e-bookprecisionfarming in horticulture

PRECISION FARMINGIN

HORTICULTURE

Editors

H. P. SINGHGORAKH SINGHJOSE C. SAMUEL

R.K. PATHAK

National Committee on Plasticulture Application inHorticulture (NCPAH)

Department of Agriculture and CooperationMinistry of Agriculture

Govt. of India

Precision Farming Development CentreCentral Institute for Subtropical Horticulture

Lucknow

Precision Farming in HorticultureProceedings of the National Seminar-cum-Workshop on Hi-TechHorticulture and Precision Farming 2002, held at Lucknow on26-28 July, 2002

Editors

H. P. SINGHGORAKH SINGHJOSE C. SAMUELR. K. PATHAK

© 2003 NCPAH, DAC/PFDC, CISH

No part of this material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced orutilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying,recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without prior writtenpermission of the copyright owners. The editors have taken utmost care to avoid errorsin this publication, however the editors are in no way responsible for the authenticity ofdata or information given by the contributors.

Bibliographic CitationSingh, H. P., Singh, Gorakh; Samuel, J. C., Pathak, R.K. (Eds), (2003). Precision Farming inHorticulture, NCPAH, DAC, MOA, PFDC, CISH, PP. 1-354.

Published by National Committee on Plasticulture Application in Horticulture (NCPAH), Departmentof Agriculture & Cooperation (DAC) and Precision Farming Development Centre (PFDC), CentralInstitute for Subtropical Horticulture (CISH), Lucknow

Photo Courtesy : Dr Gorakh Singh

Published by NCPAH, DAC/PFDC, CISH

Printed at Army Printing Press, 33 Nehru Road, Sadar Cantt, Lucknow. Tel. : 2481164, 2480546

FOREWORDHorticulture has emerged as the most promising and favoured candidate promoting

diversification and combating climate change. The growing demand, in recent years,for horticultural produce for internal consumption as well as for exports has highlightedthe need for increasing the production and enhancing the productivity of these crops.

Efforts made to harness available technologies through Plan-schemes have yieldedgood results and India has secured a creditable position in the international scene in theproduction of many horticultural products such as mango, banana, cashew and cabbage.To tap the existing potential fully, however, it will be necessary to make available, to thefarming community, the latest technologies in the cost-effective manner. Precision farmingis one such area which can facilitate the most efficient utilization of resources and improvereturns per unit area and time. The challenge of producing 265 million tonnes ofhorticultural produce by 2008 from the current level of 150 million tonnes, calls for theadoption of bold and imaginative strategic approaches, through the development ofmodern tools. Keeping this in view, the Government of India has contemplated thedeployment of hi-tech horticulture and precision farming tools during the X Five-YearPlan.

In doing so, as many of the concepts being new, it was essential to take on boardthe advancements made within the country and abroad in terms of hardware andsoftware. I am glad that all these issues were deliberated upon in detail during theNational Seminar-cum-Workshop on Hi-tech Horticulture and Precision Farming heldon 26-28 July, 2002 at Lucknow. The exercise generated a wealth of information andit is heartening to note that the proceedings of the Seminar are being brought out in theform of a book entitled “Precision Farming in Horticulture” containing articles of

Government of IndiaMinistry of AgricultureDepartment of Agriculture & CooperationKrishi Bhawan, New Delhi-110001Phone : 3382651, 3388444Fax No. : 3386004

SecretaryGovernment of India

Mohan Kanda

great relevance to the effort aimed at giving shape to the programmes under way fordelivering to the farmers state-of-the-art technologies.

I heartily compliment the Editors for the excellent effort that has gone into thecompilation of this book for the benefit of scientists as well as policy-makers. I feelconfident that its contents will prove to be of significant value in the years to come.

Date : 13th February, 2003 (Mohan Kanda)

PREFACE

India being endowed with varying climatic conditions provides ample opportunityfor the development of horticulture. Recognizing the potential and opportunities, whichhorticulture provides enhanced focus and plan investment has been rewarding. With aproduction of 153 million MT, India has emerged a major global player in horticulture.Horticulture is expected to have accelerated growth rate above 7 per cent for achievingoverall growth of agriculture to the tune of 4 per cent. In the task of achieving the highergrowth rate, hi-tech interventions like precision farming in horticulture is essentiallyrequired, as horticultural crops, whether it be a fruit, vegetable, flower, spice, medicinaland aromatic plant or plantation crops, respond to technologies like micropropagation,microirrigation, fertigation etc. In order to optimize the use of resources and improvethe returns to the farmers, these technologies have to be adopted. The establishment ofPlasticulture Development Centre (PDC) at 17 locations, has enabled to developregionally differentiated technologies, besides capacity building of farmers and officialin promoting the hi-tech tools, and past experiences are suggestive of rewarding outcomein terms of increased production and productivity.

Precision Farming, has attracted the attention of developed countries for increasingproductivity by temporal and spatial management of resources using various tools. Theconcept of precision farming is new to the country and needs appropriate attention forefficient utilization of resources to achieve higher input-use efficiency in given time.Plastic Development Centres working on various components of precision farming havebeen redesignated to Precision Farming Development Centres. To conceptualize theprogramme and develop appropriate action plan and to promote the concepts it wasthought appropriate to discuss issues involved in the development of hi-tech horticultureand precision farming in larger group before launching new scheme. Accordingly aNational Seminar-cum-Workshop on Hi-tech Horticulture and Precision Farming wasorganized by the National Committee on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture(NCPAH), Ministry of Agriculture at Precision Farming Development Centre, CISH,Lucknow, in July 2002. The conference had participation of all the stake holders, whodeliberated systematically the need and modalities for the promotion of hi-techhorticulture and precision farming. Recognising the richness of knowledge, which wasgathered in this workshop, this book entitled, Precision Farming in Horticulture,is an excellent documentation of information. This book contains chapters from expertsin the field covering hi-tech horticulture, precision farming, and crop specific technology.

The book, a compilation of information on precision farming, will be of much value forthose engaged in hi-tech horticulture.

The Editors would like to place on record their gratefulness to Shri J.N.L.Srivastava, the then Secretary (A&C) for his encouragement and guidance inconceptualizing of the programmes on hi-tech horticulture and precision farming. TheEditors are highly grateful to Shri Mohan Kanda, Secretary (A&C) for his help andsupport in promoting the development of horticulture through hi-tech interventions.Thanks are also due to Shri Hemendra Kumar, the then Special Secretary (A&C) forhis active participation and guidance in the promotion of horticultural developmentprogramme as well as in organizing the Seminar. The Editors are highly thankful to Dr.G. Kalloo, Deputy Director-General (Hort.), ICAR, New Delhi, for his close involvementin promoting hi-tech horticultural research in the country in general and for his activeparticipation in the Seminar. The Editors are deeply indebted to all the Resource Speakersfor their valuable contribution without which it would not have been possible to bringout this publication. Finally, the Editors would like to thank one and all who havecontributed directly or indirectly in bringing out this publication.

EDITORS

PRECISION FARMING

1. Hi-tech horticulture and precision farming: issues and approaches 1H. P. Singh

2. Perspective of hi-tech horticulture and precision farming 21Jose C. Samuel and H.P. Singh

3. Remote sensing and GIS as a tool for precision farming in horticulture sector in India 35J.S. Parihar, S. Panigrahy and Ashvir Singh

4 Site-specific nutrient management for high yield and quality of fruit crops 45K.N. Tiwari

5. Land and nutrient management in precision farming 55H.S. Chauhan

6. Cultivation in hi-tech greenhouses for enhanced productivity of natural Farming 64resources to achieve the objective of precision farmingPitam Chandra and M.J. Gupta

7. Strategic approaches of precision technology for improvement 75of fruit productionV. K. Singh and Gorakh Singh

8. Approaches and strategies for precision farming in guava 92Gorakh Singh, Shailendra Rajan and A.K. Singh

9. Precision farming of banana in Maharastra 114V.R. Balasubrahmanyam, A.V. Dhake, K.B. Patil, Prosenjit Moitra and S. Daryapurkar

10. Approaches and strategies for precision farming in mango 124Shailendra Rajan and Gorakh Singh

11. Integrated approaches in management of mango diseases 145Om Prakash

12. Approaches and strategies for precision farming in papaya 164A.K. Singh and Gorakh Singh

13. Approaches and strategies for precision farming in aonla 176|R.K. Pathak, D. Pandey, Gorakh Singh and Dushyant Mishra

14. Precision farming in onion 192U.B. Pandey

CONTENTS

ForewordPreface

HI-TECH HORTICULTURE

15 Scope of fertigation in hi-tech horticulture 198Ashwani Kumar and H.P. Singh

16. Automation in hi-tech horticulture for efficient resource management 214T.B.S. Rajput and Neelam Patel

17. Hi-tech nursery with special reference to fruit crops 226Gorakh Singh and Anju Bajpai

18. Genetic engineering: A strategic approach for hi-tech horticulture 239Jasdeep Chatrath Padaria and Ramesh Chandra

19. Micropropagation for production of disease-free planting material 253Ramesh Chandra and Maneesh Mishra

20. Acclimatization of horticultural crops: concept and approaches 261Anju Bajpai, Gorakh Singh and Ramesh Chandra

21. Approaches for green food production in horticulture 275R.K. Pathak and R.A. Ram

22. Mahendra Singh and Ajit Kumar

PROCEEDING

23. Proceedings of National Seminar-cum-workshop on Hi-tech Horticulture 304and Precision Farming, Lucknow, 26 - 28 July 2002

Appendix 1 324

Appendix 2 330

Appendix 3 338

Addresses of Authors 348

About the Editors 352

Diversified agriculture support project : approaches in promoting hi-tech horticulture 295

Author Index 351

1HI-TECH HORTICULTURE AND PRECISION

FARMING : ISSUES AND APPROACHESH.P. Singh

The current scenario of horticulture exhibits growth rate of 6.9 per cent duringthe decade, and horticulture sector is expected to play a pivotal role indiversification of agriculture aimed at employment led growth. The pastinterventions have proved beyond doubt that horticulture is one of the best optionsfor improving productivity of land, generating employment, improving economiccondition of farmers and above all providing nutritional security. Working Groupconstituted by the Planning Commission for the development of horticulture duringX Plan has estimated that more thanRs 35,000 crore private investment and 180 crore mandays of employment wouldbe possible through systematic development of horticulture. In our persuit toachieve the growth rate of 4 per cent in agriculture, the horticulture sector has togrow at the rate of about 7 per cent annually. Thus, the potential which exists inthe country, has to be harnessed in a systematic manner. Horticulture sector includesfruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, medicinal plants and plantation crops andcontributes 24.5 per cent to GDP from an area of 8.5 per cent, and has significantcontribution to export. Attention to the development of horticulture was putadequately in VIII Plan, by increasing the plan investment to Rs 1,000 crore fromRs 25 crore in VII Plan. In IX Plan, allocation was to the tune of Rs 1,453 crore.These investments have been rewarding in terms of increased production andproductivity. Now, horticulture sector in the country, despite its numerouschallenges and shortcomings is in crucial phase of development. The trend ofgrowth and achievements have been referred as Golden Revolution.

Keeping in view, the growth potential of horticulture and to sustain thedevelopment, Government of India has given a focussed attention to horticultural

Keynote address delivered by Dr. H.P. Singh, Horticulture Commissioner, Government of India and Member-Secretary, National Committee on Plastics Application in Horticulture, in National Seminar-cum-Workshopon Hi-Tech Horticulture and Precision Farming, 26-28 July 2002, Lucknow

Precision Farming in HorticultureEds: H.P. Singh, Gorakh Singh, Jose C. Samuel and R.K. Pathak © 2003

Precision Farming in Horticulture

2

development in X Plan also with an allocation of about Rs 4,500 crore, includingmacro management. The initiatives, which were taken during the IX Plan areTechnology Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture in North-EasternRegion, Human Resource Development and an area- based approach for theIntegrated development of horticulture in hills and tribal region. Programmes ofNational Horticulture Board have created an impact in infrastructural developmentfor post-harvest management. A technology mission on coconut, besides theprogramme of Coconut Development Board was also initiated to address emergingissues. In the process of development many issues have emerged needing attention.These issues are addressed through programmes with focussed attention onproductivity enhancement and quality assurance. Besides, the programme initiatedduring IX Plan and continued in X Plan two new initiatives, Hi-tech horticulturethrough precision farming and technological interventions for sustainabledevelopment of horticulture shall be taken up during X Plan. All these efforts areexpected to provide enhanced employment and increased private sector investment,having an environment for the development of horticulture.

In the era of open economy, it has become increasingly necessary that ourproduce is competitive, both in the domestic market and exports. This demandsinfusion of technology for an efficient utilization of resources for deriving higheroutput per unit of inputs with excellent quality of produce. This would be possibleonly through deployment of modern hi-tech applications and precision farmingmethods. The National Agriculture Policy has stipulated the application of theseinterventions for the holistic development of horticulture. The PlanningCommission has also attached great importance to this aspect and had asked theWorking Group on Horticulture for Tenth Plan to have detailed deliberations onthe issue for drawing out implementable programmes.

Hi-tech horticulture is the deployment of modern technology which is capitalintensive, less environment dependent, having capacity to improve the productivityand quality of produce. On the other hand, Precision farming involves theapplication of technologies and principles to manage spatial and temporalvariability associated with all aspects of horticultural production for improvingcrop performance and environment quality. Precision farming calls for an efficientmanagement of resources through location-specific hi-tech interventions. Hi-techhorticulture encompasses a variety of interventions such as microirrigation,fertigation, protected/greenhouse cultivation, soil and leaf nutrient-based fertilizermanagement, mulching for in-situ moisture conservation, micropropagation,

biology for germplasm, genetically-modified crops, use of biofertilizers,vermiculture, high-density planting, hi-tech mechanisation, green food, soil-lessculture, biological control etc. Utilisation of these interventions orchestratedtogether having the aim ofachieving higher output ingiven time period leads toprecision farming, which islargely a knowledge driven.

HI-TECHHORTICULTUREInitiatives for hi-tech

horticulture, throughpromotion ofm i c r o i r r i g a t i o n ,micropropagation, high-density planting (Fig. 1),hybrid seeds etc. were takenthrough plan schemes of Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry

Table 1. Theoretical potential for drip irrigation(Area in million ha)

Fig. 1. High-density planting in guava

Crop Area Area suitable for microirrigation

Cereals and millets 100.4 00.00

Pulses 22.50 00.00

Sugarcane 4.10 4.10

Condiments and spices 2.19 1.40

Fruits 3.40 3.40

Vegetables 5.30 5.30

Coconut 1.90 1.90

Oilseeds 26.20 1.90

Cotton 9.00 9.00

Others 1.40 00.00

Total 176.39 27.00


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of Agriculture, which have paved the way for achieving higher productivity throughthe efficient utilisation of resources. Microirrigation, an efficient method ofproviding irrigation water directly into soil at the root zone of plants, permits thewater to consumptive use of plants and facilitate utilisation of water-solublefertilizer and chemicals. To tap the potential, which exists (Table 1) motivation offarmers, ensuring availability of material, technical support and credit availabilitymechanism are essential. Since, the system of irrigation saves water, increasesthe yield and quality of produce and helps in achieving vertical growth,Government of India has given due attention. A centrally sponsored scheme onUse of Plastics in Agriculture with an outlay of Rs 250 crore was launched in VIIIPlan. Water being a critical input for agriculture and keeping in view the increasingdemand on the same from various sectors, an amount of Rs 200 crore wasearmarked for promoting efficient method of irrigation through drip/microirrigationin the country. Initially higher rate of assistance was provided which was reducedin IX Plan (Table 2) to have more participation of beneficiaries. For demonstrationof this technology assistance is provided. Due to the focussed attention and support,

Table 3. Coverage of area under drip irrigation

Table 2. Pattern of assistance for microirrigation during IX PlanState category

Maximum ceiling for small, marginal, SC, ST and women farmers (Rs/ha) (50% of cost) for a crop spacing of 1.5 m x 1.5 m

Maximum ceiling for other category farmers (Rs/ha) (35% of cost) for a crop

spacing of 1.5 m x 1.5 m.

A 22,500 16,000

B 26,000 18.200

C 28,500 20,000

Coverage (ha) Period

Target Achievement

VIII Plan 107044 128444

1997-98 30425 45151

1998-99 43151 53017

1999-2000 38833 45676

2000-01 6747 13422

Total 226200 285710

Hi-tech Horticulture and Precision Farming : Issues and Approaches

5

there has been larger adoption of the technologies and achievements have beenhigher than the targets (Table 3). On an average about 45,000 ha are being broughtunder drip irrigation annually under horticultural crops, as a result India has nowemerged as one of the leading countries in using microirrigation technology. Thegrowth of microirrigation in India in comparison to other countries has beensignificant at 196 per cent. About 22 per cent of the area brought undermicroirrigation hasbeen under coconut, mainly on account of more water requirement of the crop(100 litres/plant/day) as well as the less investments required on account of itswider spacing (7.5 m x 7.5 m). A substantial area has been brought undermiscellaneous crops like grape, banana, papaya, strawberry, guava etc. Other cropscovered are mango, pomegranate, citrus, capsicum and tomato. However, regionalimbalance in use of drip irrigation is seen, as large area has been covered in a fewstates. The major beneficiaries of the programme are Maharashtra, Karnataka,Andhra Pradesh and TamilNadu.

GreenhouseGreenhouse, which

provides protection to crop andcreate environment forgrowing crop out of seasonalso received due attention inthe above scheme. During VIIIPlan assistance was providedfor construction of differenttypes of greenhouses covering

Fig. 2. A view of greenhouse-growing gerbera

Fig. 4. Calla lily growing under greenhouseFig. 3. Orchids growing under shade of net house


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low-cost, medium-cost and high-cost greenhouses (Figs. 2-6). Assistance wascontinued in IX Plan with an outlay of Rs 53.06 crore for covering larger areaunder greenhouses. The programme has helped in generating awareness aboutthe importance of greenhouses and enhancing productivity and production,particularly of horticultural crops having superior quality of produce. About 500ha was brought under greenhouses since inception of the scheme. The major sharehas been in the Leh and Ladakh Region of Jammu and Kashmir where commercialcultivation of vegetables is being promoted. Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,Karnataka, Kerala and the North-Eastern states have also brought significant areaunder greenhouses. Although protected cultivation of horticultural crops was newin the first part of nineties, but through the efforts it has been possible to createawareness among farmers. Even small-scale growers of flowers and vegetablesare keen to adopt protected cultivation for achieving higher yield per unit areahaving excellent quality of produce. However, to make this technology morefarmer-friendly much more is requited to be done for its efficient utilisation.Package of practices for growing of different crops under greenhouse is requiredto be standardised.

MulchingPlastic mulching has proved its efficacy in conserving moisture and enhancing

yield and quality of produce, thus, it was promoted. Assistance for promotingplastic mulching was provided @ 50% of cost subject to a maximum ceiling ofRs 7,000/ha for a maximum of one ha per beneficiary. An area of about 3,000 hawas covered under plastic mulch. However, this intervention has been adopted

Fig. 5. Hi-tech production of capsicum under agreenhouse

Fig. 6. A commercial unit of anthurium grownin pots under greenhouse


7

only for a few high-value crops and need promotion to extend its adoption in anumber of crops.

Demonstration of this innovative technique has been considered importantto convince farmers about its economics. Therefore, one of the programmesimplemented has been on demonstration of plasticulture application likemicroirrigation, greenhouse and mulching. The demonstrations are done both onfarmers’ fields and on the farms of SAUs and Government. In farmers’participatory demonstration assistance has been proved for an area of 2 ha formicroirrigation and an area of 500 m2 for greenhouse. For laying drip irrigationdemonstration, the assistance is @ 75% of unit cost for different spaced cropssubject to a maximum of Rs 34,000/ha. Similarly, for mulching the assistance isrestricted to 75% of the cost, i.e. Rs 10,500/ha for plastic mulching. Thesedemonstration have succeeded in creating an awareness for the use of thisinnovative technology.

The success of any programme depends upon refinement of technology inregionally differentiated manner as per the local needs. Therefore, to havetechnological refinement and capacity building, programmes were initiated through

Table 4. Location and year of establishment of Plasticulture Development CentresName and Location of PFDC Year of establishment

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, W.B. 1985-86 Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, T.N. 1985-86 Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 1986-87 University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore 1986-87 Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Maharahtra 1986-87 N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 1987-88 Orissa University of Agric. & Technol., Bhubanewswar 1987-88 Rajasthan Agric. University, Bikaner, Rajasthan 1987-88 G.B. Pant University of Agric. & Technol, Pantnagar 1987-88 Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam 1988-89 Gujarat Agricultural University, Navasri, Gujarat 1988-89 Rajendra Agricultural University, Samastipur, Bihar 1995-96 Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar, Haryana 1995-96 Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, H.P. 1995-96 Kerala Agricultural University, Tavanur, Kerala 1995-96 Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishva Vidyalaya, Raipur, M.P. 1995-96 Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture (CISH), Lucknow 2001-02


8

network of Plastic Development Centres (PDCs), established in differentagroclimactic conditions, which also serve as a nodal centre for all the information.These centres were established in different Plan periods. Currently there are 17centres working on these interventions (Table 4). Considering the importance ofthe centre and its focus, these centres have been redesignated as Precision FarmingDevelopment Centres (PFDCs) with effect from 2001-02. One of PFDCs, wasestablished at CISH, Lucknow, during 2001-02. The activities of these PFDC are: evaluation of crop water requirement and cost : benefit analysis of drip irrigationas compared to traditional practices for different (horticultural) crops; modificationof crop geometry to minimise the cost of drip irrigation for different (horticulture)crops and evaluation of different systems in relation to efficacy and costeffectiveness; survey of drip irrigation for verifying the adaptability and farmers'reaction in the areas under thejurisdiction of PFDCs andmodification, if any, intechnology for betteradaptability; design anddevelopment of greenhousesincluding development ofpackage of practices forcultivation of flowers andvegetables under variousagroclimatic conditions;studies on year roundutilization of greenhouses tomaximize returns and use ofgreenhouses for propagationof horticultural crops; studies on use of low tunnels for raising suitable crop ofthe region; evaluation and cost : benefit analysis of plastic mulching as comparedto traditional practices for different crops, also assess the efficacy of hair net andother application; organising training programme for state officials and farmersand interact for promotion of the technology.Microirrigation

These PFDCs have successfully worked out regionally differentiatedtechnology for adoption of microirrigation for a large number of crops importantin the region and have provided technological support through capacity building.These centres have functioned as a major link in the promotion of this technology.

Fig. 7. Banana plants under drip irrigation


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The experiments have clearly demonstrated the savings in water and yieldenhancements (Fig. 7 and Table 5). The PFDCs have successfully demonstratedthe off-season cultivation of vegetables like capsicum, cauliflower, tomato,cucumber, chilli and cabbage; flowers like chrysanthemum, rose, lilium andcarnation. The experiments on mulching at different PFDCs have establishedthat mulching results in 40-50 per cent saving of water, 20-25 per cent increase inyield and suppression of weed up to 90 per cent. The use of both drip irrigationand mulching has been found very useful and has resulted in further saving ofwater, increase in yield and weed suppression. The PFDCs have been organisingtraining programmes for the farmers as well as officials. So far, 188 programmesfor farmers and 152 training programmes for officers have been conducted inwhich 5,753 farmers and 2,960 officials have been trained.

