EARLY BUDDHIST ART OFCHINA AND CENTRAL ASIA

VOLUME TWO

The Eastern Chin and Sixteen Kingdoms Period in China and Tumshuk,Kucha and Karashahr in Central Asia — Text

BY

MARYLIN MARTIN RHIE

BRILLLEIDEN • BOSTON • KOLN

2002

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements xxmList of maps xxvIntroduction xxvn

PART I: CHINAThe Eastern Chin in the South (317-420) and Various Dynasties in the North

During the Sixteen Kingdoms Period (316-439 A.D.)

Chapter One

BUDDHISM AND BUDDHIST ART IN THE SOUTH UNDERTHE EASTERN CHIN (317-420)

I. Aspects of Buddhism 7

II. Buddhist Monasteries, Stupas and Images from Literary Sources 20A. Early Eastern Chin (ca. 317-361 A.D) 23

1. Monasteries 232. Images 26

a. The Two "Floating" Stone Images (ca. 313 A.D.) 26i. According to the Kao-seng chuan 26ii. According to Tao-hsiian's Chi shen-chou san-pao kan-t'ung lu . . 28iii. In Tun-huang Cave 323 Wall Painting 31

b. T'ao K'an's "King Asoka" Golden Manjusri Image 34c. Kao Li's Gilded Image with Inscription 41

i. According to the Kao-seng chuan 42ii. According to Tao-hsiian's Chi shen-chou san-pao kan-t'ung lu . . 44iii. Visual Appearance of Kao Li's Image from the Texts 48iv. In the Tun-huang Cave 323 Wall Painting 50

d. Golden Buddha found in the River at Wu-hsing 53e. Ho Chuang's Shrines of the Seven Buddhas of the Past 54

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f. Seven Buddhas Painting by Wei Hsieh 55g. Parinirvana Buddha Images 56h. Amitabha Painting Made by the Monk Chih Tun 57

B. Middle Eastern Chin {ca. 361-396 A.D) 591. Monasteries 622. King Asoka Relics and Stupas 64

a. King Asoka stupa at the Ch'ang-kan ssu 67b. King Asoka stupa at Mao hsien in K'uai-chi 77

3. Images 83a. Images Associated with Tao-an at Hsiang-yang 83

i. 16-foot "wondrous" image (Amitayus?) 83ii. Gifts from Fu Chien 85iii. Buddha Sculpture with Usnisa Relic 87

b. Asokan Image of Tan-i at the Ch'ang-sha ssu 88c. Images by the Scholar Sculptor-Painter Tai K'uei 94

i. Five Buddhas 95ii. Wooden Buddha (Amitayus?) Sculpture 96iii. Bronze Buddha and two Bodhisattvas of the Hsing-

huang ssu 97iv. Paintings by Tai K'uei 97

d. Vimalaklrti Painting by Ku K'ai-chih 98e. Gold Plate with 1,000 Buddhas 98f. Sixteen-foot Gilded Image at the Shao-ling ssu 98g. Images made by the Nun T'an-lo 99

C. Late Eastern Chin (ca. 396-420 A.D.) 1011. Monasteries 1082. Images I l l

a. CeyloneseJade Buddha I l lb. Images associated with Hui-yiian at Mount Lu 112

i. T'ao K'an's "King Asoka" Golden Manjusri image 112ii. Buddha's luminous "projection" (shadow) image 113

a. Hui-yiian's cave and Buddha's "projection" image 114b. Cave of the Naga in Indian texts 115c. D r a g o n C a v e e x c e r p t f r o m t h e Kuanfo san-mei hai ching... 118d. Accounts of the Chinese and Central Asian monks and

travellers 127iii. Amitabha and other images at the Tung-lin ssu 137

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c. Ssu-wei (Contemplative) Prince (t'ai-tzu) Image of the Wutemple at Hsu chou 139

d. "King Asoka" image of Sun Hao rediscoverd by Wang Mi . . . . 141e. Two 16-foot Gilded Images for the Wa-kuan ssu 143

