29.9 m

- WIDTH OF NAVE: 17.1 m

- the nave is lit by high, arched clerestory windows, while the side aisles are relatively dark, creating a transcendal, heavenly appearance on the luminous upper part of the interior

- ARCHITECTURAL FORM: straight line (main nave) to a point (altar)- the arcaded columns are abstractions of human beings in procession toward the altar- the arches above the individual columns unite in a gesture similar to the joining of human hands

in an expression of a union in love, or persons bowing to each other in an expression of respect, peace and love

- ARCHITECTURAL MEANING: concretization of spiritual space through dematerialization and a special kind of illumination

- COLUMNS: support the arcades; height is 91/2 times its diameter; spaces between columns is 5 times its diameter

- 24 columns of Proconnesian marble with perfectly matched Corinthian columns and bases (rescued from the temple of Juno)

- CONTRAST TO SANT’ APOLLINARE NUOVO: the arches of the nave rest solemnly on the columns and establish a continuity between supporting elements and those supported; the eye glides up easily from the base of the column, toward the shaft, to the Corinthian capital, to the arch above it, and then onto the next column, repeating this movement toward the altar in a slow and solemn pace

- the impost blocks on top of the columns of the Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo create a break between the arch and the capital of the columns, telling the viewer’s eye to glide across the series of arches above the columns; this results in a faster tempo and downplays the vertical relationship while emphasising the horizontal

- CONTRAST TO BASILICA ULPIA: from its predecessor, the Basilica Ulpia, two important changes were made—a quantitative change, which was the reduction of a superhuman scale to a more intimate and personal and human level, and a qualitative change, which was the change from a static space to a dynamic space

SANTA COSTANZA, ROME, c. 345

- built under Constantine I as a mausoleum for his daughter Constantina (Costanza) and his other daughter Helena, wife of Julian

- MAUSOLEUM: circular, with an ambulatory surrounding the central dome

- STRUCTURE: circular and centralised- basically 2 rings supported by columns placed around a vertical central axis; there ring sits on

the columns while the lower ring encloses a circular ambulatory whose space flows between the columns into the axial cylinder

- ARCADE: on top of 12 pairs of granite columns decorated with composite capitals; supports the drum below the dome; separates the area of the ambulatory beyond (dimmer and darker areas)

- CLERESTORY: has 12 windows which shine light into the central area- number of arches, pairs of columns, and windows may refer to the 12 apostles

- AMBULATORY: barrel-vaulted; 22.6 m in diameter

- ROOF: dome and vault

- DOME VAULT: 19 m high

- ARCHITECTURAL FORM: central point; concentric form (circular rings); superimposed cross; centralised and longitudinal space; highly centralized, concentric, and centripetal form

- ARCHITECTURAL MEANING: there is dynamic, but it is calm, rhythmic, and fluent- the centralized domed interior space is associated with the dome of heaven- the space around a point symbolises the place where earth and heaven meet- the superimposed cross with emphasis on the longitudinal axis explains that every centre

implies directions, and that there is no centre or goal without a path, in which the final goal is to be with Christ

- the way the columns are paired points the viewer to the centre of the interior- eye movement is drawn toward the centre due to the light coming from the clerestory windows

- CONTRAST TO SAN VITALE: the Santa Constanza promotes a two-fold centripetal movement—circular, following the ambulatory, and linear, towards the centre

- the semicircular niches of the San Vitale expand outward, eating into the ambulatory, creating a centrifugal movement

- CONTRAST TO THE PANTHEON: both structures contain alternating semicircular and rectangular niches; depths of niches in the Pantheon is hidden by screen columns; the view of the depths of the niches in Santa Constanza is unobstructed

- the dome of the Santa Costanza is supported by only 12 pairs of columns at 30-degree intervals, with a nearly 1:2 ratio of its diameter compared to its height, making the structure naturally unstable; the dome of the Pantheon, on the other hand, has a 1:1 ratio of its height and diameter, and its base is supported all throughout in 360 degrees

SANT’ APOLLINARE NUOVO, RAVENNA, c. 504

- built by Theodoric after 500 A.D.