The Working Group on Horticulture, from its critical analysis of strength,weakness, opportunity and threats concluded that adoption of hi-tech interventionsfor improving the productivity and quality of horticultural crops is inevitable.

Table 5. Water saving and yield enhancement due to microirrigation

Yield (q/ha) Irrigation (cm) WUE (q/ha/cm) Advantaege of MI (%)

Crop

Surface Drip Surface Drip Surface Drip Surface Drip Beet root 5.70 8.80 86.00 18.00 0.07 0.50 79.10 56.10 Bitter gourd 32.00 43.00 76.00 33.00 0.42 1.30 56.60 34.40 Brinjal 91.00 148.00 168.00 64.00 0.55 2.30 61.90 62.60 Broccoli 140.00 195.00 70.00 60.00 2.00 3.25 14.30 39.30 Cauliflower 171.00 274.00 27.00 18.00 6.30 15.20 33.30 60.20 Chilli 42.30 60.90 109.00 41.70 0.39 1.50 61.70 44.00 Cucumber 155.00 225.00 54.00 24.00 2.90 9.40 55.60 45.20 Okra Onion 284.00 342.00 52.00 26.00 5.50 13.20 50.00 20.40 Potato 172.00 291.00 60.00 27.50 2.90 10.60 54.20 69.20 Radish 10.50 11.90 46.00 11.00 0.23 1.10 76.10 13.30 Sweet potato 42.40 58.90 63.00 25.00 0.67 2.40 60.30 38.90 Tomato 61.80 88.70 49.80 10.70 1.24 8.28 78.50 43.50 Banana 575.00 875.00 176.00 97.00 3.27 9.00 45.00 52.20 Grape 264.00 325.00 53.00 28.00 5.00 11.60 47.20 23.10 Papaya 130.00 230.00 228.00 73.00 0.60 3.20 67.90 76.90 Pomegranate 34.00 67.00 21.00 16.00 1.62 4.20 23.80 97.00 Watermelon 82.10 504.00 72.00 25.00 5.90 20.20 65.30 513.9


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Although substantial progress has been made in plasticulture intervention, thereare other areas of hi-tech horticulture like genetic engineering, micropropagation,fertigation, use of biofertilizers, green food, hi-tech mechanization, soil-lessculture, biological control etc. needing appropriate attention for its promotion toachieve higher output from unit land in given environment.

Quality Seed and Planting Material

Fig. 8. 1, Micropropagation of banana in-vitro; 2, A stand of banana in-vitro plants;3, A bunch from in-vitro plant.

1

2

3


11

Quality seeds and plants determine the effectiveness of inputs and assumemore significance when investment on input is increasing. Besides higher yieldpotential, the cultivar must have to have high nutritional quality, resistance todiseases and appropriate shelf-life. Thus, besides use of hybrids, there is a needto have paradigm shift in the perceptions of the farmers from production (totalquantity) to productivity (quantity/unit area) to profitability (quality/unit area/unit time/man). The solution to many of the above issues lies in developing andadopting newer techniques to boost productivity in an eco-friendly way. The useof transgenics is one of the approaches. Micropropagation is most widely usedcommercialized global application of plant biotechnology in horticulture. A largenumber of plants are being cloned and exploited commercially worldwide.Micropropagation is well-known as a means of producing millions of identicalplants ('clones') under aseptic conditions, in a relatively short period of time,independent of seasonal constraints. An added advantage is production ofpathogen-free planting material. Propagation of plants through tissue culture,including meristem culture and molecular indexing of diseases, are of immenseuse in making available healthy propagaules. Besides its several uses,micropropagation is also applied advantageously to national and internationalgermplasm conservation and exchange, obviating quarantine-related problems.

Global biotech business is estimated at around 150 billion US dollars. Theannual demand of in-vitro plants continues to grow at the rate of 15 per cent. TheGovernment of India identified micropropagation of plants as an industrial activityunder the (D&R) Act of 1951, made effective in 1991 and several subsidies andincentives were offered. Large scale promotion of this technology was taken upduring the VIII plan under the centrally sponsored scheme on IntegratedDevelopment of Horticulture. Under this scheme assistance was provided forestablishing tissue culture labs under public and private sectors. The tissue cultureunits established in public sector have only done demonstrative work. Large scalemultiplication has not been a reality. However, these interventions have succeededin creating demand for in-vitro plants of a large number of crops. Convincingly,in-vitro propagated plants especially in banana (Fig. 8), strawberry and manyother ornamental crops have become a commercial reality. In the process manyproblems including freeness from disease have been identified which need to beaddressed.

In order to strengthen the programme, contract micropropagation need to be


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taken up by smaller entrepreneurs inthe already existing commerciallaboratories. To commercialize ahighly technology-driven venture,several aspects need to be analyzedbefore embarking on a large-scaleproduction especially since theindustry deals with a product that ishighly perishable, i.e. live plant.Moreover, there is a need to promotethis technology for production ofplanting material. Considering highcapital investment and long gestationperiod, moratorium period on theindustry has to be increased.Technological infusion, facilitatationin terms of electricity and promotionto create market would be essentialto harness this technology for thedevelopment of horticulture.

FertigationFertigation offers the best solution for intensive and economical crop

production, where both water and fertilizers are delivered to growing crops throughdrip irrigation system. Fertigation provides essential elements directly to the activeroot zone, thus minimizing losses of expensive nutrients, which ultimately helpsin improving productivity and quality of farm produce. Moreover, fertigationensures higher and quality yield along with savings in time and labour whichmakes fertigation economically profitable. The experiments have clearlydemonstrated that through fertigation 40-50 per cent of nutrients could be savedwhich is otherwise wasted. This has been already experienced by a large numberof farmers in grape, pomegranate and banana (Fig. 9). Fertigation is ideally suitedfor hi-tech horticultural production systems since it involves not only the efficientuse of the two most precious inputs, i.e. water and nutrients but also exploits thesynergism of their simultaneous availability to plants.

Though fertigation has found widespread use in plantation and horticultural

Fig. 9. Hi-tech production of banana usingfertigation and in-vitro plants


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crop production in India, its use is mainly confined to cut flower production underpolyhouse and some field production of fruit crops. Significant yield response ispossible if drip irrigation is practised along with fertilizer. One of the reasons forlimited adoption of fertigation despite savings of fertilizer is attributed to non-availability of water-soluble fertilizer at affordable cost. Imported water-solubleNPK fertilizers are costly thus savings are not compensated in terms of cost.Therefore, fertilizer policy has to adequately addresses the water-soluble fertilizerrationally, to encourage its use, which shall save 40-50 per cent nutrient and alsosafeguard against pollution. Policy has also to be backed by appropriatetechnologies to achieve higher productivity of different horticultural crops.Polyhouse cultivated cut flower industry is totally dependent on fertigation for itswater and nutrient supply but the problem is the cost of nutrients. This affects thecompetitiveness of the industry. Imported liquid fertilizers or water-solublefertilizers are invariably supplied as NPK complexes and freedom to chooserequired ratios is very limited. The grape, pomegranate and banana growers inMaharashtra have also adopted fertigation to some extent and the cost of water-soluble fertilizers is becoming a limiting factor. Therefore, to encourage fertigationconducive policy environment has to be created in terms of production of solublefertilizer in such a manner that the savings made in fertilizers is not neutralizedby cost.

BiofertilizersAddition of inorganic fertilizers constitutes one of the most expensive inputs

in agriculture. It is energy intensive and its excessive use in commercialhorticultural crops like banana, grape, mango, papaya, cabbage, cauliflower,tomato, and ornamental crops is detrimental to soil health besides the risk ofpollution. Nitrate in groundwater is becoming a health concern in intensivelycultivated areas. Thus, harnessing the potential of biofertilizer is essential. Underthese circumstances, use of cost-effective and eco-friendly biofertilizers withsuitable integration of organic manure will restore the soil health and keep thesoil productive and sustainable. The nitrogen-fixing organisms associated withhorticultural crops are Rhizobium spp. which live in symbiotic relationship withleguminous plants and free-living fixers belonging to Azotobacter family andAzospirillum species, which live in association with root system of crop plants.Several soil bacteria, particularly those belonging to the genera Pseudomonasand Bacillus and fungi belonging to the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus possess


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the ability to bring insoluble phosphates in soil into soluble forms by secretingorganic acids such as acetic, formic, propionic, lactic, glycolic, fumaric and succinicacids. These acids lower the pH and bring about dissolution of bound form ofphosphate. Some of the hydroxy acids may chelate with Ca and Fe resultingineffective solubilisation and utilization of phosphates by crops.

Use of VAMMycorrhizal fungi are the most common fungal association among

angiosperms. The vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) are formed by then o n - s e p t a t ephycomycetes fungibelonging to the generaGlomus, Gigaspora,Acaulospora andSclerocystis in the familyEndogonaceae of theorder Mucorales. Theyproduce vesicles andarbuscules inside the rootsystem. Arbuscules arehighly branched fungalhyphae while vesicles arebulbous swellings ofthese hyphae. These VAM fungi are beneficial to plants which they colonise.They make more nutrients available to the plant, improve soil texture, water-holding capacity, disease resistance and help in better plant growth. Besides,mycorrhizae are also helpful in the biological control of root pathogen. Thus, thisneed to be harnessed suitably depending upon the soil type and crops.

VermicultureHarnessing earthworms as versatile natural bioreactors is vermiculture. The

processes of composting organic wastes through domesticated earthworms undercontrolled conditions is vermicomposting. Earthworms have tremendous abilityto compost all biodegradable materials. Wastes subjected to earthwormconsumption decompose 2-5 times faster than in conventional composting. Duringcomposting the wastes are de-odourised, pathogenic microorganisms are destroyedand 40-60 per cent volume reduction in organic wastes takes place. This technology

Fig. 10. Vermicompost making in coconut garden


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depends on the feeding, species of worms are voracious feeders and prolificbreeders (Fig. 10). They are also surface dwellers, organic matter feeders andsurface casters. These worms feed on partially decomposed organic matter. Theirdigestive tracts act as grinding mills converting the wastes into granular aggregates,which are egested as worm cast. It is estimated that the earthworms feed about 4-5 times their own weight of material daily. Thus, one kg of worms decomposeapproximately 4-5 kg of organic wastes in 24 hours.

Many of the operations needed in production, harvesting and post-harvestmanagements are done manually or with use of small implements which not onlyreduces the efficiency of human resources but also have impact on quality andcost of production. Thus, there is a scope to introduce variety of hi-techmechanisation operation in horticulture for activities like nursery management,transplantation of floricultural plants in greenhouses as well as other plants,harvesting, transporting, grading and packing operations. This will help in reducingthe post-harvest losses besides preserving the quality of the produce.

Organic FarmingOrganic farming, holistic production management system, promotes and

enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soilbiological activity and lead to production of green food. The organic productionsystem is designed to enhance biological activity within the whole productionsystem, increase soil biological activity, maintain long-term soil fertility dulyrelying on renewable resources in the locally organized agricultural systems. Inthis system the farm is the unit for development requiring documentation of soilcharacters, water quality, climatic conditions, availability of organics andmaintenance of records. Without adequate organic matter content, soil gets poorerdue to reduced nutrient and water-holding capacity. Deteriorated structures andthe associated problems by air and water cause soil erosion. Adoption of organicfarming is also a way for sustainability. Demand for green food is on increase andharnessing the potential of organic farming which address soil health, humanhealth and environmental health is considered of greater significance. In last fewyears, organic farming has attracted many farmers across the country and manyfarmers have experimented in successfully. To achieve the large goal of sustainableproduction and minimise the use of chemical, use of biological agents, recyclingof nutrients, harnessing solar radiations etc. have to be restored in eco-friendlymanner.


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With growing urban population and pressure on land use of farm waste orsubstrate like cocopeat, rock wool, gravel, sand, saw dust, groundnut and paddyhusk, vermiculite, perlite would be an option to grow fresh vegetables and flowers.Media constituent like cocopeat is successfully used for growing and enhancingyield and quality of fresh vegetables and many flowers. It is already proven thatcrop grown on cocopeat and rock wool have better growth and developmentcompared to soil grown plants. It has a special advantage due to high retention ofwater coupled with good aeration because of lesser bulk density and higher porosity.Besides, flowers and vegetables are lighter in weight when grown on these mediawhich is of great significance in exports. Hydroponic techniques using deep flowtechnique, nutrient film technique is used to limited extent for commercialcultivation of vegetables and flowers.

Biological ControlBiological control is use of organisms to regulate a pest or pathogen below

its economic threshold level. It assumes importance in sustainable agricultureand organic farming, and production with reduced cost without chemical residues.However, it has several inherent disadvantages like the availability of naturalenemies in sufficient numbers to utilise on a large scale which can be addressedby encouraging commercial insectaries, which can supply quality natural enemiesto farmers at a very short notice. The use of commercial nuclear polyhedrosisvirus (NPV) is gaining importance all over the world. In India too, private industriesare bringing out field compatible formulations. It has been found that using NPVsat early stage brings in excellent control of Helicoverpa armigera on tomato.NPV is further, compatible with Trichogramma egg parasitoids, endosulfan andpheromone traps. These, in turn would constitute an ideal IPM. One of theadvantages of NPV is its specificity. However, NPV of Autographa californicaSpeyer is known to infect several Lepidopterous pests. It is necessary, therefore,to test specificity using restriction endo-nuclease analysis of viral DNA. Safe andsound technologies for IPM in several crop pest situations like tomato fruit-borerand mealy bugs of several fruit crops are available. The private and public sectorspresently involved in mass production activities will not be in a position to meetthe demand for supplying the biotric agents. There is a need to encourageproduction units to meet the demand. Biological suppression is a skilled job. Theincreasing demand for natural enemies combined with inadequate skill forproducing, releasing and maintaining of bioagents has to be tackled.


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Precision FarmingPrecision farming is concerned with the management of variability in the

dimensions of both space and time. Variability of resources, therefore, is a keyfactor of precision farming. Any component of production system ranging fromnatural resources to plants, production inputs, farm machinery and farm operatorsthat is variable in some way, is included in the realm of precision farming. Aspectsof precision farming, therefore, encompass a broad array of topics, includingvariability of soil resource base, weather, plant genetics, crop diversity, machineryperformance, and most of the physical, chemical and biological inputs used in theproduction of a crop. These are closely linked to the socio-economic aspects ofproduction system, because to be successful on the farm, precision farming shouldfit the needs and capabilities of farmer and should be profitable. Success inprecision farming is directly related to how well it can be applied to manage thespace-time continuum in production system. The prospects of precisionmanagement increase as the degree of spatial dependence increases. However,degree of difficulty in achieving precision management increases as the degree ofspatial dependence increases. Similarly, degree of difficulty in achieving precisionmanagement increases with temporal variance. Thus, for management parameterthat vary spatially, those with high temporal correlations will be more easilymanaged with precision farming rather than those with large temporal variance.Within a given management parameter, the success to date of precisionmanagement is to a large extent determined by the degree to which the spatialvariability is temporally stable.

Precision farming would involve the measurement and understanding ofvariability over time and space. Moreover, the system would use the informationgenerated through surveys to manage this variability by matching inputs toconditions within fields using site-specific inputs. Finally, and most important,this system must provide for the measurement and recording of the efficiency ofthese site-specific practices in order to assess value on and off the farm. Thus,precision farming is technology enabled, information based, and decision focused.The enabling technologies of precision farming can be grouped into five majorcategories: Computer, Global Position System (GPS), Geographic InformationSystem (GIS), Sensors and Application Control. Some of the enabling technologieswere developed specifically for agriculture and their origins date back more than20 years. It is the integration of these technologies that has enabled farmers and


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their service providers to do things not previously possible, at level of detail neverbefore obtainable, and, when done correctly, at level of quality never beforeachieved. Availability of contiguous blocks of mono crops and equipments neededfor survey, recording and analysis on near real time basis has made the precisionfarming technologies a reality in developed countries, where farms holdings islarge, heavily equipment dependent.

Precision farming in the Indian context is still in its infancy stage. A vastamount of data on various aspects like soil characteristics, climatic parameters,topographic features, crop requirement in terms of consumptive use and nutritionalrequirements have been generated and instruments needed for recording theseparameters are also available. Technology for delivering the required amout ofinputs to the crop through fertigation/chemigtation have also been developed inthe country. However, application of precision farming as a package in farmers'fields has received little attention, although some aspects of precision farminghave been practised. This has been primarily due to lack of awareness about thepotential for increasing productivity and improving the quality of produce withminimum use of inputs. Use of in-vitro plants, fertigation and nutrient managementbased on soil analysis in banana have increased the yield manifold and improvedthe quality. Use of fertigation in grape coupled with nutrient application based onpetiole analysis added with bunch management have increased the yield and quality.There are many other examples wherein a few components of precision farminghave been adopted to greater advantages in increasing the returns from the land.Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop a package based on knowledge ofsoil environment and crop needs to enhance the efficiency of inputs to get higheroutput in given time frame.

NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON PLASTICULTURE APPLICATION INHORTICULTURE (NCPAH)

A National Committee on Plasticulture Application in Horticulture (NCPAH)has been providing support for the overall development of plasticulture in thecountry. Initially, in March 1981, this Committee was set up as National Committeeon Use of Plastic in Agriculture (NCPA) in the Department of Chemicals andPetrochemicals (DCPC). The NCPA significantly contributed to the promotionof plasticulture applications in agriculture sector by initiating various programmes.The Committee submitted three reports to the Government. One of the majorrecommendations of the Committee was to set up 22 Plastic Development Centres


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Table 6. Interventions of hi-tech horticulture and precision farming

(PDCs) in different parts of the country. Consequently, 11 agricultural PDCs, 10irrigation PDCs and two industrial PDCs were established, based on therecommendations of the Committee. Industrial PDCs were established at IPCL,Vadodra and Central Institute of of Plastic Tools and Equipments (CIPET),Chennai. Agricultural PDCs were established through NCPA at State AgriculturalUniversities (SAUs), irrigation PDCs through Central Board of Irrigation andPower. Industrial PDC was established by Indian Petrochemicals CorporationLtd (IPCL), Vadodra. CIPET was set up at Chennai to provide services for testingof plasticulture product. Considering the role the plasticulture has to play indevelopment of horticulture, NCPA was transferred to the Ministry of Agriculture

Sl. No. Item A. Hi-Tech Horticulture 1. Technology Development & Refinement in Hi-Tech Horticulture 2. Technology Adoption in Hi-tech Horticulture i) Cultivation of Micropropagated Plants ii) Hi-tech Nursery iii) High-density Planting iv) Fertigation v) Hi-tech Greenhouse vi) In-situ Moisture Conservation through Mulching vii) Hi-tech Mechanization in Horticulture viii) Green Food Production (ha) ix) Recycling of Horticultural Waste for Environment Quality Improvement x) Biological Control

3. Technology dissemination in hi-tech horticulture B. Precision farming 1. Technology Development and Refinement in PF 2. Precision Farming Adoption 3. Precision Farming Technology Dissemination i) Training ii) Seminars/Workshops

C. Support for Precision Farming Development Centres (PFDC) D. Support for National Council for Precision Farming/Apex Body E. Media Support and IT F. Emergent Requirement G. External Evaluation, Technical Support, Consultancy, Cell at HQ


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in 1993. But CIPET, which provides support for testing was retained and theIndustrial PDC at Vadodra were retained by Department of Chemicals andPetrochemicals (DCPC). The programme of industrial plasticulture was phasedout but the agriculture Plasticulture Development Centers continued to functionunder the Ministry of Agriculture. These centres have created significant impacton development of horticulture through plasticulture interventions such as dripirrigation, protected cultivation, mulching and other applications. Agricultureplasticulture has the potential to become a major component of precision farming.A Committee constituted under the Chairmanship of Special Secretary (A&C)reviewed the functioning of NCPAH and observed that NCPAH played a majorrole in promoting plasticulture applications in the country. However, due to non-legal status of the Committee it could not function effectively and faced manyhurdles. Keeping in view the mandate for promoting hi-tech horticulture andprecision farming there is a need for institutional support mechanisms which canfunction as promoter and facilitator. National Council for Precision Farming(NCPF) as a registered Society, shall be a better option.

It has been recognised that hi-tech horticulture would play a major role inthe horticulture sector in the coming years to improve production and productivityof horticultural crops. Therefore, adoption of hi-tech horticulture and precisionfarming assumes greater significance. The endeavor would be to address all aspectsof development covering technology development, technology dissemination andtechnology adoption. Special thrust will be needed for hi-tech interventions likemicropropagation, hi-tech nursery, fertigation, hi-tech greenhouses, recycling ofhorticultural wastes, green food production, hi-tech mechanisation and biologicalcontrol. Refinement in regional differentiated technological has to be done throughPFCDs, which will play a leading role. A synergy has to be established to havevertical and hortizontal integration of programmes to achieve desired results ingiven time frame. The crops where some of the components of precision farminghave been practised are banana, grape, pomegranate, capsicum, tomato, chilli,cashew and selected flowers have to be given emphasis for its raplicability.

STRATEGY FOR PROMOTION

It has been realized that adoption of hi-tech horticulture is inevitable to meetthe challenge of increasing the productivity levels of horticultural crops withimproved quality standards to meet the domestic as well as export demands.Therefore, a central sector scheme on Hi-tech Horticulture through PrecisionFarming has been proposed for implementation during X Plan. Some ofinterventions proposed to be taken up under the scheme are given in Table 6.

CONCLUSION

The dissemination of technology on hi-tech horticulture and precision farminghave to be addressed through training programmes for the benefit of farmers aswell as field functionaries. The focused attention on horticulture since the VIIIPlan has enabled the farming commonly to realize the untapped potential ofhorticulture resulting in increased returns per unit of area. In order to meet thechallenge of producing 265 million tonnes of horticultural produce by 2007-08from current level of 152.5 million tonnes, hi-tech horticulture through precision

PERSPECTIVE OF HI-TECH HORTICULTUREAND PRECISION FARMING

Jose C. Samuel 1 and H.P. Singh2

The horticultural production, which has reached the level of 152.5 million tonnesin 2000-01, needs to achieve a growth rate of 6-7 per cent for ensuring an overallgrowth rate of 4 per cent in the agriculture sector. In the global competition, it hasbecome imperative that our produce is competitive, both for domestic market andexports. This demands infusion of technology for an efficient utilization of resourcesresulting in higher output per unit of inputs with excellent quality of produce, which ispossible only through deployment of modern hi-tech applications and precision farmingmethods. The National Agriculture Policy has stipulated the application of theseinterventions for the holistic development of horticulture. Besides, the Working Groupon Horticulture constituted by the Planning Commission for going into the modalities ofhorticultural development during X Plan had recommended deployment of hi-techhorticulture and precision farming for achieving vertical growth in horticulture.