III. Remains of Buddhist Art and Related Works 145A. Representations of Famous and Miraculous Stupas and Images 146

1. King Asoka Stupas 147a. Form and appearance of the "ling-t'a" 147b. Reliquary Stupa at the A-yii-wang ssu in Ningpo 149c. Other examples of the King Asoka Stupa 151d. Sources of the type and style 153

2. King Asoka Images 155a. Summary of the earliest "King Asoka Images" from written

accounts 156b. "King Asoka" images from Ch'eng-tu, Szechwan 159

i. Posture, body and drapery 161ii. The head 163iii. The pedestal 164iv. The halo 165v. Conclusions and importance of the King Asoka Image in

China 1673. The Buddha's "Projection" Image in the "Representation of

Famous Buddhist Images" Silk Painting from Tun-huang 169B. Mirrors with Four Buddhist/Four Animal Configuration 176

1. Classification 1762. The Kyoto National Museum Mirror 1803. Stylistic Elements, Provenence, Sources and Dating 183

C. Paintings and Reliefs 1871. Ku K'ai-chih and the Wa-kuan ssu Vimalaklrti Painting 187

a. Ku K'ai-chih 187b. Vimalaklrti Painting of the Wa-kuan ssu in Chien-k'ang 191

2. Vimalaklrti and Manjusri Relief Panels in Cave III at Lung-men 193a. Vimalaklrti Panel in Cave III 196b. Manjusri Panel in Cave III 198

3. Tai K'uei's Painting of the "Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove" 2034. Relief of ca. 425 A.D. from the Wan-fo ssu in Ch'eng-tu 206

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a. Description and identification 208b. Figure and landscape style 211

D. Koguryo Early Tomb Wall Paintings 2151. Tomb No. 3 at Anak Dated 357 A.D 215

a. Portrait of Tongsu 218b. Portrait of Tongsu's wife 219c. Procession scene 221

2. Ansong-dong Great Tomb and Susan-ri Tomb 2223. The Tomb at Tokhungri Dated 408/409 A.D 223

a. Date and identity of the master of the Tomb 224b. Brief description of the tomb and its wall paintings 225

4. Kamshin Tomb at On-ch'on and Sashin Tomb at Maesan-ri 2305. Tomb No. 1 at Chang-ch'on, Chip-an 232

a. Wall paintings of the anteroom 233i. Buddha 234ii. Bodhisattvas 236iii. Apsaras figures, reborn souls, lotus flowers and yaksas 237

b. The main (coffin) room 238E. Concluding Remarks on Koguryo Tomb Paintings 238

IV Summary Conclusions to Chapter 1 239

Chapter Two

BUDDHISM AND BUDDHIST ART IN THE NORTH (ca. 317-439 A.D.)

I. Phase I: Former Chao (319-329) and Later Chao (330-352 A.D.) 243A. Fo-tu-t'ung and Buddhist Activities 246B. Remains of Buddhist Art 253

1. Seated Gilt Bronze Buddha Dated 338 in the Asian Art Museum . 2542. Standing Gilt Bronze Buddha in the Kyoto National Museum . . . . 2613. Small Standing Bronze Bodhisattva (Maitreya) 265

C. Conclusions 267

II. Phase II: Former Ch'in (351-385/394 A.D.), Former Yen (352-370), Western Yen(384-394), Later Yen (384-408), and the Rise of the To-pa (?-398) 269

A. The Fu Clan and the Rise and Fall of the Former Ch'in (352-385/394) 271

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B. The Mu-Jung in the Northeast: the Former Yen (352-370) 285C. The Western Yen (384-394) and the Later Yen (384-409) 288