- 24 columns of Greek marble divide the interior into a nave and two aisles, the nave ending in a rounded apse

- a procession of 26 martyrs lead from the palace to the apse

- CONTRAST TO SANTA SABINA: the impost blocks on top of the columns create a break between the arch and the capital of the columns, telling the viewer’s eye to glide across the series of arches above the columns; this results in a faster tempo and downplays the vertical relationship while emphasising the horizontal

- the impost blocks create a series of equidistant points horizontally, which then appears as a horizontal band; this configuration is repeated at the column bases

- BANDS OF MOSAIC ABOVE THE ARCADE: underline and accentuate the accelerated horizontal movement toward the altar

- MOSAIC: representational meaning or expression of the Christian and his fellowmen on his way toward his final goal (altar); the choice of materials used (hard and glossy surface) supports the artist’s aim to let eyes glide smoothly toward the altar; the clerestory windows and ceiling also support this accelerated movement, but less emphatically

SAN VITALE, RAVENNA, c. 526-547

- begun by Bishop Eccles’s in 526, under the rule of the Ostrogoths- richly ornamented

- STRUCTURE: octagonal plan- central section is surrounded by 2 superimposed ambulatories

- DOME: supported mainly by 8 points; stabilised by the semicircular niches

- APSE: flanked by two chapels—prothesis and diaconicon

- CONTRAST TO THE PANTHEON: the Pantheon uses paired columns and niches, but the niches are recesses in the circular outside wall and closed off by two columns; the San Vitale’s paired columns create semicircular niches between the piers of the inner ring

- the paired columns in the Pantheon are made structurally active and form an inner ring supporting the dome; the columns in the San Vitale transfer the supporting function to 8 massive piers

- the Pantheon is a static space which hardly invites any movement, while the San Vitale is dynamic (centrifugal movement)

- CONTRAST TO THE SANTA COSTANZA: the semicircular niches of the San Vitale expand outward, eating into the ambulatory, creating a centrifugal movement; the Santa Constanza promotes a two-fold centripetal movement—circular, following the ambulatory, and linear, towards the centre

- ARCHITECTURAL FORM: centralized arrangement with a superimposed longitudinal axis; highly centralised, concentric, and centrifugal space

- ARCHITECTURAL MEANING: the dome of heaven is reached only after passing through some predatory low and difficult spaces (effort to reach destination)

- in the sanctuary (the space for the altar), the geometry is abruptly altered, expressing the predominance of where heaven and earth meet

- the faithful are gathered in the main circular space, symbolising unity and togetherness in the Christian community into a forceful way

OLD SAINT PETER’S, ROME, DEDICATED c. 330

- built by Constantine- believed to be the most important design in the history of church architecture- 103.6 m long- wide central nave stood over 30 m high; its length was almost equal its height and twice the

width of the nave of a great Gothic cathedral- houses 3000 to 4000 worshipers- the apse of the altar is located west so that the basilica’s facade could be approached from

Rome itself- DIMENSIONS: 64 m wide with its double aisles on each side; 90 m long

CHURCH OF THE HOLY SEPULCHRE, JERUSALEM, c. 345

- an attempt to integrate the longitudinal plan with the central one- the rotunda of the Holy Sepulchre resembles superficially that of Santa Constanza- the relationship of the circular and longitudinal arrangement is rather loose and rambling- Constantine’s most important church foundation in the east

SS. SERGIUS AND BACCHUS, possibly begun c. 527, completed before 536

- known as the Little Hagia Sophia- its plan is a development of the tetraconch form with surrounding ambulatory- an octagonal core is expanded on the four diagonal sides by exedrae, and the east and the west

sides are open, respectively to the chancel and towards a narthex- has an octagonal nave with semicircular niches, similar to that of the San Vitale- built by Justinian- a system of half domes support and surround the main dome

HAGIA SOPHIA, c. 532-527

- built by the orders of Justinian, by the Greek scientists Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles

- greatest achievement in engineering because of its structure

- linear and centralized form- compared to the Holy Sepulcher, the Hagia Sophia achieved the combination of the central and

linear form in a single structure- one of the greatest achievements in architecture- now non existing atrium- double narthex

- NAVE: dominated by a dome- DOME: supported by pedantries and buttresses, similar to Hagia Irene

- EAST-WEST DIRECTION: half domes, subdivided into three smaller, half domes, supported by smaller buttresses below

- NORTH-SOUTH DIRECTION: buttresses- EAST: the direction toward the altar

- AMBULATORY: continuous passage around the nave- BUTTRESSES: hollowed out to promote passage inside the aisles

- DIMENSIONS (Klassen): 71 m by 77 m; 30 m diameter of dome; 20.5 m depth of side aisles (NE and SW directions); 55 m in height

- DIMENSIONS (Fletcher): 54.9 m high; 67.1 m wide; 76.2 m long (excluding the double narthex); 32.6 m diameter of dome; buttresses measure 7.62 m by 18.3 m

