early arabic bookmaking techniques as described by al-rāzī...

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2011 DOI: 10.1163/187846411X597243

brill.nl/jimJournal of Islamic Manuscripts 2 (2011) 223-234

Early Arabic Bookmaking Techniques as Described by al-Rāzī in His Recently Rediscovered

Zīnat al-Katabah

Mahmoud ZakiResearcher, The Institute of Arabic Manuscripts (ALECSO), Cairo, Egypt

[email protected]

AbstractThis paper provides an introduction to one of the oldest, and until recently, unknown treatises on the topic of Islamic bookmaking: the Zīnat al-Katabah by the physician and chemist Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā al-Rāzī (d. 313/925). It demonstrates this text’s relevance to bookmaking literature, contextualizes its title and author, and supplies a detailed description of its contents. The main subjects discussed within al-Rāzī’s work include ink-making techniques, invisible inks, paper soaking, and erasures on parchment, papyrus and paper. This paper also contains an initial comparison between al-Rāzī’s text and other texts, both earlier as well as sub-sequent, on the same subject. Lastly, an analysis reveals the fact that this text has been cited by authors who failed to provide a reference, then corrects some distorted passages, and disputes various falsely established ideas.

KeywordsIslamic manuscripts, Arabic manuscripts, Islamic codicology, Arabic codicology, Islamic book-making, Arabic bookmaking, al-Rāzī, Zīnat al-Katabah, Dār al-Kutub, Zīnat al-Kuttāb, Cairo, National Library and Archives of Egypt

Introduction

When I participated in a manuscript cataloguing project of composite vol-umes (majāmīʿ) at The National Library and Archives of Egypt (Dār al-Kutub) a colleague consulted me regarding the suitable subject heading of a manu-script entitled Zīnat al-katabah by Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā al-Rāzī. It did not take long to realize that this was one of the oldest known treatises on Arabic bookmaking, a real discovery.1 This article constitutes a short notice

1 An earlier version of this article was presented at the conference Codicology and History of the Book in Arabic Script (Madrid, 27-29 May 2010). I hope to complete a critical edition of the text in the near future.

224 M. Zaki / Journal of Islamic Manuscripts 2 (2011) 223-234

concerning this recently rediscovered manuscript; the title and the author are contextualized, and a detailed description is provided. This paper also provides a comparison involving certain preceding and subsequent texts on the same subject.

Origins and Significance

A substantial amount of difficulties related to the identification of authors and titles as well as the establishment of a link between these authors and book titles may be encountered during a survey of traditional literature treating treatises on Arabic bookmaking. Take, for example, the work entitled al-Abrār fī bary al-qalam wa-sụnʿ al-aḥbār, copies of which are preserved in Tetuan (Titẉān),2 Berlin and possibly elsewhere. The author of this work remains anonymous to this date. Another potential difficulty is a lack of biographical details to compliment an author’s name that has been provided, as is the case with Ibn Abī Ḥamīdah (or Ḥumaydah) recognized as the author of Tadbīr al-safīr fī sịnāʿat al-tasfīr,3 a treatise on book binding. Yet other bibliographical obstacles are met when studying the ʿUmdat al-kuttāb. There exist numerous copies of this book and researchers have varying opinions concerning its author. Is it al-Muʿizz Ibn Bādīs (d. 454/1062), as it is widely assumed, or is it his son Tamīm (d. 501/1108)? Or, was the book written by someone else; neither the father nor the son?4

In addition, certain authors of texts on bookmaking are not particularly known specifically for this craft, whereas we may know them as Islamic

Acknowledgment: I am grateful to Dār al-Kutub (Cairo) and al-Furqān Islamic Heritage Foun-dation (London), for their interesting project, and in particular to Prof. Dr. ʿAbd al-Sattār al-Ḥalwajī, the supervisor of the project, for his thoughtful comments concerning this paper. My thanks also go to my helpful colleagues, especially to Manār al-Khayyāl, the conservator at the National Library.