1. Western Yen under Mu-Jung Ch'ung and Mu-Jung Yung 2882. Later Yen Founded by Mu-Jung Ch'ui 289

D. Rise of the T'o-pa in Northern Shansi 2911. The Early T'o-pa Leaders: Li-wei (Shen-yiian), I-i and I-lu

(King of Tai) 2912. T'o-pa Shih-i-ch'ien 2943. T'o-pa Kuei 295

E. Buddhist Activities from Written Records 2981. Chu Seng-lang and Chu Fa-ya 3052. Tao-an in Ch'ang-an 309

F. Remains of Buddhist Art 3171. Standing Bodhisattva (Maitreya) in the Ku-kung po-wu-kuan,

Beijing 3182. Seated Buddha in abhayd mudrd in the Nitta Collection 3223. Seated Buddha with Kharosthi Inscription from Sian 325

a. Inscription 326b. Comparative description and stylistic dating 329

i. Body and drapery 329ii. Head 331iii. Pedestal 332iv. Date 333

4. Buddha in dhydna mudrd in the Nitta Collection 3345. Various Small Seated Buddha Sculptures and Altars 337

a. Images with some traits similar to the Kharosthi InscriptionBuddha and the Nitta dhydna mudrd Buddha 339i. Buddha with plain lion pedestal 339ii. Buddha in the Hamamatsu Municipal Museum 340iii. Buddha from the metal smelting storehouse, Pao-ting, Hopei 340iv. Buddha found near Seoul, Korea 341v. Buddha from T'ang hsien, Pao-shui ts'un, Hopei 342

b. Images Related to those in subgroup a) and to the smallBuddha image from Pai-sung ts'un, Shih-chia-ch'uang, south-central Hopei 343i. Four seated Buddhas 343ii. Three Buddhas in the Kyoto Jumbun Kagaku Kenkyujo . . . 344

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iii. Buddha excavated from Pei-sung ts'un, Shih-chia chuang,Hopei 345

iv. Buddha in the collection of the National Museum, CzechRepublic 345

c. Images with Remaining Parts of an Altar Ensemble 346i. Buddha with trilobed mandorla from Pao-ting, Hopei 346ii. Buddha with 4-footed stand, trilobed mandorla and

circular canopy in the Hopei Province Museum 348iii. Buddha with trilobed mandorla in the Tokyo Bijutsu

Daigaku 350iv. Buddha with 4-footed stand and trilobed mandorla in the

Ku-kung Museum, Beijing 351v. Buddha with 4-footed stand in the Sano Bijutsukan,

Shizuoka 354d. Four Buddhas with incised designs 354e. Sketch of Buddha from Sian in the Sian Municipal Cultural

Relics Administration 355f. Buddha with rayed round head halo 356

6. Conclusions of the Small Bronze Buddhas and Altars 357G. Concluding Comments 361

III. Phase III: Later Ch'in (386-418), Ta Hsia (407-431), Southern Yen (398-410),Northern Yen (409-438), and Early (Northern) Wei (398-439) 364

A. Rise and Fall of the Yao Clan of the Later Ch'in 3651. Yao Ch'ien-na and Yao I-chung 3652. Yao Hsiang 3663. Yao Ch'ang (r. 386-393) 3684. Yao Hsing (r. 393-416) 3725. Yao Hung (r. 416-418) 376

B. Ho-lien Po-po and the Ta Hsia (407-431) 377C. Southern Yen (398-410) and Northern Yen (409-438) 382D. Continued Rise of the T'o-pa Wei 383

1. T'o-pa Ssu (r. 409-424) 3832. T'o-pa Tao (r. 424-452) 384

E. Buddhist Activities 3871. Kumarajiva: Life, Works, and Disciples 387

a. Translation of the Kao-seng chuan biography of Kumarajiva . . . . 388

TABLE OF CONTENTS XIII

b. Brief summary of Kumarajlva's translations in China 399c. Sarlra stupas of Kumarajiva 401

2. Other Activities : 403a. Monks . 403b. King Asoka stupas in the North 404

3. Under the T'o-pa Wei from 398-439 405F. Remains of Buddhist Art 409

1. Gilt Bronze Standing Bodhisattva (Kuan-shih-yin) in the Asian artMuseum 410

2. Group of Bronzes from Hopei 415a. Gilt bronze Apsaras from Pao-ting, Hopei 416b. Buddha with 4-footed stand from I hsien, Hopei 418c. Altar ensemble in the Idemitsu Art Museum 420