DEFINITION AND SCOPEHi-tech Horticulture

Hi-tech horticulture is the deployment of modern technology, which is capitalintensive, less environment dependent, having capacity to improve the productivity andquality of produce. Hi-tech interventions in horticulture are not new. The sector, byitself is highly technology driven, needs deployment of modern technologies likemicropropagation, microirrigation, protected cultivation, organic farming etc. whichrequire skilled manpower as well as instruments. While the Indian Council of AgriculturalResearch (ICAR) and State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) have been addressing theresearch and training aspects of hi-tech applications, some of them are introduced atthe farmers' fields by the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC) sinceVIII Plan. Prominent among these includes micropropagation, drip irrigation, green-

1 Deputy Commissioner (SWC-E), and 2 Horticulture Commissioner, Ministry of Agriculture, Krishi Bhavan,New Delhi 110 001

2Precision Farming in HorticultureEds: H.P. Singh, Gorakh Singh, Jose C. Samuel and R.K. Pathak © 2003


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house cultivation, plastic mulching, low tunnels, shading nets etc. The areas of hi-techhorticulture having scope for adoption are fertigation, use of biofertilizer, vermiculture,organic farming, hi-tech mechanisation, soil-less culture, biological control, use of remotesensing etc.Precision Farming

Precision farming (PF) involves the application of technologies and principles tomanage spatial and temporal variability associated with all aspects of horticulturalproduction for improving crop performance and environment quality. This would callfor efficient management of resources through location-specific hi-tech interventions.Precision farming could be defined as application of a holistic management strategy thatuses information technology to bring data from multiple sources to bear decisionassociated with agricultural production, marketing, finance and personnel. Some of theother terminologies used for precision farming are Precision Agriculture (PA), Site-Specific Farming (SSF), Site-Specific Management (SSM), farming-by-the-foot,Variable-Rate Technology (VRT) etc. A step towards promoting precision farmingwas taken by re-designating the Plasticulture Development Centres (PDC) as PrecisionFarming Development Centres (PFDCs) in September, 2001.

PERSPECTIVEWith a view to introduce the concepts of hi-tech horticulture, a new scheme on

'Hi-Tech Horticulture and Precision Farming' is proposed to be launched during the XPlan.Modalities of Programme Implementation

Efforts of the programme would be to address three major areas, viz. technologydevelopment, adoption and dissemination. While the Research Institutions, ICARInstitutions, State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) and Organizations in private sectorhaving the expertise and infrastructure would be expected to be the key players intechnology development and technology dissemination. The application of technologyat farmers' fields will be through Nodal Implementing Agencies (NIA) in the Stateswhich are in a position to maintain a separate bank account for implementing theprogramme. At the national level, the overall monitoring of the scheme will be done bythe DAC through the National Council for Precision Farming (NCPF). Various aspectsof hi-tech horticulture and precision farming are discussed below :

HI-TECH HORTICULTURETechnology Development and Refinement

The hi-tech interventions are under various stages of development. Some of the

Perspective of Hi-tech Horticulture and Precision Farming

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technologies like microirrigation, fertigation, greenhouse cultivation, high-density plantingetc. are being adopted by the farmers, still there is a scope for refining the technology toreduce the system cost, development of location-specific package of practices,innovative design etc. The industry involved in the manufacture of the system componentsare mainly concentrating on R & D work for improving the products in terms of qualityand strength but it is limited to a small number of manufacturers. In many areas of hi-tech horticulture like micropropagation, green food production, biological control etc.adaptive research are needed for refinement of technology to make it farmer-friendly.Hence, the efforts would be to provide project based assistance to research organizations/institutions having capacity to do the identified refinement, both in public as well as inprivate sectors for taking up time bound adaptive research on technology refinementunder hi-tech horticulture. The PFDCs, those involved in the development of regionallydifferentiated technologies on plasticulture, will have to work for hi-tech horticulture toprovide research support and precision farming.

Technology Adoption

It would be necessary to provide some assistance as incentives to farmers andothers involved in hi-tech horticultural programmes for adopting the proven technologiessuch as :

Cultivation of micropropagated plants: A number of tissue culture units have beenset up in the country for rapid multiplication of disease-free plantings. The total annualcapacity of micropropagated plants is of the order up to 270 million plants. Although,the technology has been standardized for a number of horticultural crops, its cultivationis yet to gain momentum due to high cost of planting material. A committee constitutedunder the Chairmanship of Assistant Director General (Hort.), ICAR, had gone intovarious aspects of tissue culture in the country and found because of high initialinvestments, farmers could not be able to avail the technology for cultivation ofmicropropagated plants and have recommended for Governmental support for itscultivation. Accordingly, it is proposed to provide assistance mainly for taking updemonstration on cultivation of micropropagated plants. The Department ofBiotechnology (DBT) would provide support in the form of supply of micropropagatedplanting material.

Hi-tech nursery: A large number of nurseries have come up in public as well as privatesectors. Fruit nurseries have also been established under State Seed Farms. The


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requirement of plantingmaterial by the end ofPlan is estimated to beabout 1,185 million fruitplants. Many of thenurseries, particularly inthe public sector have notbeen functioning atoptimum level due to oldinfrastructure, inadequatetrained manpower andlack of financial resourcesresulting in considerablegap in the demand andavailability of qualityplanting material. Hi-technurseries have beenenvisaged to plug this gapand ensure availability ofquality planting material(Fig. 1, 2), for whichmostly private sectorwould be mobilized. Thehi-tech nurseries will havestate-of-the-art forinfrastructure with facilitiesfor greenhouse,microirrigation, qualitytesting, water source and equipments for phytosanitary system. The nursery will havethe facilities to prepare rooting media for growing seedlings in pots or trays. Facilitiesfor pulverizing, pasteurizing and mixing of root will also be available in such nurseries.

High-density planting: High-density planting is emerging as a useful intervention forenhancing the productivity of horticultural crops per unit area (Fig. 3). It is being practisedsuccessfully in apple in Jammu and Kashmir, banana in Maharashtra and to some extent

Fig. 1. Tissue-cultured plants of cashew in pots are ready fortransplanting.

Fig. 2. Micrografted plants of Khasi orange


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mango in Uttar Pradesh.Technology has beendeveloped for cashew. It isproposed to promote thetechnology during the X Plan asa package duly integrated withfertigation and other hi-techinterventions.

Fertigation : For intensive and economical crop production, the best solution for higherproductivity is fertigation, where both water and fertilizers are delivered to growingcrops through microirrigation system. Fertigation provides N, P, K as well as the essentialtrace elements (Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, MO and Mn) directly to active root zone, thus minimisinglosses of expensive nutrients, which ultimately helps in improving productivity and qualityof farm produce. Fertigation ensures higher and quality yield along with savings in thetime and labour, which makes it economically profitable. Experiments have proved thatthe system economises use of fertilizer and water ranging from 40 to 60 per cent. Thisis being experienced by a few progressive farmers. Grapes, pomegranate and bananaare still beyond the reach of poor farmers. Fertigation is ideally suited for hi-techhorticultural production systems, since it involves not only the efficient use of two mostprecious inputs, i.e. water and nutrients but also ensures their simultaneous availabilityto plants. Though microirrigation has found widespread use in plantation and horticulturalcrop production in India, fertigation is confined to a few high-value crops. Significantyield response coupled with enhanced quality of produce is possible through hi-techproductivity using fertigation.

The grape, pomegranate and banana growers in Maharashtra have adoptedfertigation to some extent. Based on the studies on fertigation carried out on differenthorticultural crops, using several formulation of water-soluble fertilizers, the advantagesof fertigation are summarized as follows:

! By and large at least 20-40 per cent savings in fertilizers could be made,if, fertigation is adopted with water-soluble fertilizers (WSF) due to betterfertilizer-use efficiency.

! The water-soluble fertilizers are ideally suited for fertigation as they do notcause any clogging of the system due to high acidic urea and phosphateused in formulation of these fertilizers.

Fig. 3. High-density planting of pineapple


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! Frequent and split application of fertilizers through fertigation near the rootzone of crops help in reduced leaching and consequently better absorptionof nutrients resulting in increased yield by 25-35 per cent besidesimprovement in the quality of the produce in almost all the crops.

! Keeping in view the NPK requirement of various horticultural crops andseveral formulations that are available for evaluating their efficacy, fertilizersin the NPK ratio of 1:1:1, 2:1:3 and 1:2:0 are found more desirable as thesecould be used for majority of the crops by supplementing either N or Kwherever necessary through fertigation.

The studies indicate that fertigation holds ample scope for adoption especially inhigh-value horticultural crops for getting high productivity and quality produce. It wouldalso be cost effective, if type, level, split applications and cost of water-soluble fertilizersare optimized for various crops/regions. Keeping in view the promising results offertigation in improving crop productivity, it is proposed to encourage fertigation byproviding assistance to farmers for adopting the system.Hi-tech greenhouse: Optimum growth of plant is governed by the availability and useof natural resources of land, water and sunlight. However, climatic variations often tendto have adverse effect on yield and production of crops. Efforts have, therefore, beenon for harnessing these natural resources through artificial means for increasing cropproductivity. One such technology is greenhouse cultivation.

Greenhouses are framedor inflated structures coveredwith plastic material or glassin which crops can be grownunder partially controlledenvironment which is largeenough to permit normalcultural operation manually.The size of greenhouse couldvary from about 10 m2 to afew hectares (Fig. 4).Greenhouses of larger sizeare usually constructed forexport-oriented projectsparticularly for floriculture. Greenhouse technology was well adapted in Europe andUSA by the end of nineteenth century. Presently, China and Japan are the leading

Fig. 4. Front view of a greenhouse


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countries. Other countries where greenhouse technology is being widely used are theNetherlands, Israel, Canada, Spain and Egypt besides some Arab countries.

Greenhouses are suitable for growing a variety of vegetables, fruits and flowers.Year-round cultivation even under extreme climatic conditions is possible through green-houses. In addition to temperature control, other benefits of greenhouse cultivationinclude protection from wind, soil warming and in some cases, protection against insectpests and diseases. In general, greenhouse cultivation could be considered as protectedcultivation that enhances the maturity of crop, increases yield, improves the quality ofproduce and in some instances reduce the use of pesticides. The use of greenhousetechnology also reduces the total time for preparation of seedlings and cuttingssignificantly. Greenhouse is also essential for plant propagation through tissue culture.

Considering the advantages of greenhouse, there is ample scope for increase inarea under protected cultivation of high-value flowers and vegetables out of season,both in temperate and tropical climates. However, profitability in greenhouse cultivationwill depend upon the choice of greenhouse structure, selection of crops and varietiesand production technologies adopted. While the conventional greenhouses are simplestructures, hi-tech greenhouses have facilities for controlling light intensity, temperature,and humidity with complete automation system.

The constraint in adoption of greenhouse is mainly the high investment requirementon equipments. Since capital cost is high due to high interest rate and consumers areless attuned to pay higher price for quality greenhouse, cultivation is viable only for oneor two crops. However, with growing consciousness for quality, trend of reducing rateof interest on capital and increasing demand for different produce, the viability of thistechnology is improving. Since the technology has potential of increasing yield by 300per cent coupled with quality, it needs to be encouraged. The endeavor would be topromote hi-tech greenhouse, which are fully equipped with system to regulate the growthconditions inside the greenhouse.

In-situ moisture conservation : Mulching is a practice of covering the soil surfacearound plants to make conditions more conducive for plant growth. Use of dry leaves,straw, hay, stones etc. as mulching material has been prevalent for ages. However,introduction of plastic film as mulch increases the efficiency by improved moistureconservation, increased soil temperature and elimination of weed growth and hence,increase in crop yield. LDPE and LLDPE plastic films are commonly used for mulching.LLDPE black colour mulch films are more popular owing to the twin properties ofpossible down-gauging and better puncture resistance. Down-gauging leads to the


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availability of thinner films at lower cost and the puncture resistance and opacity checkthe weed growth under the film. Due to moisture barrier properties of plastic film, itdoes not allow the soil moisture to escape. The water that evaporates from the soilsurface under plastic film condenses on lower surface of the film and falls back asdroplets thus preserving the soil moisture for several days prolonged irrigation andintervals. Moreover, weed growth is completely eliminated by preventing penetrationof sunlight. Mulch is also used for soil solarization. It helps to maintain favourable soiltemperature during daytime and retains it during night. Plastic mulch combined withmicroirrigation has proved to be highly beneficial in terms of yield increase, water savingand weed control in fruit crops like strawberry. This is proposed to be promoted throughuse of organic as well as inorganic mulching.

Hi-tech horticulture mechanisation: A variety of equipments are available which canbe used for precise operations in cultivation to enhance quality of produce throughproper handling at harvesting. Hi-tech mechanization envisages the deployment of powerdriven equipments such as tractor mounted sprayers, aeroblast sprayers, postholediggers, potato planters, potato diggers, self-propelled weeder, picking platforms,hydraulic pruning machines, power operated loppers, mulch layers etc.

Green food production: Adoption of intensive agricultural packages has resulted inmany liabilities such as increasing threats to food security, degradation of soil health andnatural heritage of diversified ecosystem. Steep rise in population has increased thedemand for food, fibre, fodder and fuel necessitating the intensive use of inorganicchemicals. Inefficient use of these inputs has resulted in soil and water pollution anddeclined productivity. There is an increasing effort world over to produce healthy food,which does not carry residual effects of harmful insecticides, pesticides and chemicals.The emphasis has shifted on production of 'green food', which is produced throughadoption of practices in ecologically sustainable manner with the help of standardsformulated for production. Under this, the farm is the unit for development requiringthorough documentation of soil characters, water quality, climatic conditions, availabilityof organics and maintenance of records. Without adequate organic matter content, soilgets poorer due to reduced nutrient and water-holding capacity. Deteriorated structuresand the associated problems caused by air and water lead to soil erosion. Adoptingorganic farming could effectively arrest all these adverse impacts. Since the organicproducts are grown with commitment to respect biological and ecological processes,the foods, which are sold, must be legally certified that they are organically produce.Assistance is proposed to be provided for capacity building, creation of infrastructure


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and adoption based on case-to-case and the farmers would be supported for technologyadoption and certification.

Recycling of horticultural wastes and promotion of biofertilizer:Horticulturalproduce leaves a substantial amount of waste material after harvesting. There is amplescope to convert this degradable waste into organic manure. Harnessing the earthwormsas natural bioreactors for producing manure and its application to crops is vermiculture.The process of composting organic wastes through domesticated earthworms undercontrolled conditions is vermicomposting. Earthworms have tremendous ability tocompost all biodegradable materials. Wastes subjected to earthworm consumption,decompose 2-5 times faster than in conventional composting. During composting thewastes are de-odourised, pathogenic microorganisms are destroyed and there is 40-60 per cent reduction in volume of organic wastes. This technology depends on thefeeding, excreting and breeding potentialities of the worms. Fast growing species ofworms are voracious feeder and prolific breeder. They are also surface dwellers, organicmatter feeders and surface casters, these worms feed on partially decomposed organicmatter. Their digestive tracts act as grinding mills converting the wastes into granularaggregates, which are ejected as worm cast.

It is estimated that the earthworms feed material daily about 4-5 times their ownweight. Thus one kg of worms decomposes approximately 4-5 kg of organic wastes in24 hours. Vermiculture helps the maintenance of temperature, pH (ideal for microbialprocesses) and produces enzymes, which break complex bio-molecules into simplecompounds, utilized by the microorganisms. Since earthworms have haemoglobin withhigh saturation, it helps in maintaining aerobic condition. Moreover, earthworms feedon wastes and produce vermicastings with immobilized microflora and enriched withbalanced plant nutrients, vitamins, enzymes, antibiotics and plant growth hormones.Since horticultural crops respond well for conversion to organic manure, it is proposedto provide assistance to farmers for setting up units for waste utilisation. Besides suchwork, bacterial culture also has potential to degrade the waste and need to be promoted.This will help to increase the income of farmers by selling of compost, and increase inproduction on his own farm.

Excessive and indiscriminate use of inorganic fertilizers in commercial horticulturalcrops like banana, grape, mango, papaya, cabbage, cauliflower, tomato, and ornamentalcrops has rendered the soil sick, polluted the groundwater and made it unsuitable forcultivation. Nitrate in groundwater is a major health concern in intensively cultivatedareas. Production of chemical fertilizers is an energy-intensive process requiring a large


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amount of energy resources. Moreover, import of fertilizers is draining the foreignexchange reserve to a great extent. Various field studies indicated that the yield potentialof many soils are declining gradually and there is stagnation in crop productivity. Underthese circumstances, use of cost effective and eco-friendly biofertilizers with suitableintegration of organic manure will restore the soil health and keep the soil productiveand sustainable. Biofertilizers offer an economically attractive and ecologically soundmeans of reducing external inputs and improving the quality and quantity of internalresources. Biofertilizers contains microorganisms, which are capable of mobilisingnutritive element froms nonusable form to usable through biological processes. Theyare less expensive, eco-friendly and sustainable. The beneficial microbes in the soil,which are of great significance to horticultural situations are: (1) biological nitrogenfixers, (2) phosphate solubilisers and (3) the mycorrhizal fungi. Assistance for settingup farm waste utilisation units at selected locations in the country has been contemplabed.

Biological control: Biological control is use of organisms to regulate a pest or pathogento keep it below its economic threshold level. It assumes importance in sustainableagriculture and organic farming. There are a few problem areas like non-availability ofnatural enemies in sufficient numbers to utilise on a large scale. Secondly, almost allparasitoids and predators do not integrate with insecticides. There is a tremendousneed to develop natural enemies tolerant to multi-pesticidal groups. Further, it is necessaryto encourage commercial insectaries, which can supply quality natural enemies to farmersat a very short notice. This also calls for developing appropriate transportationtechnologies. The use of commercial nuclear polyhedral viruses (NPVs) is gainingimportance all over the world. In India too, private industry is bringing out field compatibleformulations. It has been found that using NPVs at an early stage, brings excellentcontrol of Helicoverpa armigera on tomato. Further, NPV is compatible withTrichogramma egg parasitoids, endosulfan and pheromone traps. These, in turn wouldconstitute an ideal IPM. One of the advantages of NPV is its specificity. However,NPV of Autographa californica Speyer is known to infect several lepidopterouspests. It is necessary, therefore, to test specificity using restriction endo-nuclease analysisof viral DNA.

Safe and sound technologies for Bio Intensive Pest Management (BIPM) in severalcrop pest situations like tomato fruit-borer and mealy bugs of various fruit crops areavailable. The private and public sectors presently involved in mass production activitieswill not be in position to meet the demand for supplying the biotic agents. There is aneed to start more production units to meet the demand.


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Biological suppression is a skilled job. The increasing demand for natural enemiescombined with need for improving skills for producing, release and maintenance ofbioagents has to be met. Limited availability of financial resources is coming in the wayof mass production. Under these circumstances, it would be worthwhile to provideassistance to entrepreneurs/unemployed graduates to take up the mass production ofnatural enemies near the application sites.

TECHNOLOGY DISSEMINATIONThe dissemination of technology on hi-tech horticulture would be through farmer

participatory demonstrations, training and visits of farmers, training and study tour ofDepartmental Staff. The demonstration on hi-tech horticulture would be taken up atstrategic and easily appreciable locations through ICAR Institutions, State AgricultureUniversities and organizations in the private sector having the expertise and infrastructure.The coverage of area under demonstrations would not exceed one ha formicropropagated plants, nursery, high-density planting, in-situ moisture conservation,and two ha for fertigation and 500 m2 for hi-tech greenhouse cultivation. The trainingprogrammes on hi-tech horticulture would be conducted by the PFDCs and otherorganizations having nursery expertise, infrastructure and facilities for conducting suchtraining programmes. Need-based media support in electronic and other media, whichshall be decided on case-to-case basis for promoting hi-tech horticulture. Workshops,seminars and international conference on hi-tech horticulture would also be supported.

PRECISION FARMING IN HORTICULTUREBasic Concepts of Precision Farming

Precision farming involves the measurement and understanding of variability overtime and space. Moreover, the system would use the information generated throughsurveys to manage this variability by matching inputs to conditions within fields usingsite-specific inputs. Finally, and most important, this system must provide for themeasurement and recording of the efficiency of these site-specific practices in order toassess value on and off the farm. Thus, precision farming is technology enabled,information based and decision focused.

The enabling technologies of precision farming can be grouped into five majorcategories, i.e. computers, Global Position System (GPS), Geographic InformationSystems (GIS), sensors and application control. Some of the enabling technologieswere developed specifically for agriculture originated aboout 20 year back. It is theintegration of these technologies that has enabled farmers and their service providers to


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do things not previously possible, at the levels of detail, never before obtainable, andwhen done correctly, at level of quality never before achieved. Availability of contiguousblocks of mono crops and equipments needed for survey, recording and analysis onnear real time basis has made the precision farming technologies in these countriesheavily equipment dependent.

Precision farming in the Indian context is still in its infancy stage. A vast amount ofdata on various aspects like soil characteristics, climatic parameters, topographic features,crop requirement in terms of consumptive use and nutritional requirements have beengenerated and instruments needed for recording these parameters are also available.Technology for delivering the required amount of inputs to the crop through fertigation/chemigation has also been developed at the country. However, application of precisionfarming as a package in the farmers' fields has not received much attention. This hasbeen primarily due to the lack of awareness about the potential for increasing productivityand improving the quality of produce with minimum use of inputs. Secondly, there hasbeen no serious attempt in the past to promote this technology by any agency. Theinfrastructure available in terms of remote sensing and GIS are yet to be used effectivelyin promoting precision farming. Hence, the development will have to be gradual inphases.

Technology Development and Refinement/DemonstrationUnder technology development on precision farming, the focus would be on

technology development, which is suitable under Indian conditions. The PrecisionFarming Development Centres (PFDCs) will have to play a leading role in thedevelopment of regionally differentiated technologies validation and dissemination. ThePFDCs presently exist in 17 locations in the country, which are mostly in the SAUs,ICAR Institute and IIT, Kharagpur. On account of their experience in conducting appliedresearch on plasticulture application, they have the expertise in terms of manpower andequipment. The PFDCs will have to be equipped further with the necessary hardwareand software needed for generating information on precision farming techniques at farmersfields. A list of equipments needed is given in Table 1. Besides, a few PFDCs would bedeveloped as Centres for Excellence for Precision Farming (CEPF). These Instituteswill be fully equipped to take up research and development works on precision farming.The CEPFs would function as mother centres for providing technical support to otherPFDCs located in the region. The ultimate goal will be to make available all the neededinformation to farmers so that they are in a position to apply the necessary inputs. Otherorganizations like ICAR Institutes and Institutes in private sector will also be involved intechnology development.