- a ring of 40 windows sit at the base of the dome, allowing a circle of light to shine into the interior, thus creating the illusion that the dome is floating in a bed of light; this phenomenon transforms the architecture into a spiritual, magical, mystical vision

- BAALBEK: 8 Corinthian columns

- CONTRAST TO THE PANTHEON: the base of the dome of the Pantheon is supported by a continuous wall, while the base of the dome of the Hagia Sophia is supported by only four points (pendentives and buttresses)

- the diameter and height of the dome of the Pantheon has a 1:1 ratio, while that of the Hagia Sophia has a 1:1.8 ratio

- the system of half domes situated on two sides of the central dome absorb its lateral thrust and relays the load to the three smaller half downs located directly below it, and then to the ground

- THE HAGIA SOPHIA IS A GENUINE AND SUCCESSFUL SYNTHESIS IN SEVERAL WAYS:- structurally it fuses the two most grandiose architectural spaces of ancient Rome, the Basilica of

Maxentius and the Pantheon, into one- spatially it combines for the first time completely and successfully the longitudinal scheme of the

basilica with a centralised arrangement- historically it brings the development from the S. Constanza to San Vitale and SS. Sergio's and

Bakchos to a genuine climax and conclusion

- STRUCTURAL: the base of the dome rests on pendentives, which are spherical triangles between four supporting arches, resting on the main four piers below

- the bracing against the lateral thrust of the dome has been done in the east-west direction through semicircular lower domes on either side transmitting the forces to two or three still lower and smaller semicircular domes; in the transverse north-south direction, the lateral thrust of the dome is transmitted to four huge buttresses which reinforce the central piers, but which are not visible on the inside

- SPATIAL: the Hagia Sophia has a complete integration and a perfect balance between longitudinality and centrality, between the solemn horizontal processional axis and the vertical symbolic center

- HISTORICAL: a space within a space; the inside space is the major and higher one, the outside space is lower and secondary

- functional differentiation where the central space was for the emperor, his court and his clergy, the surrounding space for the people

- WINDOWS: the 40 windows at the base of the dome give the peculiar illusion that the dome rests upon the light that floods through them

- light becomes the agent that seems to dissolve material substance and transform it into an abstract spiritual vision

HAGIA IRENE, begun 532 or shortly after, but extensively reconstructed after 740

- replaced a church which was a cathedral before the first Hagia Sophia was built, and which was badly damaged by fire in 532

- its nave resembles a Greek cross- the weight of its dome is carried by pendentives and then transferred to four buttresses- prototype of Hagia Sophia- cruciform in plan

CHAPTER VIIISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE, A.D. 850-1600

THE GREAT MOSQUE OF SAMARRA ON THE TIGRIS RIVER, IRAQ (NORTHWEST OF BAGHDAD), c. 848-852

- also known as the Malwiya- consisted of an immense walled courtyard planned on a ratio of three to two, 155.4 m by 237.7

m, surrounded by 4 aisles except on the south side where 9 aisles form the prayer chamber- the internal structure of mud-brick piers and timber pole-joisted riffs has long since disappeared.,

but the massive brick outer walls remain, buttressed at intervals of 15.8 m by half-round towers- over half of its ten-acre area was covered by a wooden roof, carried by 464 supports arranged in

aisles around the open central court

- MALWIYA TOWER: the enormous helicoidal minaret at the northern end, isolated from the mosque, but on the main axis

- this form of helical ramp around a massive core seems to have been original in its own terms- 52 m high; 33 m wide spiral ramp made of sandstone- central and linear form (centripetal and vertical)

- DIMENSIONS: 245 m by 158 m or 239 m by 156 m (!?)

MOSQUE AL HAKEM, CORDOBA, SPAIN, begun c. 786

- 848: Abd ar-Rahman II- 961 and 968: al-Hakim- 987: al-Mansur

- comparable in size with the Malwiya and Abu Dulaf mosques in Samarra- simple but distinctive architectural style

- had 1293 columns originally but now only 856 remain- 23000 sqm (2.3 hectares) or 14000 sqm (1.4 hectares) (!?)