3. Remains from Ch'ang-an (Sian) and the "Kuan-chung" (Shensi)Region 422a. Clay relief plaque with seated Buddha in the Shensi Province

History Museum, Sian 423b. Standing bronze Buddha formerly in the Masaki collection . . . . 425c. Two stone image reliefs from Sian 426

i. Cross-ankled Buddha relief dated 411 427ii. Dhyanasana Buddha relief dated 411 and a group of

bronze reliefs 4304. Udayana Buddha of Kumarajiva 432

a. Early Chinese textural sources 432i. Excerpt (chuan 28) from the Ekottardgama Sutra 432ii. Excerpt from the Kuanfo san-mei hai ching 438iii. Excerpt from Fa-hsien's Record of Buddhist Kingdoms 439iv. Excerpt from the Fo-yu T'ien-ch'u chi 440

b. The Kumarajlva/Seiryqji Shaka image 4415. Four Bronze Dhyanasana Buddha Images with Lion Pedestals 445

a. Bronze Buddha in the Rietberg Museum 445b. Gilt bronze Buddha with inscription and round rayed halo in

the Metropolitan Museum of Art 448c. Small gilt bronze Buddha in the Nitta collection 451d. Dhyanasana Buddha in the Nelson-Atkins Museum of A r t . . . . 452

6. Bronze Buddha in the Hopei Provincial Museum (without haloand pedestal) 453

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7. Bronze "Maitreya Buddha" from Yii-lin City dated [Liu] Sung423 A.D 455

8. The Wei Wen-lang Buddhist/Taoist Stone Stele Dated 424 A.D.from Yao hsien 460a. Dedicatory inscription 461b. Front face 463c. Back face 468d. Sides 470e. Stylistic elements, dating, and importance of the Wei Wen-

lang stele 4709. Stone Relief Dated 424 in the Sian Municipal Cultural Relics

Administration 47210. Dhyanasana Bronze Buddha Altar with Inscription dated 429 in

the Ta Hsia 47411. Standing Bronze "Maitreya" Buddha in the Nelson-Atkins

Museum of Art 47712. Small Seated Bronze Buddha on Lotus Pedestal in the Nelson-

Atkins Museum of Art 48013. Two Cross-ankled Maitreya Bodhisattvas 481

a. Stone Maitreya Bodhisattva 481b. Bronze Maitreya Bodhisattva in the Nelson-

Atkins Museum of Art 483G. Concluding Remarks 487

PART II: CENTRAL ASIAThe Northern Silk Road in Eastern Central Asia:Sites and Art of Tumshuk, Kucha and Karashahr

Chapter Three

TUMSHUK

I. Introduction 496

II. Toqquz-Sarai 499A. Large Sanctuary "A" 499

TABLE OF CONTENTS XV

1. Stupa Court 4992. "Rooms" of the Southwest Side and Their Sculptural Remains . . . 501

a. Small Temple ' J" 502i. Sculptures 503ii. Paintings 505

b. Zone "S" 506c. Temple "R" 506d. Small Temple "I" 507e. Northwest Side of Large Sanctuary 'A" 517

B. Central Sanctuary 518C. Sanctuary "B" 522

1. Scattered Image Remains 5232. In-situ Narrative Relief Panels 526

D. North Group and Temple "D" 529E. Temple "N" 532

III. Tumshuk-Tagh 535A. Central Group 536B. Western Group 537

1. Stupa Site 538a. Small standing wooden Buddha (III 7668) 538b. Seated dhyanasana wooden Buddha (III 8034) 540c. Lower portion of a clay standing Buddha 543d. Other objects from Stupa Site 543