Adoption

The precision farming techniques will be tried on pilot scale first for selected cropslike banana, grape, pomegranate, capsicum, tomato, chilli, cashew, rose, carnation andgerbera. Assistance is proposed to be provided to farmers for adopting precision farmingmethods. Organizations like Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and the StateRemote Sensing Application Centres (SRSAC), All India Soil & Land Use SurveyOrganization, National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning, ICAR Institutes,State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) and Indian Meteorological Department (IMD)

Table 1. Indicative list of equipments needed for PFDCssSl. No. Name of equipment Approximate cost

(Rs. in lakhs) A. Variability mapping 1. Topography equipment : dumpy level 0.7 2. Soil survey kit 1.0 3. Soil and water analysis in lab 4.0 4. Digital top pan balance 0.5

B. Input application/delivery 1. PC with relevant software and accessories 2.0 2. Equipment for NFT system 1.0 3. Microirrigation system 1.0

C. Monitoring 1. Data logger with microclimatic sensors 2.5 2. Microcontroller for greenhouse environment 1.0 3. Portable psychrometer/hygrothermometer 0.2

D. Dissemination 1. LCD projection system 2.0 2. Overhead projector 0.6 3. Digital camera 0.5

E. Miscellaneous 1. Refractometer 0.5 2. Portable Generator 15 KVA with accessories 1.5 3. Contractual studies through remote sensing and survey 10.0 Total 28.7


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will have to be involved in generating spatial and temporal data for contiguous blocks ofhorticulture on project basis.

It would also be necessary to provide assistance to Organizations, Associations,Societies, Farmers' Groups, and Manufacturers having necessary expertise andinfrastructure for setting up Common Facility on Precision Farming (CFPF). The CFPFwould function as the nodal point for the farmers to get information about the status ofthe land in terms of deficiency in moisture, nutrients and other inputs including weatherparameters from a single window. Since vast amount of information would be neededby the farmer for taking up precision farming, effort would be made to provide all therelevant information at one place on payment of nominal fee. The farmers opting to takeup precision farming would be registered with the NIA. These farmers would be knownas Sushm Bagwan. These agencies could also function as the system suppliers/implementers of precision farming at farmers' fields.

Technology Dissemination

The dissemination of technology about precision farming will be through capacitybuilding programmes, both for farmers as well as Departmental Staff. The trainingprogrammes would be of short duration of one week and would be organized by thePFDCs and other organizations that have the necessary expertise, infrastructure andfacilities for conducting such training programmes. Besides, it would be necessary toexpose the Departmental Staff to the latest trends in Precision Farming in developedcountries where it has been used widely.

CONCLUSION

The horticulture sector has been poised to achieve a growth rate of about 7 percent during X Plan. Horticultural production will have to reach the level of about 265million tonnes from the current level of 152.5 million tonnes. Hi-tech horticulturalinterventions like fertigation, use of biofertilizer, vermiculture, organic farming, hi-techmechanization, soil-less culture, biological control etc. would be necessary. Besides,precision farming has been identified as a tool for increasing the productivity ofhorticultural crops. These interventions are proposed to be introduced at farmers' fieldsby launching a new scheme on Hi-tech Horticulture and Precision Farming duringX Plan. The major focus would be on technology development, adoption and itsdissemination for all elements of the programme. In the overall perspective, with theintroduction of innovative technologies, horticulture sector is expected to achieve avertical growth.

REMOTE SENSING AND GIS AS A TOOL FORPRECISION FARMING IN HORTICULTURE

SECTOR IN INDIAJ.S. Parihar1, S. Panigrahy2 and Ashvir Singh3

Precision farming is one of the most scientific and modern approaches to sustainableagriculture that has gained momentum towards the end of 20th century. Precisionfarming actually is application of technologies and principles to manage spatial andtemporal variability associated with all aspects of agricultural production (7). In otherwords, it is the matching of resource application and agronomic practices with soilattributes and crop requirements as they vary across a field. Precision farming is essentialfor serving dual purpose of enhancing productivity and reducing ecological degradation.It is a system for better management of farm resources. Precision farming is a information-and technology-based management system now possible because of currently availableseveral frontier technologies to the domain of agriculture. These include global positioningsystems, geographic information systems, yield monitoring devices, soil, plant and pestsensors, remote sensing and variable rate technologies for application of inputs. Thisinformation and technology for site-specific farming allows farmers to identify, analyseand manage the spatial and temporal variability of soil and plants for optimum profitability,sustainability and protection of the environment.

Emerging precision agriculture technologies rely heavily on remote sensinggeographic information system (GIS), global positioning system (GPS), auto analyser,sensors, computers along with appropriate software, etc. for precisely identifying areasof nutrient deficiencies and other biotic and abiotic stresses, etc. and quantification ofthe economic significance of soil-water- fertilizer-pest-crop related constraints and theirenvironmental impacts at the farm/village/region levels. They can provide useful guidancefor adopting the systems of integrated management of soil health, nutrients, pests, water,energy and different crop genetic resources. The main objective of adopting precisionfarming in India is to improve agricultural production, quality of environment and economicstatus of the farmers.1,2,3,Agricultural Resources Group Space Application Centre (ISRO), Ahmedabad 380 015



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COMPONENT AND FACILITATOR OF PRECISION FARMING

Many technological and scientific developments occurred during 20th century areresponsible in bringing the precision farming from the corridor of laboratory to thedoorstep of farming community. The enabling technologies, which enhance theacceptability of precision farming in the eyes of farmers, planners and scientific community,can be grouped into four major classes.

Computer and Internet

The computers and Internet are the most important components in enabling theprecision farming possible as they are main source of information processing andgathering. The high-speed computer has made faster processing the data gathered duringprecise management of the land parcel. Internet, which is a network of computers, isthe most recent development among all these technologies. The Internet has bridgedthe gap between the information provider and the user. In agriculture, like any otherform of business, internet has the capability to supply timely data about changingconditions.

Global Positioning System (GPS)

The most common use of GPS in agriculture is for yield mapping and variable ratefertilizer/pesticide applicator. The GPS are important to find out the exact location inthe field to assess the spatial variability and site-specific application of inputs. The GPSoperating in differential mode are capable of providing location accuracy of 1 m. TheGPS of high accuracy in future will enable the farmers to do farming operations at nightwhen wind speed are low and more suitable for spraying and use night tillage to reducethe light induced germination of certain weeds. The GPS from the point of view ofagricultural positioning system should have the requirement like ability of the system towork reliably in varying landscapes, position updates at least once every second, foryield mapping with combine (cutting width 5 m), location accuracy of + 3m and forapplications based on changes in soil type accuracy of ~ 10 m.

Geographical Information System (GIS)

The GIS is an organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographicaldata, and personnel designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyse,and display all forms of geographically referenced information (2). It is the spatial analysiscapabilities of GIS that enable the precision farming. The GIS is the key to extractingvalue from information on variability. It is rightly called as the brain of precision farming

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Remote Sensing and GIS tool for Precision Farming in Horticulture Sector in India

(4). It can help in agriculture in two ways. One is in linking and integrating GIS data(soil, crop, weather field history) with simulation models. Other is to support theengineering component for designing implements and GPS guided machineries (variablerate applicators) for precision agriculture.

Remote Sensing

Remote sensing holds great promise for precision agriculture because of its potentialfor monitoring spatial variability over time at high resolution (6). Various workers (5)have shown the advantages of using remote sensing technology to obtain spatially andtemporally variable information for precision farming. Remote sensing imagery forprecision farming can be obtained either through satellite-based sensors or CIR videodigital cameras on board small aircraft. Moran et al. (6) summarized the applications ofremote sensing for precision farming. They have found RS can be used as source ofdifferent types of information for precision farming. However, using RS data for mappinghas many inherent limitations, which includes, requirements for instrument calibration,atmospheric correction, normalization of off-nadir effects on optical data, cloud screeningfor data especially during monsoon period, processing images from air-borne videoand digital cameras (6). Keeping in view the agricultural scenario in developing countries,the requirement for a marketable RS technology for precision agriculture is the deliveryof information with characteristics like low turn around time (24-48 hr), low data cost(~ 100 Rs/acre/season), high Spatial Resolution (at least 2m multi-spectral), high SpectralResolution (<25 nm), high temporal Resoultion (at least 5-6 data/season) and deliveryof analytical products in simpler formation.

STEPS IN PRECISION FARMING

The concepts of precision farming involves the variation occurring in crop or soilproperties within a field and these variations are often noted and mapped. Themanagement actions are taken as a consequence of the spatial variability occurringwithin the field. The basic steps contributing to the concept of precision farming areassessing, managing and evaluation of variability, and these are described below:

Assessing Variability

Assessing variability is the critical first step in precision farming since it is clear thatone cannot manage what one does not know. The processes and properties that regulatecrop performance and yield vary in space and time. Techniques of assessing temporalvariation also exist (8) but the simultaneous reporting of spatial and temporal variationis rare and the theory of these types of processes is still in its infancy. The spatial


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variability in the field can be mapped by different means like surveying, interpolation ofpoint samples, using high resolution aerial and satellite data and modeling to estimatespatial patterns. The lower cost and ease of measuring variability by high-resolutionsensors will be critical to the future and success of precision agriculture. In future modelingis proposed as an important tool in precision agriculture to simulate spatial and temporalvariation in soil properties and environmental performance of cropping systems.

Managing Variability

Once variation is adequately assessed farmers must match agronomic inputs toknown conditions using management recommendations that are site-specific and useaccurate control equipment. Our emphasis in this paper is on variability assignedmanagement of inputs to improve crop performance. The success of implementation ofprecision farming depends on how precisely, soil fertility, pest infestation, cropmanagement with respect to biotic and abiotic variables and water are managed in thefield and also how accurately the corrective actions are taken as per the variabilitynoticed in the field. All part of the field are not equally infested with pest, so the variabilityof weed, insect and disease infestation can be noted and mapped, the remedial actioncan be applied according to the variability found in different parts of a field. Similarlywater availability in the field can be mapped and irrigation can be applied using theprinciple of variable rate irrigation.

Evaluation of Precision Farming

We have discussed the technological capabilities and agronomical feasibility ofprecision farming for assessing and managing spatial and temporal variation. Thetechnological possibility of precision farming based on sound scientific principle doesnot necessarily establish its utility or value. Three important evaluation issues namely,economic viability, maintenance of environment and feasibility of technology transfer ofprecision agriculture remain unresolved. The economic evaluation focus on whether thedocumented agronomic benefits translate into value through market mechanisms.Environment evaluation focus on whether precision farming can improve soil, waterand general ecological sustainability of our agricultural systems. Final and the foremostimportant issue are whether this technology of site-specific farming will work on individualfarms and how far this technology can be transferred to other farmers.

POTENTIAL OF PRECISION FARMING IN INDIA

Although precision farming is a proven technology in many advanced countries ofthe world but its scope in India (including developing countries) are limited. Different

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scientists have reported certain constraints, which limited the scope for site-specificfarming in India, are given as follows:

! Small land holdings size.

! Socio-economic status of Indian farmers.

! Lack of success stories or cost-benefit studied on precision farming.

! Knowledge and technological gaps.

! Heterogeneity of cropping system in India.

! Lack of market perfections.

! Lack of local technical expertise.

! Lack of data availability in terms of quality and cost.

Out of these, two major problems for implementing precision agriculture in ourcountry are small size operational holding and cost of precision farming system. InIndia, about 57.8 per cent of the operational holdings have size less than 1 ha. With thisfield size where farming being mostly subsistent, it is difficult task to adopt the techniquesof precision farming at individual field level. However, when we consider contiguousfield with same crop (mostly under similar management practices) the field (rathersimulated field) sizes are large. These contiguous fields can be considered as a singlefield for the purpose of implementation of precision farming. However, many horticulturalcrops in India, which are high profit making, offer wide scope for precision farming.The scope of precision farming for horticultural crops is described below:

Fruits and Orchards

Grape: Grape (Vitis vinefera L.) is one of the important fruit crops of India. It isgrown mainly for table purposes and raisin making. The major grape-growing statesare Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab and Haryana. Oneof the major grape-growing area in the country is Nasik district of Maharashtra, whichcan be selected for pilot studies on precision farming. Experienced grape growers knowthat grapes, which are very sensitive to their environment are influenced by sunlightlevels. By using remote sensing data, one can determine where the canopy is too thin ortoo thick and grapes are being under or overexposed to the sun. Grower also can seewhere they may need to alter irrigation levels, modify fertilizer applications or prunevines to optimize their production and quality. Growers using the precision farming


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technique may also be able to detect anomalies inthe canopy caused by insect infestation, eg. spidermites, leafhoppers, phylloxera or the presence offungal diseases like powdery and downy mildew(Fig. 1).

Apple: Apple is an important commercial fruit cropof India. It is mainly grown in the Himalayan regionof India. Information on location, extent andcondition of the orchards is the prerequisite fororchard management. In this respect satelliteremote sensing has a significant role to play due toits synoptic, temporal and multi-spectral capability,that seems the optimum choice for such terrainconditions. Due to physiological requirement ofnear to snowline and minimum hours of chillingrequirement, apple orchards are concentrated on higher elevations. Slope, aspect andelevation are some of the deciding factors on orchard condition and productivity. Digitalelevation model (DEM) is one of the methods to derive such information. Best orchardsare found to be associated with 2,000-2,400 m elevation, 0-30 degree slope and northor east facing. Remote sensing and GIS are the techniques to locate new site for high-density orcharding and managing effectively the exiting apple orchards.

Mango: Mango is known as national fruit as well as the king of fruits in India. It isdistributed throughout the length and breadth of the country. A systematic survey hasnot been conducted to ascertain at regular intervals the total area under this crop, itsproduction and utilization. Accurate information on the area, spatial distribution oforchards, characterization of old and new orchards, identification of seeded andvegetatively raised orchard is essential prerequisite for scientific and precise managementof orchards and for infrastructure planning purposes (3). India has a well - establishedsystem to collect regular statistical information of field crops, but it is not true forhorticultural crops. Satellite remote sensing with its large area synoptic view and temporalcoverage is an ideal tool to map and monitor the condition of mango orchard. In futurehigh resolution and multi-spectral data can be used for mapping the extent of diseasespread like mango malformation. Remote sensing and GIS can be important tools fororchard intensification and modeling post-harvest infrastructure for sustaining mangoproduction.

Fig. 1. Spatial variability in grape growthas reflected by remote sensing data(field photo of the same orchard isalso shown at the top)

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Tubers and Vegetables

Potato: Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is one of the important vegetable crops ofIndia. Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar and Punjab and major potato-growing statesin the Indo-Gangetic plains accounting for about 75 per cent of acreage and 85 percent of country's potato production. It is one of the crops, which has got the potentialfor export as seed and ware potatoes or as processed products. Jalandhar district ofPunjab is a major potato-growing district, where potato is mostly grown for seedpurpose. In this district, potato is grown in large fields, with high inputs. Considering theimportance of potato crop for farmers of Jalandhar district, Space Applications Centre,Ahmedabad, in collaboration with Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, has initiatedstudy on role of remote sensing and GIS for precision farming, using Central PotatoResearch Station Farm, Jalandhar, as the experimental site. This study was conductedusing 23m multi-spectral and5.6 m panchromatic data fromIRS ID satellite. The study hadshowed that there existvariability both for soil andcrop (vigour and yield) even inuniformly managed seedpotato-growing farm (Fig. 2).This variability is not known togrowers but can be noted withhigh-resolution satellite data.Some relationship wasobserved between soil variability and crop yield. However, further studies need to becarried out to explore the physical /chemical reasons of this variability and to suggestspecific management practices to cater this variability. In future, this variability studywill show better result with the availability of high-resolution data from IKONOS (4mmulti-spectral) and Resourcesat (LISS IV, 5.8 m multi-spectral).

Onion: Onion is one of the most important commercial vegetable crops in India andoccupies a special place in Indian household. Monitoring the prospects of onion cropearly in the season is required for policy decisions on import/export, price monitoring inthe internal market and modeling storage, packaging and marketing infrastructure asthe crop registers significant annual acreage and fluctuations. Inventory of this cropusing remote sensing data is constrained mainly due to the small field sizes, heterogeneity

Fig. 2. Within field variability of potato crop vigour andyield derived from RS data at CRPS farm, Jalandhar


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in crop calendar and low per cent area coverage. The launch of Resourcesat in futurewill be a boon for monitoring and capturing variability in crops like onion. A pilot studywas conducted to monitor and assess onion condition in Bhavnagar and Nasik districtsof Gujarat and Maharashtra, using LISS III data. The study showed that there exist alot of variations in soil and management practices and this variation can be captured tosuggest suitable management practices using remote sensing and GIS.

Plantations/beverages

Tea: India is the largest tea producer (30 per cent) and consumer of tea (23 per cent)in the world. Besides, it grows largest number of varieties of tea. The number of teagardens has increased from 6,214 to 38,705 with an average garden area being 11.2ha. Tea is also one of the largest foreign exchange earning commodities in the agriculturesector. Micro-level studies have indicated that there is a good potential for increasingtea production, through the adoption of improved agricultural practices and better crophusbandry practices, without any appreciable increase in area (1). Thus, tea providesgreat opportunity for adoption of precision farming.

The diffusion of the technology of precision agriculture among the Indian farmersrequires a lot of home work and prerequisite as given below:

! Formation of multidisciplinary teams comprising scientist of different fields,engineers, equipment manufacturers, farmers, economists and NGOs to study theoverall impact of precision farming on economics, environment and technologytransfer.

! Governmental restriction for restraining farmers from indiscriminate inputs (fertilizer,pesticide, irrigation, etc.), which cause ecological/environmental imbalance. Thiswill induce the farmers to go for alternative approach like precision farming /organicfarming.

! To conduct demonstration study or pilot study on farmers’ fields rather than onexperimental farms for precision farming implementation, as farmer is the first andlast model for technology transfer.

The study on precision agriculture has already been initiated, in many researchinstitutes in India. Space Applications Centre (ISRO), Ahmedabad, has taken a leadposition in this respect and started experiment on precision farming at the Central PotatoResearch Station farm at Jalandhar, Punjab, to study the role of remote sensing in

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mapping the variability. This Instituteis also conducting precision farmingstudies in collaboration with MSSwaminathan Foundation, Chennai andProject Directorate of CroppingSystem, Modipuam, for capturingvariability (Fig. 3) and variable rateinput application. In coming few yearsprecision may help the Indian farmersto harvest the fruits of frontiertechnologies without compromising thequality of land and environment.

CONCLUSION

Precision farming is essential for serving dual purpose of enhancing productivityand reducing ecological degradation. Though it is widely practised for commercial cropsin developed countries, but is still a nascent stage in most of the developing countries.Remote sensing can provide a key input (variability map) for the implementation ofprecision farming. Developing countries have scope for precision agriculture, though itneeds and integrates sustainable efforts. Many studies, which have started in India onprecision farming, are expected to bear result and transform the Indian agriculture fromsustaining livelihood to a commercial enterprise.

REFERENCES1. Ahuja, S.S. (2000). Tea — Production Constraints Stay. In: The Hindu Survey of Indian

Agriculture 2000, pp. 105-108.

2. Anon. (1991). Understanding GIS: The ARC/INFO Method. Environmental Systems ResearchInstitute (ESRI) Wiley, Redlands, CA/New York.

3. Anon.(1993). Souvenir, National Horticulture Conference, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. ofIndia, New Delhi.

4. Clark, R.L. and McGucken, R.L. (1996). Variable rate application technology: An overview.In: Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Precision Agriculture,Minneapolis, MN, June 23-26, 1996. Robert, P.C., Rust, R.H. and Larson, W.E. (Eds). ASAMiscellaneous Publication, ASA, CSSA, and SSSA, Madison, WI, pp. 651-662.

5. Hanson, L.D., Robert, P.C. and Bauer, M. (1995). Mapping wild oats infestation using digitalimagery for site specific management. In: Proc. Site-Specific Mgt. for Agric. Syst. 27-30March. 1994, Minneapolis, MN, ASA-CSA-SSSA, Madison, WI, pp.495-503.

Fig. 3 . Spectral variability map of soil of Srirampuramvillage derived from LISS III data


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6. Moran, M.S., Inoue, Y. and Barnes, E.M. (1997). Opportunities and limitations for image -based remote sensing in precision crop management. Remote Sensing Environment 61: 319-46.

7. Pierce, F. J. and Nowak, P. (1999). Aspects of precision agriculture. Advances in Agronomy67: 1-85.

8. Shumway, R.H. (1998). Applied Statistical Time Series Analysis. Prentice Hall, EnglewoodCliffs, NJ.

SITE-SPECIFIC NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT FOR HIGHYIELD AND QUALITY OF FRUIT CROPS

K.N. Tiwari1

In India, land is limited and shrinking whereas the human and animal populationsare increasing. The land and man ratio has fallen rapidly in the past half century from0.34 in 1950 to 0.14, and is projected to be 0.10 in 2025. Cereals cover about 125million ha (half of it is rice) but there has been a significant deceleration in the growth offoodgrains production during the 1990's. On the other hand, non-food (cash) andhorticultural crops in particular have shown substantial growth acceleration (Table 1).

The area devoted to fruit production increased 50 per cent, while the vegetablegrowing area increased 20 per cent. Grape, an export crop, currently at 43,000 ha,increased 70 per cent. The value of horticultural crops grew at an average of 7.5 percent during the 1990's. High yield and quality in horticulture can only be ensured througha rational blend of commercial fertilizers and organic nutrient sources.

Fertilizer has certainly played a critical role in India's Green Revolution, but theper hectare consumption of fertilizer is still much less than neighbouring countries inAsia. This situation is compounded by imbalanced use of N, P2O5 and K2O (nutrientconsumption ratio 6.9: 2.9: 1). Fertilizer consumption is far below actual nutrient removaland export from the farmer's fields. India has a total organic nutrient source potential of7.8 million tonnes of N, P2O5 and K2O which includes human excreta, livestock dungand crop residues against a total N+P2O5+K2O requirement of 45 million tonnes by2025. As a country tempted to 'own' organic farming, it is obvious that farming in Indiawithout adequate fertilizer input will prove fatal for both food security and environmentalquality. It is an understatement to say that organic farming in India can only be practisedin very small segments of cultivated area. This also applies to high-value crops meantfor export. Findings from long-term fertilizer experiments clearly show that:

! Intensive cropping with only N input is a short-lived phenomenon.

1Potash and Phosphate Institute of Canada(India Programme), Sec. 19, Dundahera 122 016 (Haryana)



46

Source : New Ag. International May 2002, p.51.*all figures in million ha unless otherwise indicated

Table 1. Some key figures for horticulture in India

1990 1999/2000

Total area* 328 328

Of which area under agriculture 181 181

Arable land 163 162

Permanent crops 6 8

Cereals 102 99

Of which paddy/rice 43 44

Sugarcane 3.4 4.1

Cotton 8 9

Fruit area (excluding melons) 2.5 3.4

Citrus, '000 ha 215 253

Mangoes, '000 ha 846 1,400

Bananas, 000 ha 365 464

Coconut 1.5 1.9

Vegetable area (including melons) 4.8 5.7

Tomatoes, '000 ha 290 365

Eggplants, '000 ha 295 425

Potatoes, '000 ha 940 1,340

Cucumbers and cauliflowers, '000 ha 239 350

Dry onions, '000 ha 302 500

Pumpkins and squash, '000 ha 306 355

Pimentos/allspices, '000 ha 816 945

Melons and watermelons, '000 ha 46 50

Grape, '000 ha 25 43

Flowers, '000 ha na 70

Tobacco, '000 ha 413 450

Total irrigated area 45 59

Total fertilizer consumption, Mt 12.0 18.4

N+P2O5+K2O

Site Specific Nutrient Management for High Yield and Quality of Fruit Crops

47

! Omission of limiting macro- or micronutrient leads to its progressive deficiencydue to heavy removals.