2 Titẉān, Public Library, MS 140, as seen in the copy preserved in the Institute of Arabic Manuscripts in Cairo (al-Maʿārif al-ʿĀmmah No. 222).

3 Adam Gacek, ‘Ibn Abī Ḥamīdah’s didactic poem for bookbinders’, in: Manuscripts of the Middle East, 6 (1991), pp. 41-58, here p. 41; Maḥmūd Zakī, ‘Naḥwa ʿ īlm makhtụ̄tạ̄t ʿ arabī: ʿ arḍ’, in: al-Fihrist, 16 (October 2006), p. 123-146, here p. 141.

4 al-Muʿizz Ibn Bādīs, ‘ʿUmdat al-kuttāb wa-ʿuddat dhawī al-albāb’, edd. ʿAbd al-Sattār al-Ḥalwajī and ʿAlī ʿAbd al-Muḥsin Zakī, in: Majallat Maʿhad al-Makhtụ̄tạ̄t al-ʿArabīyah, 17 (1971), pp. 44-172, here pp. 52-55; al-Muʿizz Ibn Bādīs, ʿUmdat al-kuttāb wa-ʿuddat dhawī al-albāb, ed. Iyād Khālid al-Ṭabbāʿ, Damascus: Wizārat al-Thaqāfah, 2009, pp. 9-13; Muḥammad ibn Maymūn al-Marrākushī, ‘Kitāb al-azhār fī ʿamal al-aḥbār li-Muḥammad ibn Maymūn ibn ʿImrān al-Marrākushī (al-qarn al-sābiʿ al-hijrī)’, introduced by Ibrāhīm Shabbūḥ, in: Zeitschrift für Geschichte der arabisch-islamischen Wissenschaften, 14 (2001), pp. 41-133, here p. 41.

M. Zaki / Journal of Islamic Manuscripts 2 (2011) 223-234 225

jurisprudents ( fuqahāʾ) and judges (quḍāh), as is the case with al-Ishbīlī and al-Rasmūkī.5

While the above-mentioned works are all recognized to a certain extent, I have found the text presented in this paper to have been entirely unknown. Recent studies on Arabic bookmaking published in both the East and the West do not mention this treatise, not even as a lost work. It is in fact one of the oldest recorded treatises on the topic. It is certainly older than the ʿUmdat al-kuttāb, which is considered to be the oldest treatise of its kind.6 Al-Risālah al-ʿadhrāʾ by Abū al-Yusr Ibrāhīm al-Shaybānī (d. 298/911)7 is contemporary to al-Rāzī, yet it treats technical matters pertaining to bookmaking and liter-ary subjects at the same time. Some passages, that date even earlier, can be found in more general works of literature8 and chemistry.9

The importance of this recently rediscovered text is—apart from its his-torical value—that it is genuine. What’s more, it was written by a famous physician and chemist, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā al-Rāzī (251-313/865-925).10 This author was recognized for his interest in and work with texts and reproduction. Al-Nadīm (d. 380/990) mentions in his Fihrist that al-Rāzī had the tendancy to be constantly at work transcribing; whenever some-one visited him, he was seen either working on a draft or on a neat copy.11

5 Bakr ibn Ibrāhīm al-Ishbīlī, (d. 628/1231 or 629/1232), ‘al-Taysīr fī sịnāʿat al-tasfīr’, ed. ʿAbd Allāh Kannūn in: Majallat Maʿhad al-Dirāsāt al-Islāmīyah fī Madrīd (= Revista del Instituto de Estudios Islámicos en Madrid), 7-8 (1959-1960), pp. 1-42, here pp. 5-6; ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Rasmūkī (d. 1065/1654), Kayfīyat tasfīr al-kutub, ed. al-Saʿīd Binmūsa. Rabat: Frits, 2008, pp. 8-10.