2. Small Temple with Statues 5443. Remains from around the Small Temple with Statues 548

a. Standing wooden Buddha (III 8035) 548b. Fragment of a textile banner 549

4. Southwest ("Gandhara") Temple with Octagonal Pedestal 550C. Eastern Group 551

1. "Main Temple" and Group of Temples on the High Plateau 5522. Small "Temple of the Pedestal" 5543. Objects from the "Temple of the Pedestal" 555

a. Fragment of wall painting with teaching Buddha 555b. Lower torso of a standing Buddha (III 7645) 557c. Dhyanasana monk on a circular lotus pedestal with robe

covering his head (III 7660) 557

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d. Seated cross-ankled Buddha with circular halo and mandorla(III 7657) 558

e. Kneeling worshipping celestial with circular rayed halo(III 7659) 559

4. The "Burnt Temple" 5595. Objects from the Eastern Group of Uncertain Find Spot 560

a. Wooden gilded Buddha head 560b. Dancing Deva 561c. Buddha in bhumisparsa mudra (III 7658) 562d. Head of a Devata : 564e. Three male heads 564f. Two kneeling celestials 564g. Kneeling bearded male figure 565h. Wooden stupa with 13 chattras and triratna finial 565i. Small bronze image on 4-legged stand 566

D. Southern Sanctuary 567E. Standing Wooden Buddha from "Small Ruin in the North" 567

IV Conclusions: Summary and Early Chronology of Sites and Sculptures at Tumshuk 570A. Stupas 570B. Monastery and Temple Plans 571C. Sculpture 575

Chapter Four

THE KUCHA OASIS

I. History of the Kucha Region: Han Dynasty-Sixteen Kingdoms Period 580

II. Buddhism in the Kucha Region 587

A. From the Preface to the Bhiksuniprdtimoksa 587B. Kuchean Monks 589C. Buddhist Literature 591D. Evidences from Hsiian-tsang 595

TABLE OF CONTENTS XVII

III. Buddhist Sites and Art Remains 600A. Duldul-Akur 600

1. Main Temple Site and Early Sculpture Found in-situ 601a. Southeast Side 602

i. Halo fragment with dhyanasana Buddha from entrance (R) 602ii. Shrine (K) 606

a. Lower torso in loin cloth 606b. Large Buddha head 607

b. Southwest Side 608i. Main stupa area 608ii: Room (E) and Objects found from Room (E) 609

a. Seated wooden Buddha with legs pendant 610b. Wooden base for a niche 611

iii. Objects fround near the area designated "B" within Room(E) 611a. Wooden panel of Dlpamkara Buddha 611b. Minature wooden stupa 613c. Minature wooden tower or base of a stupa 614d. Two "mountain" motif wooden image niches 615e. Other wooden fragments 616

c. Northwest Side 617i. "Library" Room 617

a. Two female wooden statuettes 618b. Youth in loin cloth 619

ii. Other rooms (F) and (T) 619d. Northeast Side 620

i. Wall paintings 6202. The Long Passage and the North Stupa Complex 6213. Miscellaneous Wooden Fragments of Unspecified Find Spot 6264. Conclusions: Duldul-Akur 626

B. Subashi 6271. Western Site ., 628

a. Monastery (D) 629i. Central Court and the Stupa 629ii. Reliquary boxes 631iii. Sculptures and decorative carvings in clay and wood 632

b. Temple (C), Monastery (B), and Complex (E) 634c. Large Western Stupa (H) 635

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d. Stupa of the North (A) 636e. Wall Paintings from "Room of the Frescoes" 638

2. Eastern Site 6403. The Caves at Subashi 6434. Brief Conclusions: Subashi 644

C. Kizil: Early Caves (Paintings and Sculptures) 6451. Reliquary Box Found by Le Coq 6472. Three Early Caves: Caves 118, 83 and 84 651

a. Caves 84 and 83 651i. Cave 84 652ii. Cave 83 . . .- 654

b. Cave 118 6553. Cave 38 6584. Cave 47 6665. Cave 48 6696. Cave 77 670

a. Cave layout and wall paintings 670b. Sculptures from Cave 77 673

i. Lower torso of a standing Buddha 673ii. Standing Buddha 675iii. Torso of a Devata (?) 676iv. Torso with crown and warrior's armor 677v. Four heads 678