! Sites initially well supplied with P, K or S become deficient when continuouslycropped using N alone.

! Fertilizer rates considered as "optimum" still result in nutrient depletion at highproductivity levels and if continued, become "sub-optimal" rates.

To feed its growing population, India will have to produce more and better foodfrom less land. The goal, intensive high input - high output agriculture must be adoptedin each and every field. The role of fertilizers, applied according to soil and crop dictatesand nutritionally balanced so that nutrient-use efficiency and the crop yields level arehigh. Emergence of multi-nutrient deficiencies (N, P, K, S, Zn……..) all over the countryis compelling for balanced and efficient fertilizer use (Table 2).

Table 2. Nutrient deficiencies in soils of India

Nutrient Nutrient status category

Low Medium High

Nitrogen 228 118 8

Phosphorus 170 184 17

Potassium 47 194 122

Sulphur Deficiency scattered over 130 districts

Magnesium South and north-east states, very acid soils.

Zinc 50 per cent of 200,000 soil samplesanalyzed found deficient

Iron Widespread in upland calcareous soils

Boron Parts of West Bengal, Bihar and Karnataka

India is the second largest producer of fruits with total area of 3.8 million ha andtotal production of 45 million tonnes. Mango, banana, citrus, apple and guava occupy80 per cent of the total area under fruits. India stands first in per cent production ofmany fruits like mango, banana, sapota and litchi. It is also one of the leading producersof coconut, cashewnut, spices and many vegetables. Horticulture is vital for India'sagricultural economy. India's past, present and projected population, fruit requirement,


48

fruit production and deficit are given in Table 3. Fruit crops absorb 500-1,000 kg/ha ofN + P2O5 + K2O Nutrient removal (kg/ha) by some fruit crops is given in Table 4.Apparently, horticultural crops are heavy feeders and place a great demand for nutrientson the soil and fertilizer system.

Table 3. India's past, present and projected population, fruit requirement, fruitproduction and deficit

Parameter Year

1995 2000 2005 2010

Population, million 930 1000 1093 1209

Fruit requirement, Mt 79.1 92.0 99.0 109.0

Fruit production, Mt 32.9 34.0 46.0 53.0

Deficit, Mt -46.2 -58.0 -54.0 -56.0

Crop Yield (tonnes/ ha)

N P2O5 K2O MgO S

Mango Papaya Grape Citrus Banana Apple Pineapple

15 50 20 30 40 25 50

100 90

170 100 250 100 185

25 25 60 60 60 45 55

110 130 220 350

1000 180 350

75 15 60 40

140 40

110

NA 10 30 30 15 NA 20

Table 4. Nutrient removal (kg/ha) by some fruit crops

Nutrient balance plays a major role in increasing productivity of fruit crops. Thestates having better balance among NPK also have higher productivity of fruit crops.The southern and western state of the country have better balance among NPK ascompared to Uttar Pradesh (Table 5).

Table 5. Area and production of fruits in some states : an example

State Proportionate share (%) in area

Proportionate share (%) in production

NPK ratio

Karnataka Maharashtra Tamilnadu Uttar Pradesh

6 3 4

26

17 16 19 7

3.3:1.8:1 3.6:1.9:1 2.6:1.0:1

15.2:6.6:1


49

Table 6. Nutrient consumption ratio (N:P2O5:K2O)

Zone 1998-99 1999-2000

East 5.1 : 1.9 : 1 4.3 : 1.7 : 1

North 37.1 : 8.9 : 1 28.1 : 9.0 : 1

South 4.1 : 1.8 : 1 3.4 : 1.6 : 1

West 10.4 : 4.8 : 1 8.0 : 4.0 : 1

All India 8.5 : 3.1 : 1 6.8 : 2.8 : 1

Zonal balance among NPK as provided in Table 6 clearly show that in northern zoneuse of P and K is much less.

SITE-SPECIFIC NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT: AN ACTION PLAN

Collecting Soil Samples

Sample collection is the most critical part of soil testing for developing variablerate fertilizer consumption maps. Research is underway how to optimize sampling forvarious combinations of soil properties, cropping systems, and fertilisation/manuringhistories.

Overlay Field with a Grid

! For the initial sampling, each grid cell should not be larger that 1 acre unless thefield has a history of high soil test values and fertiliser applications in excess ofnormal crop removal. In the latter case a 2-acre cell may be acceptable. It may benecessary to sample portions of the field on a finer grid, if, responsive sites areidentified with the first sampling pass.

! Future sampling of the field may be done using a larger grid size or by nutrientmanagement areas, depending on the outcome of the initial sampling.

! Locate the sample point by counting rows and measuring distances, or preferablynavigate to the point using GPS.

! Taking samples in straight rows across the field may be biased by previousmanagement such as fertiliser application patterns. A systematic but unalignedpattern may be better choice, especially, if, GPS-referencing is available.

! Collect at least 5-8 soil cores for each grid cell, taking the cores from within aradius of 10 feet of the sample point.


50

Sample at a Uniform DepthSoil tests are usually calibrated on the basis of an acre furrow slice approximately

2 million pounds of soil. Check with the analytical lab for its recommendation on samplingdepth, because some labs use their own calibration data set that is based on a samplingdepth different from the 62/3- inch standard. For no-till fields, consider collecting a setof samples at the standard depth and another set to represent the top 2 inches. This willhelp identify stratification of nutrients, and is especially important for pH determination.

A goal of every farmer should be to develop a strategic plan that works towarddetailed, site-specific nutrient management:

! Make a commitment to keep accurate, detailed records of production inputs andyields for each field, including variability within the field.

! Begin collecting soil test, nutrient application and crop yield data on a grid basis.Identify each sample with its exact location in the field. Use GPS location-referencing, if, possible.

! Analyse records and develop a nutrient management plan that takes into accountthe variability within a field. Use spot spreading a variable rate application whereappropriate.

! Measure yields for each field. Using on-the-go yield measurement to develop ayield map of each field is even better. Individual field yield records are a goodstarting point, but yield variation across the field must be measured to get anaccurate check on response to site-specific management.

! Continue to add information each year and begin more detailed analysis of therecords to refine the site-specific nutrient management plan. Even though the levelof detail of different data sets will vary, each point in the field can be associatedwith each data set, if, all of the records are properly geo-referenced. As technologyimproves, some data sets can be replaced with more accurate or more detaileddata sets for the same parameters.

Nutrient Management PlanEvery field should have a nutrient management plan that integrates the information

from all sources of data available for the farm. The plan should integrate the specificexperience, preferences and goals of the farmer. Yield goals should not only be realisticand profitable, but also progressive. Assessment of potential environmental impact andcompliance with applicable regulations should be a part of the plan.


51

Plans should be written out in detail, with appropriate supporting records andother information. Nutrient management plans should include proper credits for previouscrops, manure, sludge or industrial by product applications. Consider all of the nutrientresources available and select the best combination for each field. Good nutrition maybe expensive, but inadequate nutrition can be even more costly in terms of lostyield potential...and lost profits!

Start Now—Build for the FutureA site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) system begins with a commitment

to develop a good record keeping system that will document the past and help plan thefuture management practices and crop responses. Other components, including yieldmonitoring, grid soil sampling, and variable rate fertiliser application, can then be addedas best fits the management and economics of the operation.

To begin the process, it requires no major capital investment of specializedequipment. Computers and satellite-based positioning systems may be important toolsin the long run, but they are of little value until the basic management strategy isestablished. Much can be done to implement site-specific management, even beforenew technology is added. The important step is to make a commitment and get startedwith accurate, detailed records and careful attention to management details.

SSNM Treatments : An Example

1. NP3K3SZnB

2. NP2K3SZnB

3. NP1K3SZnB

4. NP0K3SZnB

5. NP3K2SZnB

6. NP3K1SZnB

7. NP3K0SZnB

8. NP3K3SZnB0

9. NP3K3SZn0B

10. NP3K3S0ZnB

11. State recommended dose

12. State recommendation++


52

Importance of Nutrient Management in Horticultural Crops! Higher yield, quality and returns.

! Improving nutritional standards of the people.

! Greater and better quality raw materials for fruit and vegetable processing industries.

! Generate foreign exchange earnings through the export of high quality produce.

Balanced and Efficient Nutrient Management! Add all deficient nutrients

! Replenish the amount removed by crops

! Add nutrients to compensate for nutrient losses from the soil

! Consider quantities "locked up" in perennial growth and removed in prunings

! Adopt BMP

The Basic Difference! Long pre-bearing period

! Needs vary with age and productivity

! Deep root system

! Remain at the same place for years

! Large structure

! Distinct and lengthy phases of vegetative growth and fruit development

Site-Specific Nutrient Management: Ensures! Balance

! Efficiency

! Top yield

! Top quality

! Top profits

Objectives of Site-specific Management! Identify and quantify the variability of soil physical and chemical properties


53

! Understand the impact of soil variability on crop growth, yield and profitability

! Manage soil variability to improve production, increase profits, and reduceenvironmental impact

Benefits of Site-specific Management! Improved input efficiency

! Reduced potential for environmental impairment

! Documentation of "what, where, when, why"…of management

! Identification of within-field variability in yield potential

The Potash and Phosphate Institute of Canada (India Programme) is the partnerof the fertilizer industry, Agricultural Universities/Institutes, State Department ofAgriculture in achieving balance through its network of research and educationalprogrammes which help to achieve maximum economic yields through site-specificnutrient management in different soil-crop-climatic situations of India. Lessons learntfrom PPIC's site-specific nutrient management programme are rewarding and emphasizethe need for practicing balanced and efficient fertilizer use considering site-specific nutrientdeficiencies and crop's nutrient requirements for targeted yield goals.

Sustainability of Indian agriculture to maintain food self-sufficiency will depend onthe 'high input-high output' principle. The 'low input-high output' concept is merely adream, and adherence to this invalid view would prove fatal for food security andnutritional security. In the Indian context, this is more true now than ever before becauseof emerging demands for horticultural, floricultural, and plantation crop products. Thefounding father of the green revolution in India, Dr. Norman Borlaugh, has rightly statedthat without the use of chemical fertilizers, India and China would have needed 2-3times more land under cereals to meet food needs of 1991, if, they used the technologyof 1960…and not increase the, fertilizer input to sustain its present level of production.This is very true for horticulture sector also.

CONCLUSIONHigh yield agriculture must be at the top of India's agenda for food and nutritional

security, and environmental safety. Maximum economic yield goals can be achieved onirrigated land by using improved genetics, yield targeted site-specific nutrientmanagement, and improved crop husbandry practices. Attention must be paid toquantities of nutrients being removed by crops and quantities of nutrients supplied by allsources. To minimize India's current annual negative nutrient balance of 8-10 million


54

tonnes of N+P2O5+K2O, increased use of fertilizers along with possible use of organicmanures and biofertilizers would be essential and inevitable. Organics, which can supplya portion of P and K along with the secondary and micronutrients required by cropscan help offset the negative nutrient balance and slow down nutrient depletion processes;however, it cannot meet the nutrient requirements of crops. Proponents of strictly organicfarming systems tend to overlook three important factors, i.e. (a) the adequacy of supplyof organic materials on a national basis, (b) the nutrient content and rate of supply togrowing crops, and (c) the high labor costs to collect and apply organic materials. Theimportance of organics in improving soil physical and biological properties cannot bedenied, their efficient use to the extent possible should, therefore, be promoted andintegrated nutrient management be practised.

LAND AND NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT INPRECISION FARMING

H.S. Chauhan1

The natural resources of the world are dwindling and the human population isincreasing, along with increase in environmental pollution especially water, land and air.This is more in developing countries like India, China and many other Asian countries.Thus with the increase in population there will be more requirement of food and fibre,but our land and water resources are diminishing. This calls for better conservation,besides more harnessing of resources. Precision farming is the urgent need of the dayand a very important and timely in the present context. There is no standard definitionof precision farming. However, in the broad sense it aims at quantitative, qualitative andtimely regulation and monitoring of all the environmental, physical and biological factorsto optimise and sustain the productivity of food and fibre in a given land and environmentalsetting for human and animal consumption. The role and effect of different factorscontributing to higher growth and yield are discussed below:

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING HIGHER YIELDCrop Variety

The selection of a crop suited to agroclimatic condition plays a very important rolein obtaining higher productivity. The varieties suited in hilly region may not suit in plains.The varieties giving good yields in tropical region may not yield in subtropical region.Methods and Amount of Water

In most of the crops, surface irrigation is commonly practised which is wasteful.For closely growing crops and undulating lands sprinkler irrigation is appropriatelysuited, while for medium to largely spaced crops microirrigation has been found to givewater economy, better quality and higher yields, fertilizer, chemicals, labour and severalother advantages. There is a need to establish proper amount and scheduling of irrigationfor water economy.

1Ex, Prof. Irri. and Drainage Engg. (Agric.Engg.), G.B.Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar.Present address : 1 2/156, Vishal Khand, Gomti Nagar, Lucknow



56

Method of Fertilizer ApplicationApplication of fertilizers by broadcasting along with basin flooding, leads to

uncontrolled leaching and is not only wasteful and uneconomic, also adds to nitrogenpollution but is reaching hazardous proportions in developed countries. Along withselection of proper method of microirrigation proper schedule of fertigation would leadto fertilizer economy and provide better fruit yield and has to be established.Agro-chemicals for Pest Management

Irrigation acts as a vehicle of fertilizers and chemicals. For control of diseases,insect pests and weeds different chemicals are used. Along with selection of a specificmethod of irrigation proper amount and schedule of chemicals have to be establishedfor a given crop.Effect of Rootstocks

Difference in rootstocks make a lot of variation in growth and yield, if, otherfactors remain the same. For example, self-rooted peach and peach scions budded onpeach and plum stock (Floradsun and Sharbati) were planted at different spacings anddrip irrigated and plants on plum rootstock showed smallest increase in plant height.Root Wetting

Root volume wetting makes a large difference in yield of different fruit crops suchas citrus fruits. Greater yields were obtained using spray jet trickle systems, whichirrigated the largest fraction of tree root zone.High-density Planting

High-density planting constitutes a more efficient orcharding system. They consistof different planting densities for different fruit crops, e.g. 250-1,250 plants/ha in caseof apples. They are easily manageable, have low labour costs, higher yield potentialand production. The systems have to be established appropriately for different fruitcrops.Environmental Consideration

Greater application of water than required to not only leads to lesser yield but alsomay cause waterlogging and salinity, leading to land degradation. Similarly, excessapplication of fertilizers and chemicals may lead to groundwater pollution. Therefore,keeping in view environmental considerations, it is also important that appropriate andprecise amount of water and fertilizers may be applied.

AUTOMATED IRRIGATIONComputer programmes have been developed for automation of localised irrigation

Land and Nutrient Management in Precision Farming

57

for scheduling irrigation of various orchard crops. In Mexico, AUTRI was developedfor peach orchards. A real time expert system, CIMS, was developed for microirrigationof citrus orchards. To manage irrigation scheduling in different crops by various workersare discussed below :

Apple

Reproductive and vegetative responses of fruiting apple trees due to two methodsof microirrigation and nitrogen fertilization were studied (3). Apple cultivars GrannySmith and Koop 10, irrigated by drip irrigation and subsoil irrigation and nitrogen appliedeither in the irrigation water or by topdressing. Results revaeled that there was a significantdifference between the two methods of irrigation. However, with subsoil irrigation someblockages were observed in the pipes during the ninth growing season which resulted inlower yield and poorer fruit quality.

Two experiments were carried out in Germany to study the effect of fertigation onthe mineral composition of apple fruits and their colour (4). The first experiment waswith cv. Elstar and Boscoop on M-9. Three fertigation levels, 2 nitrogen levels and aCa NO3 application were compared with broadcast fertilizer application. In the secondexperiment, the influence of fertigation and quality in relation to planting density on cv.Jomica (3,330 or 6,000 trees/ha) and Elstar (2,000 trees/ha) was investigated.Differences were not observed in firmnness, acidity or sugar content and their changesbetween fertigated and unfertigated plots. Fertigation also did not improved fruit mineralcontent with respect to their storage potential. The reduction in the nitrogen level appliedby fertigation did not affect fruit colour. Fertigation had no positive effect on floweringand productivity. Drip irrigation plus broadcast fertilizer application gave the best yields.Fruit quality was affected mainly by the number of fruits per tree.

At low densities of crop (by thinning) firmness and TSS contents were highergiving a better taste than high-density fruits. Influence of three fertilizers (ammoniumnitrate, urea mono ammonium phosphate) and 3 irrigation methods (microjet, drip andsprinkler) on growth and fruit yield of apple cv. Mascpurl trees are on M-106 rootstocks,planted in replant soil under orchard conditions in British Columbia, Canada (10). Therewas no significant difference for growth and fruit yield between untreated control andurea applied as foliar spray (1 kg/1,000 litres of water). Trunk cross-section area andfruit yield were significantly lower for trees watered by micro jet (2.3 hr/day) and drip(21.6 hr/day) compared with those receiving 2 durations of sprinkler irrigation (1.5 or3 hr every 7 days). No significant differences were found between micro jet and dripirrigation or between two durations of sprinkler irrigation for trunk cross-section or fruit


58

yield. Significant correlations were observed between trunk cross-section area andfruit yield for all 5 years.

BananaLahav and Kalmar (5) studied water amounts through drip irrigation regimes in

banana. Water amounts were fixed according to the evaporation factor from a class Apan. The rate of water application corresponded to f = 0.8, 1.0, 1.2 and 1.4. Anadditional factor with a constant factor of evaporation of f = 1.0 was applied. Thefertilizer regimes consisted of a fixed dose of fertilizers applied once a week and aconstant concentration of fertilizer injected into the irrigation water throughout theirrigation season. The water applied amounted to 8,450-14,470 cubic m/ha/year. Theincreased water amount lead to an increase in sucker height, earlier flowering, morebranches and increase in average bunch weight. Maximum effects were found in suckersirrigated at f =1.4 but any increase above f = 1.0 gave no significant advantage. Dripirrigation in Cavendish banana grown in a well-drained sandy clay loam soil gave betterperformance than basin irrigation in India (8). Different levels of evaporationreplenishments were 20,40,60,80,100 and 120 per cent of class A pan evaporationand nitrogen (100, 200 and 300 g/plant) and potassium (100, 200 and 300 g/plant).Banana yields were significantly higher with drip irrigation (83.8 tonnes/ha) as comparedwith 78.9 with basin irrigation. Increasing N had no significant effect on water-useefficiency.

Field experiments on fertigation by drip and micro spray irrigation at weekly ormonthly intervals in banana revealed the more yield with micro spray applications forboth fertigation methods (7). Stem circumference and number of hands in a bunch weregreater for micro spray and at monthly application for both the methods. Mean bunchmass for weekly and monthly irrigations was 23.9 kg and 29.2 kg and drip irrigation30.1 kg and 33.3 kg under micro spray irrigation. It was concluded that fertigationshould be done on a monthly rather than weekly basis for both the methods. Effect ofwater-soluble fertilizers on yield and quality of banana was studied by Pawer et al. (6).The results showed that the fruit yield was significantly higher in normal planting (82.86tonnes/ha) than paired row planting (75.75 tonnes/ha). The fruit yield increased in water-soluble fertilizer (81.1 tonnes/ha) compared to only nitrogen through drip (77.59 tonnes/ha). Yield was minimum (72.61 tonnes/ha). in surface method. The water saving to theextent of 50 per cent under drip irrigation was also observed in comparison to surfacemethod.

CitrusExperiments by Bravdo et al. (1) on drip and micro jet sprays on 25-year-old


59

orchard on cv. Shamouti oranges showed that small volumes irrigation by drippercombined with a high concentration. NPK equivalent to half the strength of Hoaglandsolution resulted in highest yield. The increased yield due to larger number of fruits/hawhich resulted in decreased fruit size initially but this effect gradually disappeared in thefollowing years. The low volumes irrigation combined with high concentrations of NPKproduced restricted root growth and a dense root system with a large number of smallroots. Their was no treatment effects on fruit quality or leaf water potential. In SouthAfrica, there was non-significant difference in yield and fruit size distribution on MidKnight Valencia oranges due to fertigation frequencies and conventional hand fertilizerapplication practices (9). Stem circumference was greater in double line drip treatmentwith fortnightly fertigation. All the treatments met export quality but trees under singleline drip fertigation had higher TSS, acid and juice content than other two treatments.

In 10-year-old Mineola Tangelo groove on the coastal plains of Israel showedthat low N rate (100kg N/ha) caused a gradual decline in fruit yield and in leaf nitrogencontent but produced larger fruits with thinner rinds as compared with 200 and 300kgN/ha under various methods of fertigation (2). Trickle irrigation with two laterals producedbetter tree growth and higher yields than trickle irrigation with one lateral or microsprinkler irrigation. Xin et al. (11) developed citrus management irrigation system (CIMS)to assist microirrigation cold protection and fertilizer management. The system integratesan expert system conventional control, a crop water requirement simulations model,databases and irrigation management tools into a single system to assist the decisionmaking processes by irrigation managers. Soil moisture sensors and an automatedweather station were installed in the field. Both laboratory and field tests showed thatthe integrated system worked as a management tool for irrigation, fertigation and coldprotection. The system is highly automated and has the potential to improvemicroirrigation management to achieve water and energy savings and to prevent waterpollution due to improper fertigation management.

SALIENT INFERENCES FROM REVIEW

From the above review on fertigation experiences of the selected fruit crops, viz.apple, banana and citrus, inferences have been drawn and given in brief below:

Apple

Fertigation with trickle and broadcast: Studies were done on a compoundsolution 19:6:6 NPK fertilizer applied in trickle irrigation annual fertigation between 108g N/tree and compared with irrigation broadcast fertilizer at 80 g N/tree and no fertilizerand irrigation. In the initial days there was not much difference in shoot growth among


60

different treatments. Fertigation at 40 and 80 g N/tree caused large increase in totalshoot growth associated with an excessive production of axillary floral buds. The bestbalance between increased shoot growth and fruit bud production, fruit set and cumulativeyield was achieved with fertigation at 20gN/tree.

Microsprinkler and fertilizer application : The apple tree growth was studiedat 2 levels of potassium (0 and 200 kg/ha) and 2 irrigation schemes, without irrigation in4 blocks and with irrigation which permits soil moisture in root zone as 25-35 kg/ha ofsoil moisture head. Irrigation was given in half the area (4 blocks). Significant influenceof potassium at the level of 200 kg/ha on increase of soil moisture pressure head wasfound both for irrigated and non-irrigated blocks. A significant effect of microsprinkleron lowering by ratio of 2.5 of the contents of NO3 form in groundwater in irrigatedblocks was found as compared to unirrigated blocks.