6 al-Marrākushī, al-Azhār, pp. 41-42. 7 Abū al-Yusr Ibrāhīm al-Shaybānī, al-Risālah al-ʿadhrāʾ, ed. Zakī Mubārak, Cairo: Dār al-

Kutub al-Misṛīyah, 1931. Regarding the exact name of the author see: Maḥmūd ʿAlī Makkī, ‘Ḥawl taḥqīq muʾallif al-Risālah al-ʿadhrā al-mansūba li-Ibrāhīm Ibn al-Mudabbir’, in: Majalla Majmaʿ al-Lugha al-ʿArabiyya bī- al-Qāhirah, 62 (May 1988), pp. 190-201.

8 E.g. in Abū ʿUthmān al-Jāḥiz ̣(d. 255/869) in his ‘Risālah fī al-jadd wa-al-hazl’, in: ʿAbd al-Salām Hārūn (ed.), Rasāʾil al-Jāḥiz,̣ Cairo: al-Khānjī, 1964, pp. 227-278, here pp. 252-254.

9 E.g. in the Kitāb al-Khawāsṣ ̣al-Kabīr’ (‘The great book of properties’) of Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (d. 198/813), in: Aḥmad Yūsuf Ḥassan, ‘Industrial Chemistry in Kitāb al-Khawasṣ ̣al-Kabīr of Jābir ibn Ḥayyān’, in: Journal of history of Arabic Science, 14 (2008), available at: http://www.history-science-technology.com, accessed on 5/5/2010, essays 29, 31, 60.

10 See Julius Ruska, Al-Rāzī’s Buch Geheimnis der Geheimnisse. Mit Einleitung und Erläuterun-gen in deutscher Übersetzung von—. Berlin (Springer) 1937 (Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften und der Medizin, Band 6).

11 Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq al-Nadīm, al-Fihrist, ed. Ayman Fuʾād Sayyid. London: al-Furqān Islamic Heritage Foundation, 2009, vol. 2, p. 306; translation B. Dodge, The Fihrist of al-Nadīm: A tenth-century survey of Muslim culture. New York: Columbia University Press, 1972, vol. 2, p. 702.


The found manuscript makes mention of its own title: Zīnat al-Katabah

(

‘The ornament of the scribes’), which almost matches the title Zīnat al-Kuttāb that is referred to in ʿUyūn al-anbāʾ12 and Hadīyat al-ʿĀrifīn13 as a

work attributed to al-Rāzī. It may be identical to Ḥiyal al-Kuttāb (

=

‘The tricks of the scribes’), which is mentioned by al-Bīrūnī (d. 440/1048) in al-Rāzī’s bio-bibliography.14 The British Library’s manuscript of a separate al-Rāzī bio-bibliography, Fihrist Kutub Muḥammad b. Zakariyāʾ al-Rāzī al-Mutatạbbib wa-Aghrāḍihā (

) only cites the title Kitāb fī ʿamal al-ḥadīd wa-al-ḥibr (‘A book on the work with iron and ink’), which may be a different text altogether.15

Description of the Manuscript

Al-Rāzī’s treatise on bookmaking appears to have been preserved in just one manuscript, which is kept in the Dār al-Kutub in Cairo. It is part of a compos-ite volume (majmūʿ) with the class-mark Majāmīʿ Ṭalʿat 331. It is the fifth text of the volume, and consists of eleven pages (ff. 79a-84a). The book measures 18.1cm × 11.5cm (text area 13.3cm × 6.8cm), and there are 20 lines to the page. The title Zīnat al-Katabah is given along with the author in the heading at the beginning of the text, in the introduction (f. 79a), and at the colophon

(f. 84a). The front-page of the volume includes a table of contents (

) in which the title of the text is given as

(Risālah fī sạnʿat al- midād) = ‘A treatise on the making of ink’.

The colophon states that it was copied on Monday 6 Shaʿbān 907 (1502), and it may be noted that the preceeding and subsequent texts within the same volume were written on different dates.