7. Cave 76 6788. Cave 212 6819. Cave 14 683

a. Paintings on the walls 684b. East sideof ceiling 687c. West side of ceiling, 689

10. Cave 34 69111. Cave 114 69212. Wooden Sculptures from Kizil '. 694

a. Buddha seated with legs pendant (probably Maitreya) 694b. Cross-ankled Maitreya Bodhisattva 695c. Standing Buddha 697d. Dhyanasana Buddha with circular flame mandorla 698e. Dhyanasana Buddha with plain robe and whorl-shaped hair. . . 699

TABLE,OF CONTENTS XIX

f. Dhyanasana Buddha with flame mandorla 701g. Dhyanasana Buddha with plain circular haloes and lotus

pedestal 701h. Dhyanasana Buddha with circular haloes 702i. Dhyanasana Buddha in plain robe 703j . Dhyanasana Buddha (headless) with one shoulder bare 704k. Standing Buddha with right arm down 7041. Standing Buddha in a niche 705

13. Concluding Remarks: Kizil 706D. Kumtura 707

1. GK Cave 20 7082. GK Cave 21 7143. Some Sculptures from Kumtura 715

a. Large clay standing Buddha (after Griinwedel) 715b. Small wooden seated Bodhisattva 716c. Painted clay seated Devata 716d. Miniature wooden stupa 717

IV Conclusions: Kucha 717

Chapter Five

KARASHAHR

I. Introduction 720A. Brief History 720B. Karashahr (Yen-ch'i) from the Accounts of Fa-hsien and Hsiian-tsang. 724C. Buddhist Literature 728

II. Buddhist Remains of the Shorchuk Ming-oi Site 730A. Main Site 731

1. Ruins of the Southeast Sector 732a. Group A (A1-A23) 733b. Group B (B1-B19) 754c. Groups C and D (C1-C13; D1-D7) 767

2. Ruins of the Northwest Sector 776a. Groups E and F (E1-E3; F1-F10) 776

XX TABLE OF CONTENTS

i. Northwest corner of the F4 back passage: in-situ sculpture . . 780ii. Back walls of F4 back passage: colossal Parinirvana Buddha

and other sculpture 781iii. Northeast corner of the F4 back passage: in-situ sculpture . . 783iv. Sculpture from the F4 cella 785

a. Devata figures 785b. Various heads 787

i. Bearded heads 787ii. Frowning face 788

c. Draped female 788d. Ascetic torso 788e. Warrior figures 789/ Plant forms 789g. Horses 789

v. Sculptures from the F4 back passage 790vi. Sculptures in the Hermitage Museum from Temple F4 . . . . 791

b. Group K (K1-K13) 792c. Groups L, M, N and QJL1-L12; M1-M6, N and OJ 799

3. Conclusions: Temples, Sculptures and Paintings of the ShorchukMing-oi Main Site 802a. General remarks and overview 802b. Temple types, plans and sources 804c. Chronological summary of sculptures and paintings 808

B. Caves ". 8111. Description of Caves 1-11 811

a. Description of Caves 5a and 5b 814b. Sculptures from Caves 5a and 5b 820

2. Summary Chronology of the Caves 837a. Brief remarks on the plans and dating sequence 837b. Sculpture 839c. Wall paintings 840d. Concluding Remarks on the caves at Shorchuk Ming-oi 841

III. Buddhist Remains of Khora 843A. The Ruins 843B. Sculpture 844

1. Small Dhyanasana Wooden Buddha 8442. Wooden panel with painted Buddha scenes and sculpted lions . . . . 846

TABLE OF CONTENTS XXI

IV Conclusions: Karashahr 846

Conclusions: Volume II 848

Bibliography 857Index 875