Subsoil drip irrigation and nitrogen application: Studies on apple cv. GrannySmith, Smoothee and Koop 10 were done by drip irrigation and subsoil irrigation withnitrogen applied either in the irrigation water or by topdressing. The rate of wateringwas 100 per cent of evapotranspiration loss and amounted to 161 cubic m/ha. Nosignificant differences were observed between the two methods of irrigation. However,with subsoil irrigation some blockage were observed in the pipes during the ninth growingseason which resulted in lower yield and poor fruit quality.

K deficiency correction through fertigation: Fertigation cv. Mc Intosh, 40 g Nand 17.5 g P/tree by the third growing season with leaf K average 0.82 per cent drymass suggesting deficiency of K. This coincided with extractable soil K concentrationsof 50-60 g/tree soil in a narrow volume of coarse textured soil located within 0.3 m ofthe emitters. The decrease in leaf K was reversed and fruit K increased after applicationsof 15-30 g K/tree as granular KCl directly beneath the emitters in spring or as KClapplied as fertigant in irrigation water. K fertilizers improved fruit surface colour, sizeand titratable acidity when leaf K was less than 1. Fruit calcium and incidence of bitterpit or core flush were unaffected by K applications.

Microjet/drip/sprinkler irrigation and fertigation : Study on influence of fertilizers(ammonium nitrate, urea and mono ammonium phosphate) and irrigation methods,(microjet, drip and sprinkler) on apple cv. Macspurl trees on MM-106 rootstock inCanada showed that there was no difference in growth and yield between untreatedcontrol and urea applied as a foliar spray (1 kg/100 litres of water). Trunk cross-section area and yield were lower for trees watered by microjet (2-3 hr/day) and drip(21.6 hr/ day) compared with those receiving 2 duration of sprinkler irrigation (1.5 or


61

3 hr every 7 days). No differences were obtained between microjet and drip irrigationor between two durations of sprinkler irrigation for trunk-cross-sect and fruit yield.

Fertigation with drip and flooding : Work on nutrient management in applecarried out through trickle irrigation in Solan, Himanchal Pradesh (India) on cv. Mollie'sDelicious with the recommended doses of NPK under drip irrigation, emittersbroadcasting. For broadcasted fertilizer treatments, plots were irrigated either by basinirrigation or without irrigation. Placement of fertilizers under the emitters resulted in lessleaching of N and better distribution of K to 60 cm soil depth. With basin flooding thenutrients leached down below this depth where they were no longer available to theplants.

Fertigation, fertilizer broadcasing and mineral content : Results of fertigationon mineral composition and colouration in cv. Elstar and Boscoon in Germany showedthat no differences were found in firmness, acidity, sugar content and their changesbetween fertigated and unfertigated plots. It was found that fertigation did not improvefruit mineral content with respect to their storage potential. The reduction in nitrogenlevel applied by fertigation did not affect fruit colour. Fertigation had no positive effecton flowering and productivity. Drip irrigation plus broadcast fertilizer application, gavethe best yield.

Banana

Fertigation, drip and micro-spray: Field experiments were carried out onfertigation by drip and micro-spray irrigation at weekly and monthly intervals and it wasobserved that yields were higher with micro-spray application for both fertigation methods.Yield was also higher with monthly application compared to weekly applications. Itwas concluded that fertigation should be done at monthly intervals rather than weeklyfor both the methods.

Drip, basin irrigation, NK and yield: Drip irrigation of Cavendish banana in asandy clay loam soil gave better performance than basin irrigation. Different levels ofevaporation replenishments and N and K gave significantly higher yield with drip irrigation(83.8 tonnes/ha) as compared with 78.9 tonnes/ha for basin irrigation. Increasing Nhad no significant effect on water-use efficiency but increasing K had some effect.

Drip,water and fertilizer regimes : Different water amounts through drip irrigationregimes were studied where amount were fixed according to the evaporation factorfrom a class A pan, the fertilizer regimes consisted a fixed dose, once a week andconstant concentration of fertilizer injected into the irrigation water throughout the


62

irrigation season. The increased water amount lead to an increase in sucker height,earlier flowering, more branches and also increase in average bunch weight. Maximumeffects were observed in suckers irrigated at f =1.4 but any increase above f =1.0 gavenon-significant advantage.

Drip and surface irrigation and fertilizer application : Effect of water-solublefertilizers comprising 2 fertilizers sources, 3 levels and 2 planting systems were studied,and compared with surface method of irrigation using straight fertilizers. The fruit yieldwas significantly higher in normal planting (82.86 tonnes/ha) than paired row planting(75.75 tonnes/ha). The fruit yield increased in water-soluble fertilizer (81.01 tonnes/ha)compared to only nitrogen through drip (77.59 tonnes/ha). Minimum fruit yield wasobserved in surface method. (72.61 tonnes/ha). The water saving was 50 per centunder drip irrigation compared to surface method.

Citrus

Drip, microjet and fertigation : Research on Mid knight Valencia oranges inSouth Africa with various fertigation frequencies and conventional hand fertilizerapplication practices resulted in no statistical difference between treatments in respectof yield and fruit size. Stem circumference was greater in double line drip treatment withfortnightly fertigation. Trees under single line drip fertigation had higher TSS, acid andjuice content than other two treatments.

Drip, lateral numbers and fertilizer application : Studies on 10-year-old MineolaTangelo grown in Israel with micro-sprinkler or trickle irrigation from 1 or 2 drip lateralsper tree and N fertigation (100, 200 and 300 kg/ha) showed decreased fruit growth.The fruits of the stressed tree were smaller with higher sugar content. Low N rate (100kg N/ha) caused a gradual decline in fruit yield and in leaf N content but produced largefruits with thinner rinds. Trickle irrigation with two laterals, had better tree growth andhigher yield than trickle irrigation with one lateral.

CMIS irrigation automation and expert system model : Citrus managementirrigation system (CMIS) based on soil moisture sensors and automated weather stationwas developed to assist microirrigation and fertilizer management. The system integratesan expert system conventional control, a crop water requirement simulations modeldatabases and irrigation management tools into a single system to assist the decision-making processes by irrigation managers. The system is highly automated and has thepotential to improve microirrigation management to achieve water and energy savingsand to prevent water pollution due to improper fertigation management.


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Drip, microjet and NPK fertigation : Study on drip and microjet sprays on 25-year-old orchard of cv Shamouti oranges with small volumes irrigation by dripperscombined with a high concentration of NPK equivalent to half the strength of Hoaglandsolution resulted in the highest yield. The increased yield was due to more number offruits/ha. The low volumes irrigation combined with high concentrations of NPK producedrestricted root growth and dense root system with more number of small roots. Therewas no treatment effects on fruit quality or leaf water potential.REFERENCES1. Bravdo, B., Salomon, E., Erner, Y., Saada, D., Shufman, E. and Oren, Y. (1994). Effect of drip and

mirosprinkler irrigation on citrus yield and quality. Proceedings of the International Societyfor Citriculture, vol.2. Cultural Practices. Diseases and Their Control, 7th International CitrusCongress, Acireale, Italy, March 8-13, 1992, pp. 646-50.

2. Dasberg, S., Erner, Y. and Chartzoulakis,K.S.(1997). Effect of irrigation management and nitrogenapplication on yield and quality of Mineola mandarins. Proceedings of the SecondInternational Symposium on Irrigation of Horticultural Crops; Chania Crete Greece,September 9-13, 1996. Acta Horticulturae, No. 449 : 125-31.

3. Doichev, K.(1998). Vegetative and reproductive responses of fruiting apple trees to twomethods of drip irrigation and nitrogen fertiliser application. Rasteniev"dni- Nauki. 35 : 394-97.

4. Dolega, E.K., Link, B. and Blanke, M. (1998). Fruit quality in relation to fertigation of appletrees. Proc. Second Workshop on Pome, Fruit Quality Bonn-Rottgen Germany November 24-26, 1996. Acta Horticulutae No.466: 19-114.

5. Lahav, E.and Kalmar, D. (1988). The response of banana to drip irrigation, water amounts andfertigation regimes. Soil Science and Plant Analysis 19 : 1, 25- 46.

6. Pawar, D.D., Raskar, B.S., Bangar, A.R., Bhoi, P.G. and Shinde, S.H. (2001). Effects of watersoluble fertilizers through drip and planting techniques on growth yield and quality ofbanana. Proceedings of International Conference on Micro and Sprinkler-Irrigation—Microirrigation. Central Board of Irrigation and Power, held at Jalgaon. Singh, H.P., Kaushish,S.P., Kumar, Ashwani, Murthy, J.S., Samuel, J.C. (Eds.), pp. 515 - 19.

7. Smith, B. and Hoffman, E. (1998). Comparing drip and microspray fertigation. Neltropika-Bulletin, No. 302 : 14-16.

8. Srinivas, K and Hedge, D.M. (1990). Drip Irrigation studies on banana. Proc. of 11th Int. Con.on Use of Plastics in Agriculture, New Delhi India, pp. 151-57.

9. Tomlison T.R. and Coetzek (1997). Can fertigation influence fruit quality? Neltropika. Bulletin,No. 96 : 7-9.

10. Utkhede, R.S., Utkhede, R. and Veghelyi (1998). Influence of cultural practices on the growthand yield of young apple trees planted in replant disease soil. Proceedings of InternationalSymposium on Replant Problems Budapest, Hungary. Acta Horticulturae No. 477: 27-38.

11. Xin J.N., Zazueta, F.S., Smajstrla, A.G., Wheaton, T.A., Jones J.W., Jones, P.H. and Dankel,D.D. (1977). CI MS an integrated real time computer system for Citrus micro-irrigationmanagement. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 13 : 6, 785-90.

CULTIVATION IN HI-TECH GREENHOUSES FORENHANCED PRODUCTIVITY OF NATURAL

RESOURCES TO ACHIEVE THE OBJECTIVE OFPRECISION FARMING

Pitam Chandra1 and M.J. Gupta2

The term 'precision' farming means carefully tailoring soil and crop management tofit the different conditions found in each field. Precision farming is sometimes called'prescription farming', 'site-specific farming' and 'variable rate technology'. Benefits of acomprehensive precision agriculture programme are summarized as increased productionefficiency, improved product quality, more efficient chemical and seed use, energyconservation and surface and groundwater protection. Farmers need access to site-specific technology through Global Positioning Systems (GPS). The GPS makes use ofa series of military satellites that identifies the location of farm equipment within a metreof an actual site in the field. The value of knowing a precise location is, 1) location ofsoil samples and the laboratory results can be compared to a soil map, 2) fertilizer andpesticides can be prescribed to fit soil properties (clay and organic matter content) andsoil conditions (relief and drainage), 3) tillage adjustments can be made as one findsvarious conditions across the field, and 4) one can monitor and record yield data as onegoes across the field. The real value for the farmer is that he can adjust seeding rates,plan more accurate crop protection programmes, perform more timely tillage and knowthe yield variation within a field.

HI-TECH VERSUS PRECISION FARMING

Indian horticulture in recent times has been experiencing a high rate of growth andmodernization. Several expressions are being used to express these developments.The two most common expressions are hi-tech horticulture and precision horticulture.The question is whether precision is more appropriate or hi-tech in qualifying the stateof development. Any development, including that horticulture, is termed hi-tech if, it

1,2Division of Agricultural Engineering, IARI, New Delhi 110 012


Cultivation in Hi-Tech Greenhouses for Enhanced Productivity of Natural Resources

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utilizes the technologies and resources which are significantly more sophisticated andcontemporary than those already being used. Therefore, the term hi-tech indicates thatthe developments are being continually upgraded. What was hi-tech yesterday may notbe hi-tech tomorrow. The basket of inputs keeps changing all the time. It is not possible,without additional qualifications, to decipher the contents of hi-tech horticulture. Precisionhorticulture, on the other hand, gives a very clear understanding of the intended objective.It is possible to find out the contents of the input basket for precision horticulture for agiven location and point of time. It appears that the term precision farming is morespecific and time invariant to express the developments.

HI-TECH GREENHOUSE PRODUCTION

A greenhouse is a framed or inflated structure covered with a transparent ortranslucent material in which crops could be grown under the conditions at least partiallycontrolled environment and which is large enough to permit a person to work within itto carry out cultural operations (5).

Principle

The productivity of a crop is influenced not only by its heredity but also by themicroclimate around it. The components of crop microclimate are light, temperature,air composition and the nature of the root medium. Under open field conditions, it is notpossible to effect any control over light, temperature and air composition. The onlypossibility under open-field conditions is to manipulate the nature of the root mediumby tillage, irrigation, fertilizer applications, etc. Even here, the nature of the root mediumis being modified and not controlled. A greenhouse, due to its closed boundaries, permitsthe control over any one or more of the components of microclimate.

A greenhouse is covered with a transparent or a translucent material such as glassor plastics. Depending upon its transparency, the greenhouse cover admits a majorfraction of sunlight. The sunlight admitted to greenhouse is absorbed by the crop, floor,and other objects in the greenhouse. These objects in greenhouse in turn emit longwave thermal radiation for which the cover material has lower transparency, as a result,the solar energy is trapped in greenhouse raising its temperature. This phenomenon isgenerally known as greenhouse effect. It is this natural rise in the greenhouse airtemperature which is utilized under cold climates to grow successful crops. The samenatural phenomenon during summers, however, requires greenhouse cooling to maintainfavourable temperatures. There are innumerable studies quantifying the effect of theenvironmental parameters individually as well as collectively on crop growth. The crop


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photosynthesis at optimum levels of environmental parameters follows a significantlyhigher curve.

It is remarkable, and surprising to some, that there is a technology which hasdeveloped over last two centuries and which promises control over all the environmentalparameters for commercial crop production. The obvious reference is to greenhousetechnology. While full advantage is taken of the available sunshine for crop productionin a greenhouse by way of selecting proper covering material, the enclosure providesthe opportunity to control the other environmental parameters also. As a result,greenhouse crop productivity is largely independent of outdoor environmental conditions.The prospects of microclimatic control permit the raising of plants anywhere at any timeof the year. Further, the crop productivities are at the maximum level on per unit area,per unit volume and per unit input bases. The microclimate control also implies superiorquality of produce, free from pathogens, insect bites, and chemical residues. Thesebasic advantages translate into specific benefits, such as:

" Crop cultivation under inclement climatic conditions.

" Certain crops cultivated year round to meet the market demands.

" High value and high quality crops grown for export markets.

" Income from small land holdings increased manifold.

" Successful nurseries from seeds or by vegetative propagation prepared as andwhen necessary.

" More self-employment opportunities for educated youth of farm.

" Manipulation of microclimate and insect-proof feature of the greenhouse for plantbreeding and, thus, the evolution of new varieties and production of seeds.

Hi-tech greenhouses allow high level of control over all the components of plantmicroclimate as per crop requirements such as:

Light

The importance of providing a consistent daily light integral is becoming morewidely recognized as a means to achieve steady growth and production (1 and 2 ).Light is the sole source of energy provided to plants to build tissue (that is to grow).Excess light is not a problem in itself but the excessive heat associated with the highradiant energy can cause high temperature problems. During these problem periods,shading of the greenhouse to be practised. Shading compounds can be painted on the


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outside of the house or shade cloth systems can be erected inside/outside the house. Ashade cloth system outside the house is a good choice since the cloth reduces the netsolar irradiation to achieve cooling. Shade cloths can be manually opened and shut orthat can be operated automatically through some controller operating through apyranometer. Shading can be a 2-tier system where 30-40 per cent shade cloth is usedover the house or on the inside on cables following the contour of the ceiling. Thesecond cloth would be 10-20 per cent shade over the trellis at plant height. Shadesystems on cables have an advantage of being moveable shading can be removedduring cloudy periods. Shade cloths can be made of knitted or spun bondedpolypropylene for the low cost small houses. Plastics sheets are not desirable as theycollect water due to condensation. During winter, lighting is provided in the form ofincandescent, tungsten, halogen, fluorescent and high intensity discharge lamps (HID)to induce flower growth during winter. However, its utility should be judged by thecomparison of costs and added returns.

Temperature

Temperature management is very important for successful greenhouse crops. Poorlycontrolled temperature regimes can increase disease and lead to fruit colour and qualityproblems. Temperature control is achieved by the use of various systems includingheating furnaces, exhaust fans, evaporative cooling pads, and shade cloths.

Humidity

A greenhouse is a closed space in which plants transpire and evaporation takesplace from the floor. Some of this moisture, added to greenhouse air, is taken away bythe air leaving the greenhouse due to ventilation and/or leakages. Sensible heat inputsmodify the relative humidity to some extent. In order to maintain desirable relativehumidity levels in greenhouses, efforts are made to use humidification or dehumidification.Humidification in summers can be achieved in conjunction with greenhouse cooling byemploying appropriate evaporative cooling methods such as fan-pad and foggingsystems. Sometimes during winters when sensible heat is being added to raise thegreenhouse air temperature during nights the relative humidity level might fall below theacceptable limit. In that situation, humidifiers might need to be operated to circumventthe problem. Dehumidification is often a problem not amenable to simple solutions.During rainy seasons the ambient relative humidity is high along with that of thegreenhouse. In this situation the ventilation can not lower the humidity of greenhouse airbut when the ambient relative humidity is lower then ventilation could be practised toreduce the greenhouse relative humidity. Chemical dehumidification systems are


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technically feasible but expensive at present. Use of refrigeration systems (cooling coils)has also been made for dehumidification, but only at a smaller level.

Water and NutrientsVegetables produced in greenhouses require ample amounts of water for optimum

growth, yield, and fruit quality. Water is the universal solvent in plant cells and is involvedin many biochemical processes. Growth processes will slow, and lower yield and quality,will result if, the plant is without water even for a very short period. Ground culture ofgreenhouse vegetable crop involves growing crop directly in the natural soil under thegreenhouse cover. Plants are oriented in double rows and irrigation is handled throughthe use of proportioners, injection pumps, or large nutrient storage tanks with sumppumps. Drip or ring emitters are placed at the base of each plant to provide water andnutrients to the plants. Various other production systems can be used in the greenhouseto grow the crop. These systems include nutrient film technique (NFT) and variousversions of traditional NFT, perlite, rockwool, peat and bark mixes, lay-flat bags, uprightbags, through culture, pot culture, and ground culture. Most studies that have attemptedto compare several of these systems have found that there are very few differences asfar as productivity is concerned when each system is managed properly. The choice ofproduction system depends largely on grower's preference and on marketing constraintssince some markets may demand true NFT and not soil-produced vegetables. Eachcultural system has its own set of requirements for management and successful cropsare routinely possible with any system as long as production details are understood eg.NFT requires precise management of fertilizer and irrigation programmes. The NFTsystem components are reusable, therefore the system components are relativelyinexpensive when amortized over many crops. Perlite and rockwool systems also relyon precise water and fertilizer management but are not closed systems. Plants are grownin individually wrapped slabs of rockwool or bags/pots of perlite and receive the waterand fertilizer from a microsystem. Excess water and fertilizer solution leaches from themedia and is removed from the greenhouse.

Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide (CO2) enrichment of the winter greenhouse environment is aquestion that many growers ask. Research in northern climates has shown that raisingthe CO2 level from the normal ambient level of 350-1000 ppm often results in increasedyield. Effective use of this technology requires that houses be closed for long periodseach day. The frequent need for ventilation of the greenhouse, even in winter in Indiamakes CO2 enrichment a very questionable practice. The problem is that high levels ofCO2 cannot be maintained for more than an hour or so on most day.


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Pest, Disease and Plant Health ManagementSeveral diseases, insects and nematodes can potentially be pests of greenhouse

crops. Cultivar selection, greenhouse sanitation and well-timed applications of properlyselected pesticides are all important in managing these pests in the greenhouse. Anyproduction system required diligent sanitation between crops. This involves removingold plants and bleaching, fumigating or steaming production system components andgrowing surfaces. However, there are situations when some pests do get into agreenhouse and infect the crop. Hi-tech greenhouses have mechanism for effectivemonitoring of insect pest/disease attack on plants. Suitable equipment and chemicalformulations are then employed to control the plant health related problems. In recenttimes, biological control systems have found more acceptance for plant protection ingreenhouses.Control Systems

In typical greenhouses, controls are a mix of manual adjustments, timed eventsand theoretically regulated actions. In very sophisticated operations, computers areused. Computerized environmental control allows integration of the different greenhousecomponents into an efficient and profitable system. In recognizing mechanistic relationshipbetween a crop and its greenhouse environment, growers have increasingly come torely on automatic control systems to provide consistent favourable environmentalconditions. Regulated timers and solenoids are used for automation of irrigation systemsthat are labour saving, allow precision in regulating the timing of irrigation events and inthe amount that growers apply to their crops. In the same manner, the trend fromthermostats to electronic controllers has provided some increased flexibility in regulatingheaters, ventilation fans and wet pads. The next logical step is a greenhouse computercontrol system that can link and manage all of the automated control subunits. Generally,computer control strategies can be much more sophisticated than other types ofcontrollers. This provides the grower with more precise management capabilities forefficient operation of heaters, ventilation fans and other control equipment. Computerizedcontrol systems can help the development of a grower's overall management strategyby providing consistent, detailed data about the greenhouse environment. Today, tomatoyields from rockwool will approach 500 tonnes/ha/year or approximately 18 kg/plant.This yield is from a single tomato crop with a harvest period of 7-8 months. Cucumberyields may exceed 700 tonnes/ha/year, this yield is an accumulated yield from 2 to 3crops over a period of one year.COMPONENTS OF A HI-TECH GREENHOUSE

A hi-tech greenhouse has two major components, which are as follows:


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StructureThere are many types of greenhouse structures used successfully in protected

agriculture. Although there is advantage of each for particular applications, there is notone 'best' greenhouse in general. Wood, bamboo, steel pipe, aluminium and reinforcedconcrete are materials, used to build frames for greenhouses. Greenhouse shapes aremany. The most common shapes are quonset, gable, lean-to, gothic arch, etc. Glass isstill a common glazing material. With the development of plastic films and rigid sheetsbegan the era of plastics greenhouses. Polyethylene, PVC, EVA, acrylic, polycarbonate,fiberglass, polyester and PVF are some of the plastics materials used for greenhouseglazing.Equipment for Environmental Control

Depending upon the level of sophistication, the environment control system in agreenhouse may include partial or complete control of microclimatic parameters. Insome cases, it may even include suitable decision support systems for efficientmanagement of the environmental control equipment. A general list of equipment forgreenhouse environment control is given in Table 1. It is assumed that a hi-techgreenhouse would include most of these equipment.

Table 1. Environment control equipment

ROLE OF GREENHOUSES IN PRECISION FARMING

Having discussed the concepts of precision farming and those of hi-tech greenhouseproduction it is now possible to argue that hi-tech greenhouse cultivation is essentiallythe highest level of precision farming. Crop productivity depends on genetic potential of

Component Parameter controlled/modified

Lighting system Supplemental light, photoperiod and temperature (indirectly) Fan-pad cooling system Temperature and humidity Air conditioners Temperature and humidity Shading/thermal screen system Temperature, light and photoperiod Fogging/misting system Temperature and humidity Heating equipment Temperature Humidifiers Relative humidity and temperature Fertigation equipment Moisture content and nutrient status of soil CO2 generators Air composition

Controllers Operation of all other equipment


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selected variety, environmental control and management of crop cultural practices.Having selected a particular variety for the given cropping activity, a grower must ensurethat the crop requirements in terms of microclimate, irrigation and nutrition are fulfilled.Of course, it is assumed that such crop requirements have already been determined.Under open field conditions, it is only the soil and the root medium related parametersthat could be addressed for efficient management systems. There is no possibility ofmeeting the precise requirements of crops in open fields as far as light, air temperatureand composition of surrounding air are concerned. Therefore, a crop under open fieldconditions could not be expected to express its full productivity.