12 Ibn Abī Usạybiʿa, Aḥmad ibn al-Qāsim (d. 668/1270). ʿUyūn al-anbāʾ fī tạbaqāt al-atịbbāʾ (d. 668/1270), ed. August Müller: p. 321. Ibn Abī Usạybiʿa also mentions: ‘Ṣifat midād maʿjūn lā nazị̄r lahu’: p. 320.

13 Al-Baghdādī, Ismāʿīl (d. 1399 h/1920). Hadiyyat al-ʿārifīn: vol. 2, p. 28.14 Abū al-Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī, Risālah li-l-Biruni fī fihrist kutub Muḥammad ibn Zakariyāʾ al-

Razi (= Epitre de Beruni contenant le repertoire des ouvrages de Muḥammad b. Zakariyā ar-Razi), ed. P. Kraus. Paris: G.P. Maisonneuve, 1936, p. 21, No. 184. See also Julius Ruska, ‘Al-Biruni als Quelle für das Leben und die Schriften al-Razi’s, in: Isis 5 (1923), pp. 26-50, p. 48. Al-Bīrūnī’s catalogue has as its sole base MS Leiden Or. 133 (2), see P. Voorhoeve, Handlist of Arabic Manu-scripts, p. 83. The word ḥiyal (‘tricks’) is used in al-Razi’s text on bookmaking.

15 The colophon of MS London, British Library, Or. 5479, shows the name of the scribe, who might also be the author: Alī ibn Yūsuf ibn Marwān.


The copyist of al-Rāzī’s text, although not mentioned, is likely Sạḍr al-Dīn al-Shirwānī, the same person who copied other texts in the volume and inscribed an owner’s note on the front-page of the volume.

The text is written in a small nastaʿlīq script, in black ink. Red ink is used for the heading, the folio numbering, and the overlining written over the beginning of each paragraph. There are also catchwords (taʿqībah). Some cor-rections are present in the margins or with collation marks. The paper is a beige colour and has some damp stains. Traces of a primitive conservation treatment are visible, especially on the upper and lower edges.

The volume is bound in brown leather with simple decoration: a single central medallion, stamped in relief on the leather, with plain fillets, and end-ing with a flap.

Seven statements are given on the front-page of the volume, including four ownership marks (tamalluk), two general statements in Turkish and a third statement that has been rendered illegible, scratched out. The four ownership statements read as follows:

.

–

– ٣٠

–

–

The manuscript was previously part of the collection belonging to Aḥmad Ṭalʿat Bek (d. 1346/1927). It entered Dār al-Kutub after 1929,16 and was never described in any published catalogue or database.

Topics of the Text

The text begins with the book’s title and the name of the author, and then defines the motive behind its composition, stating for whom it was written: the scribes and their professional needs:

16 Ayman Fuʾād Sayyid, La Bibliothèque nationale égyptienne, son histoire et son évolution: Dār al-Kutub al-Misṛiyya. Beirut: Awrāq Sharqīyah, 1996, p. 32.


،

،

.

17

The introduction concludes with a summary of the main topics and content, including ink recipes, invisible inks, erasers for use on paper and parchment, etc.:

،

،

،

18

،

The text continues with a series of recipes and techniques. Although there is a lack of clear classification, the beginning of each entry is indicated using red overlining. There are eighteen recipes in total: seven ink recipes for common use and eleven invisible ink recipes. Together, these recipes make up about thirty percent of the entire text. Although coloured inks were used at that time, the included recipes are only for making black ink.19

The ink recipes include various specialized inks. For example, one sort of ink listed can be used immediately after preparation, while another is more suited for longterm storage or for travelers. Other recipes are for invisible inks which can be made to reveal their message using certain techniques. While one such ink reappears only at night, another disappears gradually; there are many interesting tricks.