MOSQUE ALHAMBRA

- one of the most elaborate and richly decorated of Muslim palaces- 740 m (east-west) by 205 m (north-south)- HALL OF THE AMBASSADORS: 12 m square, 23 m high- COURT OF THE LIONS: 35 m by 20 m- HALL OF THE TWO SISTERS: the two sisters are two large marble slabs measuring 500 cm by

220 cm- MUQARNA: stalactite ornaments- ARABESQUE GRILL WORK

TAJ MAHAL

- 58 m square in plan- CENTRAL INNER DOME: 24.7 m high and 17.8 m in diameter, surmounted by an outer shell 61

m in height- the perfect, pure, and everlasting love Shah Jahan had for his wife Mumtaz is expressed

architecturally through the perfect symmetry of the entire complex- ironically, Shah Jahan himself, destroyed that architectural abstraction, when he was buried next

to his wife, a higher cenotaph marking his grave- JAWAB: reply

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. CLERESTORY - the upper window-level of a large enclosed space, rising above adjacent roofs; in particular it is the upper window range of a basilican building above the arcade and triforium; a portion of an interior rising above adjacent rooftops and having windows admitting daylight to the interior

2. MARTYRIUM - a church or other building erected over a site which bears witness to the Christian faith, either by referring to an event in Christs life or passion, or by sheltering the grave of a martyr, a witness by virtue of having shed his blood; a circular building, based on the point and interpreted as the center, erected over the tomb of a martyr

3. APSE - a vaulted semicircular or polygonal termination, usually to a chancel or chapel; a semicircular or polygonal projection of a building, usually vaulted and used esp. at the sanctuary or east end of a church

4. BASILICA - an early Christian church, characterised by a long, rectangular plan, a high colonnaded nave lit by a clerestory and covered by a timbered gable roof, two or four lower side aisles, a semicircular apse at the end, a narthex, and often other features, such as an atrium, a bema, and small circular apses terminating the aisles

5. ATRIUM - the forecourt of an early Christian church, flanked or surrounded by porticoes6. AMBULATORY - the covered walk of an atrium or cloister; an aisle encircling the end of the

choir or chancel of a church7. BAPTISTERY - a part of a church or a separate building in which baptism is administered8. NARTHEX - a portico or vestibule before the nave of an early Christian or Byzantine church,

occupied by those not yet christened9. ICONOSTASIS - a screen or partition on which icons are placed, separating the bema from the

nave of an Eastern church10. EXEDRA - a large apsidal extension of the interior volume of a church11. NAVE - the principal or center part of a church, extending from the narthex to the choir or

chancel and usually flanked by aisles12. AISLE - any of the longitudinal divisions of a church, separated from the nave by a row of

columns or piers13. BEMA - the sanctuary space surrounding the altar of an Eastern church; a transverse open

space separating the nave and the apse of an early Christian church, developing into the transept of later cruciform churches

14. DIACONICON - a sacristy in an early Christian or Eastern church, usually on the south side of the bema

15. SACRISTY - a room in a church where the sacred vessels and vestments are kept; also called VESTRY

16. PROTHESIS - a chapel in an Eastern church where the Eucharistic elements are prepared, usually on the north side of the bema

17. SARCOPHAGUS - a stone coffin, esp. one bearing sculpture or inscriptions and displayed as a monument

18. ALTAR - the table in a Christian church upon which the Eucharist, the sacrament celebrating Christ’s Last Supper, is celebrated; also called COMMUNION TABLE

19. SANCTUARY - a sacred or holy place, as that part of a church in which the principal altar is placed

20. PENDENTIVE - a spherical triangle forming the transition from the circular plan of the dome to the polygonal plan of its supporting structure; three dimensional true arch (pendentives are spherical triangles between four supporting arches, which rest on the main four piers)

21. OCULUS - circular opening, esp. one at the crown of a dome22. PENDENTIVE DOME - a spherical dome formed by removing four segments so that it merges

with its pendentives and sits on a square plan23. SQUINCH - an arch, corbel, vault, or lintel built across the upper inside corner of a square

tower to support the side of a superimposed octagonal structure; three-dimensional corbel arch24. MINARET - a lofty, slender tower attached to a mosque, having stairs leading up to one or

more projecting balconies from which the muezzin calls the Muslim people to prayer

25. MINBAR - a pulpit in a mosque, recalling the three steps from which Muhammad addressed his followers and from which the imam delivers his sermons; also MIMBAR

26. QIBLA - the wall in a mosque in which the mihrab is set, oriented to Mecca; also QIBLAH, KIBLA, KIBLAH

27. MIHRAB - a niche or decorative panel in a mosque designating the qibla28. NICHE - a usually semicircular in plan, arched recess in a wall, usually for a statue or an

ornament29. TRANSEPT - the major transverse part of a cruciform church, crossing the main axis at a right

angle between the nave and choir