A crop under greenhouse conditions, on the other hand, is sought to be cultivatedwith control over all components of crop microclimate. A hi-tech greenhouse seeks toensure that the deviation between the crop requirements and the actual levels of differentparameters are within the permissible limits. The criterion of the permissible limits isdictated by the financial consideration, i.e. the cost of reducing the deviation increasesalmost exponentially as we approach the zero deviation level. In essence, any spatialand temporal variations in the input requirements are taken into consideration either byremoving the source of variation or by variable rate applicators. Ultimately all the abioticand biotic stresses are minimized so that the crop productivity in terms of both qualityand quantity is maximized. Clearly, the crop production in hi-tech greenhouses is theultimate practical limit of precision farming. The natural resources use efficiencies ofgreenhouses in terms of light, land, and overall energy use are described below :

Photosynthetic EfficiencyThe photosynthetic efficiencies of a few selected crops under greenhouses and

open fields are given in the Table 2 which gives an indication of the level to whichgreenhouse cultivation can increase the photosynthetic efficiency.

Table 2. Comparison of photosynthetic efficiency of crops in greenhouses andopen fields

Photosynthetic efficiency (%) Crop Crop duration (days)

Total incident solar energy (TJ/ha) Open field cultivation Greenhouse cultivation

Tomato 115 17.25 0.48 1.94 Cucumber 105 15.75 0.53 2.55 Spinach 75 11.25 0.15 0.37 Bean 85 12.75 1.13 1.87

(Chandra et al., 3)


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Land-use EfficiencyLand-use efficiency is maximized in a hi-tech greenhouses except for the periods

when greenhouse operation becomes prohibitively costly. Greenhouses are used yearround for cultivation of either a given crop type or a variety of crop. Dutch and Frenchgrowers have been reported to grow 7-8 crops of lettuce in a year. Nine crops ofradish in a year have been taken in Abu Dhabi (6). The yield of a few selected crops ispresented in Table 3.

Table 3. Comparison of yield in open field, greenhouse and hydroponic system

Yield (tonnes/ha) Crop Greenhouse Open field Hydroponic

Tomato 150 50 187.5 Cucumber 180 8 250.0 Capsicum 110 100 - Broccoli 15 7 -

It is evident from Table 3 that crop cultivation in greenhouse makes unit area ofland yield more. Greenhouses permit very high input-use efficiencies. As a results, cropproductivities are several times of those obtained in open field agriculture. The netfinancial returns per unit area are also 10-100 times higher in comparison to open fieldagriculture.

Table 4. Energy requirement for tomato cultivation under open field conditions(expected yield = 50 tonnes/ha)

Component Energy required MJ/ha

Preparation of seedling for transplanting @ 200,000 plants/ha 580.0 Field preparation 200.0 Transplanting 28.5 Fertilizer/nutrient application a) FYM @ 20 tonnes/ha 6,000.0 b) N @ 200 kg/ha 12,120.0 c) P @ 100 kg/ha 11,100.0 d) K @ 100 kg/ha 670.0 Irrigation @ 5000 m3/ha 56,000.0 Pesticide/insecticide etc. @ 3 litres/ha 3,600.0 Soil treatment with Thiran and Captan 50-60 g, Furadan 500-100 g 1.5 Manpower @ 5 persons/ha for 4 months. 9,408.0 Total 86,478.0


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Total Energy-use efficiencyTo assess the resource-use efficiency of hi-tech greenhouses let us compare total

energy for greenhouse (Table 5) cultivation with that of open field (Table 4) cultivation(4).

Combining this input energy with the sunlight available, i.e. 17.25 TJ (from Table2) the total input energy in open field cultivation becomes 17.34 TJ/ha and hence,production energy/kg of tomato becomes 0.3468 GJ/kg. Similarly, for greenhouseconditions the production energy requirement/kg of tomato becomes, a. 0.12 GJ/kgand b. 0.146 GJ/kg.

Table 5. Energy requirement for greenhouse tomato cultivation (expected yield = 150 tonnes/ha)

Component Energy required, MJ/ha

Steel pipe frame @ 2 crops/year for 20 years 1,05,000.0 Plastics a) Glazing @ 8000 kg/ha for 3 years and 2 crops/year 1,68,000.0 b) Drip irrigation system @ 25,000 kg/ha @ 2 crops/year for 5 years 3,150.0 Preparation of seedlings for transplanting @ 30,000 plants/ha 9,000.0 Field preparation 200.0 Transplanting 28.5 Fertilizer/nutrient application a) FYM @ 20 tonnes/ha 6,000.0 b) N @ 200 kg/ha 72,720.0 c) P @ 100 kg/ha 1,665.0 d) K @ 100 kg/ha 21,775.0 Irrigation @ 50,000 m3/ha 56,000.0 Pesticide/insecticide etc. @ 3 litres/ha 360.0 Soil treatment with Thiran and Captan 50-60 g, Furadan 50-100g 1.5 Manpower @ 10 persons/ha for 6 months 28,224.0 Environment control a) Mild climate @ 25% T.E. 1,57,374.7 b) Harsh climate @ 90% T.E. 42,49,116.0 Total a) Mild climate @ 25% T.E. 6,29,498.7 b) Harsh climate @ 90% T.E. 47,21,240.0


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CONCLUSION

An effort has been made to review the attributes of precision farming and hi-techgreenhouses. The information clearly indicates that a hi-tech greenhouse is essentially aproposition for precision farming of horticultural crops because the crop requirementsof the inputs are precisely met. The hi-tech greenhouse crop production results intomanifold increase in the input-use efficiencies. It has been observed that a tomato cropin a hi-tech greenhouse would result in 2-3 times higher input energy-use efficiency ascompared to that for an open field grown tomato crop.

REFERENCES1. Both, A.J., Leed, A.R., Goto, E., Albright, L.D. and Langhans, R.W. (1996). Greenhouse

spinach production in a NFT system. Acta Horticulturae 456 : 187-92.

2. Both, A.J., Albright, L.D. and Langhans, R.W. (1998). Coordinated management of daily PARintegral and carbon dioxide for hydroponic lettuce production. Acta Horticulturae 418 : 45-51.

3. Chandra, P., Bohra,C.P., Maheshwari, R.C. (1982). Improvement in photosynthetic efficiencythrough greenhouse application. Proc. NSEC, New Delhi.

4. Chandra, P. and Gupta, M.J. (2000). Energy requirement for greenhouse cultivation.Agricultural Engineering Today 24 : 63-70.

5. Dalrymple, D.G. (1973). A global review of greenhouse food production. Foreign AgriculturalEconomic Report No.89. Economic Research Service, USDA, Washington, D.C., 20250 USA.

6. Jensen, M.H. and Malter, A.J. (1994). Protected Agriculture: Global Review. World BankTechnical Paper No. 253.

STRATEGIC APPROACHES OF PRECISIONTECHNOLOGY FOR IMPROVEMENT OF

FRUIT PRODUCTIONV. K. Singh1 and Gorakh Singh2

In India, a large number of fruits are grown due to wide range of agroclimaticconditions and enjoy an enviable position in the horticultural map of the world. Almostall types of horticultural crops (tropical, subtropical and temperate) can be grown inone or other part of the country. At present, India is the largest producer of fruits nextto China, total production of fruits in India has been estimated to 45.49 million tonnesfrom 3.79 million ha and its share in the world production of fruits is 10.2 per cent. Itleads the world in the production of mango, banana, papaya, orange, mosambi, guava,grape, apple, pineapple, sapota, ber, pomegranate, strawberry and litchi. Fruitproduction increased 5-8 times since independence, from 55 lakh tonnes in 1952 - 53to 286.32 in 1991 - 92 and 440.42 in 1998 - 99. The productivity of fruits per unit areain India has increased nearly from 10 to 12 tonnes/ha in almost one decade. Cashewnut cultivation has a big potential and its production, productivity and export haveincreased significantly. In grape, India has recorded highest productivity per unit areain the world.

India is the home of spices and continues to enjoy a pride of place in the Internationalmarket. Except grape, the average productivity in most of the fruit crops is far belowthan the average productivity. Moreover, Indian horticulture has been insulated fromthe outside world market. Amongst the several fruit crops, India is the largest producerof mangoes and in the intervening years, it has well established as fresh fruit and processedproducts in the world market but contributes almost insignificantly (0.11 per cent oftotal domestic production) towards export (13). However, other countries like Mexico,the Philippines and Venezuela which produce far less, export 4 per cent of their totalproduction.

The productivity and quality of majority of fruit crops continued to remain belowthe potential level except for grape, banana and papaya. On the other hand, the population

1,2 Senior Scientists, Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture, Rehmankhera, Lucknow 227 107, India



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of India has already crossed a billion marks and land area is shrinking. In recommendeddietary allowances (RDA), the minimum per capita consumption of fruit is 90 g.Accordingly, a production of 60 million tonnes of fruit is required to meet the need ofpresent population of the country by 2002. Further, under WTO regime it has becomeimperative to increased production of quality fruit for export as well as to compete ininternal market with the imported fruits (50). Therefore, to achieve the target of requiredfruit production in future, the aim of fruit research strategies should be to generatesuperior technology or to use hi-tech horticulture and precision farming for achievingvertical growth in horticulture, if required, these may be refined to suit our conditions.Hi-tech horticulture is the deployment of modern technology which is capital intensive,less environment dependent, having capacity to improve the productivity and quality ofproduce (13). The hi-tech horticulture and precision farming would be for facilitatingtechnology development and refinement, technology adoption and technologydissemination. It also envisages that the profitability, productivity and fruit quality perunit area is to be enhanced along with sustainability and must employ safeguards to theenvironment and human health.

LIMITING FACTORS IN FRUIT PRODUCTION AND FUTURESTRATEGY

There are a few major bottlenecks, which limit the fruit production in differentfruit-producing countries. The following are the main constraints in fruit production,which need attention.

Genetic Resource Conservation and Characterization

Main limiting factors of all the fruit-growing countries is lack of proper geneticresource conservation programme of fruit crops which is a backbone of the cropimprovement programme. Urbanization, decline of old plant material, uncheckedexploitation of wild resources is causing a great threat to survival of indigenous and rarespecies of fruit crops like mango, citrus, apple and papaya. Therefore, systematic effortsto conserve these materials on field condition or conservation in a conventional genebank are needed. The documentation of germplasm is another key issue that must beaddressed. Molecular characterization of important germplasm and DNA banking isthe need of the hour.

Lack of Quality Seed and Genuine Planting Material

Because of long gestation period, high heterozygosity, lack of information oninheritance pattern, less number of seeds in fruits, and inadequate supply of genuine and

Strategic Approaches Precision Technology Improvement Fruit Production

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certified planting material to the grower are some of the reasons for the low productivityof fruit crops. Papaya seeds are produced by controlled cross-pollination and bymaintaining isolation distance (47) that causes non-availability of sufficient quantity ofpure seed and quality planting material which in turn limit its commercial production.Ram and Majumder (46) have found that cv. Pusa Dwarf produced the highest seedyield (391.7 kg/ha) at lowest cost (Rs 61/kg), while Pusa Majesty gave the lowestyield (52.5 kg/ha) at the highest cost (Rs 416.60/kg). It is suggested that foundationseed production on commercial scale may be conducted on isolation fields (400 -1,000 m distance) to meet the increasing demands for papaya seed in India. However,breeders seed should be produced under strictly controlled pollination to maintain geneticpurity (45). Normally 2:1 ratio of bisexual and female plants has been recommendedfor seed production of papaya.

On the other hand in other perennial fruit crop like mango, plant multiplicationbeing done by grafting techniques on descript rootstock resulted in inferior plants.Similarly, crops like guava, litchi and citrus are being multiplied through stooling, air-layering and budding which are sluggish and cumbersome and the plants are not multipliedthrough elite mother trees of superior quality. Therefore, multiplication should be doneonly from the mother plants of established superiority. It would be desirable to establishelite orchard of important fruit crops in the fruit growing state for the supply of authenticplant materials. Clonal selection would be an important aspect of this programme (58).

Lack of High-density Plantation

Most of the fruit orchards are at present planted at low density and such orchardsprovide low returns with long gestation period. Productivity of fruits is static and percapita land is decreasing. Lack of dwarfing rootstock and non-availability of precociousvariety are the main reasons for low-density plantation. Therefore, transforming fruitindustry through high-density planting is the dream of day for the horticulture. High-density planting increases productivity and fruit quality, shortens juvenility, gives highearly returns and provides high land use and better use of natural resources like light,water and nutrient, besides easy harvesting. To have a full physiological control of thetree in high density, it would be essential to have dwarf tree. A shallow canopy (1.5 -2.0 m depth) is needed in high density to achieve maximum efficiency for trapping sunenergy through foliage and chanellizing metabolites for quality fruit production withmaximum return. In India, high-density planting has been successfully demonstrated forhigh yield in case of banana, pineapple, papaya and mango but most of the orchardsare still under the traditional low-density system, resulting in low average productivity


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Fig. 1. Canopy management with application of paclobutrazol to maintain height control and forbetter harvest under high-density planting in Mango cv. Dashehari: (a) heading back from 1.5 mheight (b) new shoot developing in response to heading cut; (c) profuse flowering in pruned andpaclobutazol applied tree and (d) heavy fruiting in pruned coupled with paclobutazol treated tree.

ba

dc

(4, 19, 49). The high-density technology developed in mango utilizes vigorous seedlingsrootstock of varying genotypes rather than dwarfing rootstock like in temperate fruits.The tree is managed dwarf through training and pruning and growth is restricted within


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planting distance provided between the trees. Closer the density higher the productivityhas been the general guiding principle. The mango, being an evergreen tree, has beenassumed earlier to be unresponsive to pruning unlike the grapes which are prunedregularly to induce and regulate growth, flowering and cropping. Pruning is particularlyeffective in trees which bear fruit on new shoots and thus it is done to induce healthycurrent season shoots from older wood. It was reported that pruning of mango treesmay not be successful to regulate bearing as the new growth turns out to be purelyvegetative (39). However, Iyer and Subramaniam (26) reported that pruning of one-year-old shoots at the base induced flowering. Pruning coupled with paclobutrazol hasgot remarkable success in high-density planting (Fig. 1a,b,c and d) of mango (60).

High-density orcharding having closer planting (3.0m x 3.0 m) in mango for regularcrop is practised through training and annual pruning after crop harvest and induction offlowering through paclobutrazol in alternate bearing varieties like Dashehari (49).However, no paclobutrazol is to be applied in regular varieties like Rumani, Amrapali,Sindhu, Tomy Atkins and Sensation (48). The training helps to develop proper frameof trees in early stages of growth, while pruning helps to curtail growth and maintain treevigour on sustainable basis for regular fruiting year after year along with control ofdisease and pest. The high-density orcharding provides 8-9 time higher yield than thetraditional orcharding (49).

In Israel, productivity of mango has been doubled by adopting high-density plantingtechnology. Mango tree training technique for high density for the hot tropics has beendeveloped (11). The plant density in papaya plays a vital role in productivity per unitarea. The yield per unit area can be enhanced by increasing plant density. It is generallygrown at planting density of 1,400-1,700 plants/ha. A plant population of 2,500/ha isrecommended for high-density planting (4). With the development of dwarf cultivarslike Pusha Nanha and Ranchi Dwarf, it is possible to plant papaya still closer. RanchiDwarf planted @ 2,922 plants/yield 98.05 tonnes/ha fruits and Pusha Nanha plantedat 1.25 m x 1.25 m (6,400 plant/ha) yielded 60 - 65 tonnes/ha as compared to traditionalyield of 15 - 20 tonnes/ha (44). Growth control is primary requirement of high densityorcharding which can be achieved by dwarfing rootstock, pruning, dwarf scion varieties,use of chemical etc. Recent advancement in tree physiology has shown that growthretardant has tremendous potential to control the growth of tree with or without dwarfingrootstock and scion cultivars which is prerequisite of high-density orcharding. In mango,dwarfing rootstock or scion cultivar is not available, chemical like paclobutrazol wasfound effective to control the tree growth by reducing the xylem : phloem ratio withhigher yield.


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The ability to influence the development and productivity of tree fruits rests ingenetic or cultural techniques. Breeding to improve fruit production has so far hadlimited success. Among several agro-techniques, such as high-density planting, controlof tree size and canopy management is some of the important technology to achievehigh productivity per unit area both in short duration and perennial crops. In India,high-density planting is being recommended in fruits like pineapple, banana, papaya,citrus and mango. Neverthless, high-density planting systems were recommended longago, but the growers have not started adopting the technique. Delay in acceptance ofthe high density planting system can be attributed to the lack of a reliable and universallyacceptable method to control tree vigor and higher initial capital investment. In mango,dwarf and compact trees have been identified (Amrapali in India and other selections inThailand and Pakistan) but to develop an ideal plant type, the terminal buds of shootsneed to be pinched off in atleast three successive flushes of growth. The polyembryonic,Sabre has reportedly been effective as a dwarfing rootstock in South Africa, althoughin Israel it was unsuccessful. Therefore, a hi-tech strategy for high-density planting inhorticultural crops in India would call for the introduction of dwarfing gene for themanagement of tree size and canopy shape.Tree Flowering and Erratic Bearing

The flowering process is of vital importance to fruit crop productivity as yield isdirectly dependent upon its success or failure. The erratic and irregular flowering inmost of fruit crops cause low orchard efficiency. Each fruit tree in commercial grovesdoes not bear equal crops year after year. Climatic variations in particular year,environmental factors such as photoperiod, temperature, plant water stress and geneticalnature of variety as well as physiological changes occurring in trees during floral inductionperiod are the main reason for erratic bearing and accounting for low productivity offruits. Alternation in cropping habit of mango is used as a synonym for poor yields. Inmango, growth flushes are very erratic and occur up to 3-4 times per year on individualstems, depending upon cultivar and growth condition and they tend to flower only after9-10 months as to attain proper physiological maturity (42). In north Indian commercialvarieties, only March flush is the major one that accounts for over 80 per cent of annualgrowth and its shoots has the maximum potential for becoming new fruiting shoot (21).The other flushes are minor ones and are not appreciably related to flowering. Therefore,bienniality / irregularity in flowering would ensue because of inability of one shoot tobear vegetative growth and flower in the same year.

Several chemicals and plant growth regulators like Chlormequat Chloride (35),Ethephon, KNO3, Salicylic acid and triazoles particularly paclobutrazol were found


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effective to regulate the flowering and bearing in mango, apple and citrus by inhibitingvegetative growth of shoots and promoting flowering (7, 16, 29, 33, 55, 62, 63 and64). Amongst them paclobutrazol is being widely used to increase flowering, enhanceyield and control the alternate bearing habit in commercial monoembryonic mangoorchards of India (9 and 61), China (68) Australia (51) and South Africa (21 and 70).Triazole having anti-gibberellin activity induce flowering even in the 'off' year of bearingby regulating the synthesis of gibberellins (61). There have been numerous studies onthe inhibitory effect of GA3 on flowering of fruit crops (1, 14, 38, 41 and 56).Paclobutrazol is also being commercially used to advance the harvesting of the mangovarieties by about a month (61). However, its application through judicious nutrientmanagement also needs to be integrated for continued and sustainable production. Onthe other hand KNO3 which is commercially used in the Philippines for regular floweringand fruiting in mango did not give consistent result in commercial mangoes cultivated inIndia. It was believed that these inconsistent results are due to the fact that in thePhilippines and in some other regions where the growth is continuous and the cultivarsare polyembryonic whereas in India the cultivars are monoembryonic and period ofplant growth is well defined and not continuous. Ataide and Jose (3) reported thatapplication of ethephon stimulate the floral differentiation of flowering buds, whereasKNO3 stimulates the break of dormancy of already differentiated buds.

Papaya having uncertainty in flowering and fruiting is a large perennial herb. It ishighly problematic, complicated and interesting fruit crop from botanical, genetical,cytogenetical and horticultural point of view. It is one of the most important cropsgrown in tropics and subtropics. The important papaya-growing countries are Zaire,Mexico, Brazil, India and Indonesia. United States of America is the main importingcountry. Papaya fruits are valued for fresh consumption and papain production. Itsvaried use in brewing, meat, fish and food industry, has made it a crop of commerce.The major bottleneck in papaya (Carica papaya L.) cultivation is its inherentheterozygosity, dioceous nature and susceptibility to a number of viral diseases. Sexreversal under varied environmental condition is also one of the reasons for lowproductivity of papaya in per unit area (8). It is a polygamous plant and has many sexforms. There are three basic sex forms: hermaphrodite or bisexual, pistillate or female,and staminate or male (65). Amongst these flowers, only female is stable whereasflowers of hermaphrodite and male vary in sex expression under different environmentconditions. Storey (67) classified papaya flowers into eight categories: (i) staminate,(ii) teratological staminate, (iii) reduced elongata, (iv) elongata, (v) carpelloid elongata,(vi) pentandria, (vii) carpelloid pentandria and (viii) pistillate.


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Staminate flowers are produced by male plants whereas teratoiogical staminateflowers by sex reversing male. Type third to seventh are normally produced byhermaphrodite plants and type eigth are produced by female plants. Planting period isalso found to determine the sex expression as high percentage of female (66.0 per cent)produced during November planting closely followed by September (65.0 per cent) incv. Pusa Delicious. Sex in papaya is determined by three homologous genes complexeson sex chromosomes (24 and 66). The genes are so tightly linked that no crossing-overoccurs among them, thus the complexes are transmitted to offspring with pleiotropiceffect on phenotypic expression. Sex in papaya cannot be identified unless they flowerbut the ratio can be predicted provided it is pollinated under controlled condition.However, the sex can be identified at seedling stage through chemical analysis (15).The leaves of male plant were found richer in carbohydrate, phosphorus and chlorophyllcontent than those of female plants, which are richer in nitrogen and potash.

Thus through this analysis the male plant can be removed at early stage and couldbe replaced by female seedling which in turn increase the yield. It was estimated thatthe average yield of papaya could vary from 37.23 tonnes/ha with a maximum of 6 percent male plants present to 19.96 tonnes/ha with 50 per cent male plants. The maleplants serve only as pollenizer and hence, it would be adequate to leave one male plantfor every 20 female plants. Thus, removal of male plants allowing the robust growth offemale plants is a potential strategy to increase the production of papaya. The profitableproductive life of papaya is two-and-a-half years under northern Indian conditionsprovided the crop is well managed, therefore, they should be replaced by the newplantation for getting profitable yield.