The materials which are commonly used in ink-making are gallnut, vitriol and gum arabic. The writing tools most often mentioned are the pen, the inkwell and the līqah, which is the pad (usually made of wool) used to absorb ink. No other instruments are described.

The author offers information and methods for removing ink traces from writing surfaces and from clothes, as well as for the reuse of parchment (palimpsest = tịrs or tịls). He also gives detailed instruction for the removal of other stains, caused by fruits and various natural or industrial materials. More than fifty functional recipes for this purpose are provided. Nine out of these are for removing ink from writing surfaces, and eight are for removing ink

17 MS Cairo, Dār al-Kutub, Majāmīʿ Ṭalʿat 331, f. 79a.18 MS Cairo, Dār al-Kutub, Majāmīʿ Ṭalʿat 331, f. 79a.19 Recipes for gold ink and red ink are mentioned in Jābir ibn Ḥayyān, Kitāb al-Khawāsṣ ̣

al-Kabīr, in: Aḥmad Yūsuf Ḥassan, ‘Industrial Chemistry’, essays 31, 60.


stains from clothes. These recipes represent approximately forty percent of the text.

As for writing surfaces, parchment (raqq or riqq), papyrus (qirtạ̄s), and paper (kāghid or kāghad) are all mentioned. Their inclusion in this text confirms that all these materials were available at the time when the treatise was composed, and that a special terminology was employed to distinguish between them.20

The author mentions processes for soaking, adhering and thickening paper, which he calls al-kāghid al-mutạbbaq (‘layered paper’), as well as a recipe for treating papyrus to look aged. This section represents less than ten percent of the text.

Lastly, the manuscript touches on other topics of a more general nature, some of which may or may not be overly relevant to bookmaking. These sub-jects include hair pigments, the sharpening of knives and swords, etc.21 and represent roughly twenty percent of the text. Al-Rāzī does not deal in the pres-ent treatise with other matters related to bookmaking, such as paper-making and bookbinding.

A Comparative Analysis

The comparison of this newly rediscovered text with preceding and subse-quent works reveals marked influences. For example, the removal of ink traces had been previously treated by other authors, in particular by al-Kindī (d. 252/867) in his treatise Risālah fī qal ʿ al-āthār (‘a treatise on the removal of traces),22 and by ʿAlī ibn Rabbān al-Ṭabarī (d. 247/861) in his medical handbook Firdaws al-ḥikma.23 Furthermore, invisible inks have been men-tioned by others, especially in literary works; although mainly in al-Rāzī’s own al-Risālah al-ʿadhrāʾ.24

In addition, there are lost titles which are contemporary to al-Rāzī’s treatise, such as ʿAmal al-asḅāgh wa-al-midād wa-al-ḥibr (‘The making of dyes and

20 For more details see: Ḥabīb Zayyāt, Al-Wirāqah wa-sịnāʿat al-kitābah wa-muʿjam al-sufun; Adam Gacek, ATM and suppl.

21 It should however be noted that knives and swords were used in bookbinding and in pre-paring pens.

22 Yaʿqūb ibn Isḥāq al-Kindī, Risālah fī qal ʿ al-āthār: pp. 141-197; ed. Muḥammad ʿIsa Sạ̄liḥiyya: pp. 83-111.

23 ʿAlī ibn Rabban al-Ṭabarī, Firdaws al-ḥikmah, ed. Muḥammad Zubayr Sịddīqī, pp. 530-532. 24 Al-Shaybānī, op. cit., pp. 190-201.


inks’) by al-Kindī’s student Muḥammad ibn Yazīd al-Baghdādī Dūbays (deceased around 311/923).25

Contemporary texts as well as earlier works affected al-Rāzī’s treatise, while he himself influenced later productions, both directly and indirectly. Much of al-Rāzī’s Zīnat al-karabah has been copied by Ibn Bādīs in the ʿUmdat al-kuttāb. His work can also be recognized in other texts, without proper referencing; the source not specified. In fact, few authors are the exception. One is al-Qalalūsī, who often alludes implicitly to al-Rāzī, yet mentions him explicitly approxi-mately four times.26 Al-Marrākushī, who refers to al-Rāzī only once, is another such author.27

An example of one of al-Rāzī’s recipes, slightly altered, can be found in later texts as follows:28

،

:

،

،

،

،

،

،

،

The corresponding passages can be found in ʿUmdat al-kuttāb29 by Ibn Bādīs, in al-Mukhtaraʿ fi funūn min al-sụnaʿ30 by al-Malik al-Muzạffar, in Tuḥaf al-khawāsṣ3̣1 by al-Qalalūsī, in Qatf̣ al-azhār32 by al-Maghribī, in al-Azhār fī ʿamal al-aḥbār33 by al-Marrākushī and in al-Abrār fī bary al-qalam wa-sụnʿ al-aḥbār.34

A further analysis of bibliographical sources used in later works on book-making may help correct textual distortions. Some well-known statements on the history of bookmaking now prove to be incorrect, as we were unaware of

25 Al-Nadīm, ed. Ayman F. Sayyid, vol. 2, p. 463. 26 Abū Bakr Muḥammad al-Qalalūsī, Tuḥaf al-khawāsṣ ̣ fī tụraf al-khawasṣ,̣ ed. Ḥusām

al-ʿAbbādī, pp. 21, 23, 36. 27 Al-Marrākushī, op. cit., p. 75. 28 Al-Rāzī, Zīnat al-katabah, MS Cairo, Dār al-Kutub, f. 79b.29 Ibn Bādīs, ʿUmdat al-kuttāb, ed. al-Ḥalwajī, p. 100. 30 Al-Malik al-Muzaffar (694/1294), al-Mukhtaraʿ fī funūn min al-sụnaʿ, ed. Muḥammad ʿĪsā

Sạ̄liḥiyya, p. 12. 31 Al-Qalalūsī, op. cit., p. 21.32 Aḥmad ibn ʿAwaḍ al-Maghribī (1120/1708), Qatf̣ al-azhār fī khasị̄s ̣al-aḥjār. Ed. Bīrwīn

Tawfīq, p. 277.33 Al-Marrākushī, op. cit., p. 75.34 MS Titẉān 140, p. 17.


al-Rāzī’s treatise. Ibn Bādīs’ work ʿUmdat al-kuttāb is no longer considered to be the oldest treatise concerning bookmaking. Some sources, for example Ibrāhīm Shabbūḥ, state with certainty that the ink recipes described in works by al-Marrākushī and al-Qalalūsī can be attributed to al-Rāzī among others. The proposed justification being that they are recipes for ink which they them-selves used. However, while the afore-mentioned inks do originate from Zīnat al-katabah, the presence of a recipe in his treatise does not guarantee that al-Rāzī used, let alone preferred, a specific ink over all others, nor does the text declare such a statement.35 Thus, the recently rediscovered treatise by al-Rāzī can be used as a tool for the reassessment of previous studies done on the his-tory of Arabic bookmaking. This ancient text may extend our knowledge of Arabic codicology as well as of bookmaking history, and, finally, it may play a role in the development of new strategies in manuscript conservation.

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35 Ibrāhīm Shabbūḥ, ‘Two new sources on the art of mixing ink’, pp. 59, 66; al-Marrākushī, op. cit., pp. 41, 49; al-Qalalūsī, op. cit., p. 14.


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Zīnat al-Katabah by Muḥammad b. Zakarīyāʾ al-Rāzī. Beginning of the text. MS Cairo, Dār al-Kutub, Majāmīʿ Ṭalʿat 331, f. 79a.


Zīnat al-Katabah by Muḥammad b. Zakarīyāʾ al-Rāzī. End of the text. MS Cairo, Dār al-Kutub, Majāmīʿ Ṭalʿat 331, f. 84a.

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early arabic bookmaking techniques as described by al-rāzī...

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