Photoperiods and temperature play an important role in sex expression (23). Theappearance of a large number of modified forms occurs in progenies from appropriatehybridization when grown under a temperature regime of 13-32°C. Temperature from22 to 26°C are said to be best for flowering and fruit production (52). It was observedthat stamen carpellody is expressed under cool temperature (40). The fruit developsfrom the carpellody are misshapen and unmarketable. The incidence of carpellody alsodeclines with increasing plant age and may be related to internodal length. Femalesterility occurs at warm temperature (40). Excessive nitrogen and moisture also favoursstamen carpellody, while plant stress influences female sterility (32).

Several chemical and plant growth regulators have been used to improve fruitproduction via producing more normal and female flower. Hermaphrodite trees sprayedwith 2,3-dichloroisobutyrate (DCIB, 2-6 g/litre) and 2,3-dichloropropionate (Dalapon,2 to 6 g/litre) produced more normal and female like (Carpelloid) flowers than untreated


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trees (32). TIBA, NAA or IAA was also found to induce the flower significantly (17).The papain yield, which is considered as one of the important products of papaya,could be increased four-fold compared with control by the application of 200 ppmethrel (12).

Model for Management of Erratic Flowering in Mango

There are three main processes, which determine the fate of mango flowering, i.e.competence, induction and determination. Competence is exhibited, if a cell / tissue /organ is exposed to a signal and it responds in the expected manner only when they firstattained readiness to flower stage. When they are ready to flower, then they are said tohave attained competence. Induction occurs when a signal gives a unique developmentalresponse from competent tissue and determination is shown, if, a cell or groups of cellsexhibits the same development fate. For the flowering gibberellic acid levels must firstfall below threshold level for its competence to flower to be expressed. Adequateassimilates (carbohydrates) must be on hand to support flowering and fruit growth. Inan environment where GA levels are high, no starch accumulation can take place.Therefore, GA concentration needs to fall below a certain threshold level, so that starchcan accumulate within the tree. Fortunately paclobutrazol in an inductive agent, whichslow, down the synthesis of GA and provided the stimulus, which bring the change fromvegetative phase to reproductive state.

From competence tissue, flower initiation can proceed. In this model nitrogen isalso crucial for flowering. Presumably, there is also a threshold for nitrogen contentthat, if, exceeded will allow the plant to flower. Most probably, thiourea, applicationtriggers flowering by exceeding this threshold level. However, thiourea was also foundto be useful for the vegetative flush if sprayed after harvesting of fruits. It was estimatedthat less than 0.1 per cent of the hermaphrodite flowers develop into mature fruits, therest fall to the ground (57). Assuming there are 1,00,000 flowers and each flowercontains to 10 µg of nitrogen, then each time a tree flowers, it loses 1 kg of nitrogen.The tree will, therefore, need to have adequate nitrogen reserves for flower andsubsequent fruit formation. Threshold level of nitrogen also reported to exist in citrusfor proper fruiting (34). However, more research is needed in this area for validatingthe model.

Occurrence of Post-bloom Vegetative Flush

Heavy flower and fruit drop is a serious problem in mango. This is attributed toseveral causes, such as genetic, hormonal, insect pests, diseases, degeneration ofembryo, lack of pollination and competition between fruitlets. However some mango


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cultivars like Alphonso, Langra etc. produce heavy vegetative flush during floweringand fruit set. Yields from such trees were invariably very poor inspite of profuse flowering.Flushing tendency was observed more pronounced in young orchards (30). The possiblereason which affected vegetative growth and fruit retention could be the competitionbetween the sinks. Although, seeds in growing fruits are generally considered as powerfulsinks for mobilisation of the photosynthates, in this case, the post-bloom vegetativeflush may become a powerful sink than the seed and fruits. Such type of phenomenonis common in apple and pear (43 and 69). Removal of post-bloom vegetative flush wasfound the best remedy for remarkable increase in fruit retention and yield.

Domination of Low-Efficient Orchard

Low photosynthetic efficiency in fruit crops is one of the important factors responsiblefor low yield and inferior orchard efficiency (18). It is because the first enzyme forphotosynthesis system, ribulose biphosphate carbolase (Rubisco), which fixes CO2also catalyses an alternative reaction involving oxygenation of sugar biphosphate. Bothcarboxylase and oxygenase reactions occur at the same site and compete with eachother (20). This oxygenase reaction is energetically wasteful, especially at limiting lightintensities in the orchard of fruit crops, which in turn decrease the photosynthetic efficiencyof the tree resulted in low yield. In most of perennial fruit crops there, exist predominationof old, dense and senile orchards. Their declining productivity (30 - 35 per cent) hasbecome a matter of serious concern for the orchardists, traders as well as Scientists.Decline in productivity in old and dense orchard was largely due to poor photosyntheticefficiency besides several other compounding factors. Compared to temperate fruitorchards, canopies of tropical and subtropical fruit orchards like mango have a higherproportion of shade to sun leaves. The maximum photosynthetic rates for sun-leavesof trees occurred at 60 per cent of full sunlight (PPF approximately 1200 µ mol quanta/m2/second) (53 and 73).

For overcoming this problem, rejuvenation technology in mango was developedat Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture, Lucknow (India), which provides newproductive life to existing old and unproductive orchards (31). The technique aims atpruning of undesired branches for inducing development of umbrella like open canopyof healthy shoots. Open canopy ensures better light penetration and interception improvesphotosynthetic efficiency, flowering and fruiting potential of shoots. Pruned trees attaincanopy of healthy shoots in two years and from third year onward they start bearingfruits. In pruning studies to rejuvenate 55 - year old mango trees, yield of 298.4 kg inthe 'on' year and 158.1 kg in the 'off' year was obtained by removal of secondarybranches keeping the leader intact and application of 1.5 kg N, 0.75 kg P2O5 and 1.5


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kg K2O/tree. It was also observed that as a result of pruning, the dry-matter content(C / N ratio) in leaf and stem, ribonucleic acid (RNA), total phenolic content, IAA -oxidase activity increased many fold.

Pruning of the old trees also increased the respiration rate of leaves, photosyntheticpigment content, PAR as a result of improved light conditions of trees. The level ofcytokinins, which have been reported to favour flowering (2), were found to increaseas a result of pruning. Abundant cauliflorus flowering in the pruned trees indicate thehigher level of cytokinin in the bark. Its increased flow in the xylem sap as a result ofpruning seems to have released the latent buds from their innate dormancy resultingcauliflory. On the other hand the gibberllin like substances in the leaves of pruned treeswere found to be lower than unprunned ones. Lower contents were associated withnormal flowering as discussed previously. Thus the technology was found helpful ingiving new productive life of the orchards and have potential for the improvement ofyield. Strategically timed, selective pruning can also be utilised for this purpose, wherecosts are not prohibitive.

Eco-physiological Disorder

There are a number of eco-physiological disorders in fruit crop which limitproductivity and quality of fruits. Among them biennial bearing, malformation, spongytissue, recurrent flowering and internal necrosis are important in mango. Fruit crackingin citrus, litchi, grape, banana and mango, granulation in citrus and guava wilt is alsovery common which causes significant losses in fruit production. In this section some ofthe major disorders of fruits are discussed.

Biennial bearing is a serious problem in mango as most of the commercial varietiesof mango flower in alternate year. Flowering and fruiting in mango is a complexphenomenon and thus it is not possible to pinpoint a single factor responsible for biennialbearing. The work on mango hybridization has shown that regular bearing charactercan be transmitted to F1 hybrids. Therefore, there are more chances of tackling thisproblem through hybridization. A number of cultural practices have been tried to reducethe intensity of biennial flowering and fruiting, however, more success has been achievedto overcome this problem by the application of paclobutrazol (61).

Mango malformation, either vegetative or floral, is very common in northern Indiawhere temperature becomes low during flowering whereas its incidence in southernpart was sporadic. However, its incidence is showing increasing trend in some parts ofSouth India. Therefore, recently it has attracted national concern in India since it is aprominent bottleneck in mango cultivation owing to the extensive economic losses caused.


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Various biotic and abiotic factors are reported to be associated with the causation ofmango malformation. Considerable research work has been done on causes and controlof this malady but the results are still inconclusive. However, recently integrated approachfor the control management of floral malformation was developed on susceptible mangocultivar Amrapali by pruning and spraying with chelated copper, zinc phosphomidon,carbendazim and NAA. Significant reduction in the incidence of malformation wasobtained by this integrated approach. This integrated strategy appears to be promisingand will be useful in control of mango malformation (62).

Alphonso mango, which is main export cultivar, suffers from a serious maladyknown as spongy tissue or internal breakdown in ripe fruits. This disorder renders thefruit unfit for consumption and hence it has become a bottleneck in export and expansionof its cultivation in Maharashtra and Gujarat where it is grown commercially. There aremany biochemical changes associated with spongy tissue, however no conclusive resultshave been obtained to control this malady. Convicting heat arising from soil was reportedto be the main cause for this disorder and mulching with paddy straw and dry leaveswas found effective in its control (27). Recently recurrent flowering is noticed in somecommercially varieties of mango which is characterized by the emergence of new lateralpanicles from the base point of early emerged ones leading to severe fruit drop from themain panicles (7). Recurrent flowering not only deprives the farmer from early seasonpremium prices but also reduces the total return anticipated from the orchard. Foliarapplication of GA @ 200 ppm at 50 per cent flowering was found to minimize therecurrent flowering.

Fruit cracking is another eco-physiological disorder, which causes losses as highas up to 75 per cent in litchi, citrus and grape. Significant losses also occur in bananaand mango. The cracked fruits deteriorate rapidly and often suffer secondary infestationby disease and pest and fruits ultimately become non-marketable and cause great lossto the grower. Pre-harvest hormonal spray like 2,4,5-T, NAA, nutritional spray like K,Ca, Zn, B, Cu, Mo and Mn and maintenance of adequate soil moisture during the dryperiod were found helpful in reduction of cracking in fruit crops (59).

In citrus granulation is major problem, which causes great economic loss to thefruit growers. This disorder was also called dry end, Kaosarn and crystallisation inseveral countries. Citrus juice could be extracted from the affected fruits. In the affectedfruit the juice vesicles become hard and enlarged and contain a viscous jelly like substanceinstead of free running juice with an increase in moisture, inorganic matter andpolysaccharides and a decrease in acidity and sugars. Although, no successful methodto control granulation has yet been found, certain measures for reducing its incidenceand intensity have been suggested. Sprays of lime, zinc sulphate and Bordeaux mixture


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singly or in combination reduced granulation (5). Some growth regulators like 2,4-D,GA3 and NAA @ 5 per cent, 20 ppm and 300 ppm were found to reduce the incidenceof granulation in citrus crops (28).

CONCLUSION

Due to various problems in fruit crops, the productivity of a majority of fruit cropsis below the potential level. However, WTO necessitated the increased production ofquality fruits for export as well as to compete with the imported fruits. Therefore, theneed of the day is to exploit horticultural hi-tech technologies by adopting precisionfarming through the application of holistic approach for the improving quantity andquality of products.

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38. Mullins, P.D.F. (1985). Delaying of flowering in Haden mango tree. Technical Communicationsin Horticultural Science Series No. 200. Department of Agriculture, Republic of South Africa,Citrus and Sub tropical Research Institute, Netspruit, RSA, pp. 6 - 8.

39. Naik, K.C. (1948). Orchard efficiency analysis in mangoes and oranges. Madras Agric. J. 28: 99 - 109.

40. Nakasone, H.Y. (1967). Papaya breeding in Hawaii. Agron. Trop. 17 : 391 - 99.

41. Oosthuryse, S.A. (1995). Effect of aqueous application of GA3 on flowering of mango trees,Mango 2000 – Marketing Seminar and Production Workshop Proceedings, Department ofPrimary Industries, Brisbane, pp. 75 - 85.

42. Pandey, R.M. (1989). Physiology of flowering in mango. Acta. Hort. 231 : 361 - 80.

43. Quinlan, J.D. and Preston, A.P. (1971). The influence of shoot competition on fruit retentionand cropping of apple trees. J. Hort. Sci. 46 : 524 - 34.

44. Ram, M. (1983). High-density plantation in papaya. Indian Hort. 28 : 17 - 20.


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45. Ram, M. (1995). Seed production in papaya. Seed Research 23 : 98 - 101.

46. Ram, M. and Majumdar, P.K. (1990). Seed production in papaya cultivars. Seed Research 18: 117 - 30.

47. Ram, M. and Ray, P.K. (1992). Study on pure seed production in papaya. Seed Research 20: 81 - 84.

48. Ram, S. and Sirohi, S.C. (1988). Studies on high-density orcharding in mango cv. Dashehari.Acta. Hort. 231 : 339 - 44.

49. Ram, S., Singh, C.P. and Kumar, S. (1997). A success story of high-density orcharding inmango. Acta Hort. 455 : 375 - 82.

50. Rathore, D.S. (2001). Networking for genetic resources management of horticulture crops.National Symposium on Plant Genetic Research held at NBPGR, New Delhi (India), duringFeb. 1 - 4, 2001.

51. Rowley, A.J. (1990). The effect of Cultar applied as a soil drench on ' Zill' mango trees. ActaHort. 275 : 211 - 15.

52. Samson, J.A. (1980). Papaya. Tropical Fruits, 208 pp. Longman, New York.

53. Schaffer, B., Whiley, A.W. and Crane, J.H. (1994). Mango. In : Handbook of EnvironmentalPhysiology. Vol. II. Subtropical and Tropical Crops, pp. 165-96. Schaffer, B. and Anderson,P.C. (Eds) . CRC Press, Boca Raton.

54. Selvaraj, Y., Kumar, R. and Pal, D.K. (1989). Changes in sugars, organic acids, amino acids,lipid constituents and aroma characteristics of ripening mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit. J.Fruit Sci. and Tech. 26 : 308 - 13.

55. Sen, P.K., Maiti, S.K. and Maiti, S.C. (1972). Studies on induction axillary flowering in Mangiferaindica L. Acta Hort. 24 : 185 - 88.

56. Singh, L.B. (1961). Biennial bearing in mango - effect of gibberellic and Malic hydrazide.Hort. Advances 5 : 96 - 106.

57. Singh, R.N. (1987). Mango. In : Tree Crop Physiology, 27-318. Sethuraj, M.R. andRaghavendra, A.S. (Eds). Elsevier - Amsterdam.

58. Singh, R.N. (1996). Mango, pp. 114 - 18. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.

59. Singh, Ranvir and Singh, A.K. (1993). Fruit cracking. Advances in Horticulture 4 : 2119 - 27.

60. Singh, V.K. and Mishra, M. (2002). Molecular physiology in Hi - Tech Horticulture : A newparadigm in improvement of fruits crop. In : Plant Genetic Engineering, Improvement ofFruits. Jaiwal, P.K. and Singh, R.P. (Eds).

61. Singh, V.K. and Saini, J.P. (2001). Regulation of flowering and fruiting in mango (Mangiferaindica L.) with paclobutrazol. In : Plant Physiological Paradigm for Fostering Agro andBiotechnology and Augmenting Environmental Productivity. Dwivedi, R.S. and Singh,V.K. (Eds). Indian Society of Plant Physiology, New Delhi, pp. 61 - 68.


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62. Singh, V.K. (2001). Strategy for the control of floral malformationin mango (Mangifera indica)on role of plant physiology for sustaining quality and quantity of food production in relationto environment. Chetti, M.B., Kurauinashett, M.S., Hiremath, S.M. and Kalpana, M. (Eds),pp. 131-33.

63. Singh, V.K., Saini, J.P. and Misra, A.K. (1998). Effect of plant growth regulators and otherchemicals on floral malformation, flowering, fruit set, yield and fruit quality of mango cv.Amrapali. Biol. Memoirs 24 : 19 - 24.

64. Singh, V.K., Saini, J.P. and Misra, A.K. (2001). Response of salicylic acid on flowering, floralmalformation, fruit, yield and associated bio-physical and bio-chemical character of mango.Indian J. Hort. 58 : 196 - 201.

65. Storey, W.B. (1941). The botany and sex relation in papaya. I. Papaya production in HawaiianIslands, Hawaii Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 87 : 5 - 22.

66. Storey, W.B. (1953). Genetics of the papaya. J. Hered. 44 : 70 - 78.

67. Storey, W.B. (1958). Modifications of sex expression in papaya. Hortic. Adv. 2 : 49 - 60.

68. Tongumpai, P., Hongsbhanich, N. and Voon, C.H. (1989). 'Cultar' - for flowering regulation ofmango in Thailand. Acta Hort. 239 : 375 - 78.

69. Varga, A. (1971). Effects of shoot growth retardation and tapping of young shoots on theyield of peer. Moded, Fac. Landbouw Wetnesch. Gent., 36 : 472 - 78.

70. Voon, C.H., Pitakpaivan, C. and Tan, S.J. (1991). Mango cropping manipulation with Cultar.Acta Hort. 291 : 219 - 28.

71. Wang, X.F., Rui, Wang, X.F. and Fu, J.R. (1994). Desiccation and cryopreservation of excisedembryonic axes of mango seeds. Journal of South China Agricultural Univ. 15 : 88 - 92.

72. Weigel, D. and Nilsson, O. (1995). A developmental switch sufficient for flower initiation indiverse plant. Nature 377 : 495 - 500.

73. Whieley, A.W. (1993). Environmental effects on phenology and physiology of mango - areview. Acta Hort. 341 : 168 - 76.

APPROACHES AND STRATEGIES FOR PRECISIONFARMING IN GUAVA

Gorakh Singh1, Shailendra Rajan2 and A.K. Singh3

Guava is considered to be one of the exquisite, nutritionally valuable andremunerative crops. Guava fruits are used for both, fresh eating and processing. Assoon as, one gets accustomed to its penetrating aroma, it becomes most delicious andfascinating fruit for consumers. It excels most other fruit trees in productivity, hardiness,adaptability and vitamin 'C' content. Besides its high nutritive value, it bears heavy cropevery year and gives handsome economic returns involving very little inputs. This hasprompted several Indian farmers to take up guava cultivation on a commercial scale. Itscultivation is not seriously affected by extremes of temperature, hot winds, scanty rainfall,saline and poor soil, waterlogging condition and above all, unavailability of water, fertilizerand other inputs. Guava trees are not difficult to grow and can survive in a range of soiland climatic conditions. However, precise management is required to produce a highlyprofitable crop.

CURRENT SCENARIOBecause of its ease of culture, high nutritional value and popularity of the processed

products, guava is important in international trade as well as in the local markets of over60 countries (2). The largest producers are Brazil, Mexico, India, Thailand, USA(Hawaii), New Zealand, the Philippines, China, Indonesia, Cuba, Java, Venezuela,Australia and some African countries, producing guava at commercial scale (5).International trade is virtually limited to processed products and includes export to theUnited States, Japan and Europe.

In India, guava is well adapted in almost all states. The major producing areas inUttar Pradesh are Allahabad, Kausambi, Farrukhabad, Kanpur, Unnao, Aligarh, Badaun,Varanasi, Fatehpur and Lucknow. In Andhra Pradesh, it is grown in east and westGodawari, Guntur, Krishna, Ananthapur, Medak and Khemmam districts. In MadhyaPradesh, concentrated production is around Raipur, Durg and Jabalpur. In Gujarat, it ismore concentrated around Bhavnagar, Ahmedabad. In Maharastra, it is grown mainly

1, 2, 3 Senior Scientist (Horticulture), Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture, Lucknow 227 107, India.


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in Satara, Beed, Pune, Ahmed Nagar, Aurangabad and Amravati areas. In Karnataka,it is mainly grown in Bangalore, Kolar, Dharwar and Shimoga, while in Tamil Nadu,major concentration of production is around Madurai, Dinadigul and Salem.DISTRIBUTION PATTERN IN INDIA

The major guava-growing states are Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,Karnataka, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh. It is estimated that the area and production inIndia is 150.9 ha and 1710.6 M t. Bihar has largest area (0.31 lakh ha) followed byUttar Pradesh (0.18 lakh ha) and Maharastra (0.17 lakh ha). Bihar also ranks first inproduction (0.37 million tones), followed closely by Maharastra (0.21 Mt). Uttar Pradeshand Andhra Pradesh are next with a production of 0.18 and 0.17 million tonnes,respectively. However, highest productivity is recorded in Madhya Pradesh (20.1 tonnes/ha) followed by Punjab (17.4 tonnes/ha), Gujarat (14.4 tonnes/ha) and Karnataka(12.5 tonnes/ha) . Cultivars and production system vary in these regions which influencethe productivity.PRECISION TECHNOLOGIES FOR IMPROVED PRODUCTIONSelection of Varieties

Although, a large number of varieties are known in guava, Allahabad Safeda andSardar (L 49) form the main stay of Indian guava industry, owing to its high yield, widemarket acceptability and high economic return. These cultivars have assumed the statusof commercial cultivation.Allahabad Safeda : Medium to tall, upright growth in nature, heavy bearer, foliagemostly dense, tendency to produce long shoots. Crown broad and compact, oftendome-shaped, rarely loose. Fruit medium, roundish in shape, smooth skin, white fleshand with few soft seeds, keeping quality is good.Sardar (L 49) : Vigorous, spreading and profuse bearing, heavy branching type, crownflat, fruit large, roundish ovate in shape, skin colour primose-yellow, white flesh, seedssoft and in plenty.

Apart from above two varieties, some of the cultivars which are grown in somespecific areas are Chittidar, Red Fleshed, Apple Colour, Anakapalle, Banarsi Surkha,Sangam and Dharwar.New Promising CultivarsLalit, a new variety of guava has been released by the CISH, Lucknow, for commercialcultivation (Fig. 1). Its fruits are medium-sized (185g) with attractive saffron-yellow


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colour with red blush. Its flesh is firm and pink with good blend of sugar and acid. Thisis suitable for both table and processing purposes. The pink colour in the beverageremains stable for more than a year in storage. The jelly made of this variety has better flavourand appearance. It gives 24% higher yield than popular variety Allahabad Safeda (4).

Pant Prabhat has been selected by the Department of Horticulture, GBPU&T,Pantnagar (Uttranchal), for commercial cultivation (Fig. 2). Plant growth is upright withbroad leaves, tree highly productive (100-125 kg), fruit round, peel smooth and lightyellow in colour, fruit medium (150-172 g), pulp white, seeds small and soft as comparedto Sardar. Sweet taste with pleasant flavour, ascorbic acid content varies from 125 mg(rainy season) to 300 mg/100 g fruit weight (winter season). TSS varies from 10.5 to13.50o Brix.

Multiplication of Genuine Planting Material

Genuine planting material is the basic requirement for quality guava production.Most of the nurseries in private and public sectors do not produce standard plantmaterial which ultimately affect not only the production potential but also the yield ofquality fruits. The guava industry is ravaged by wilt. To overcome this problem,production of disease-free quality planting material is very important. There is an urgentneed to contain the spread of wilt through infected orchard.

Sapling must be healthy and vigorous at the time of planting. Plants propagatedfrom diseased, old and exhausted mother tree, never develop into good nursery plants.Preferably, nursery stock should be raised from true-to-type, healthy and vigorous

Fig. 1. Lalit Fig. 2. Pant Prabhat


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young mother tree planted in separate block and used exclusively for propagationprogramme. Such trees, when they lose vigour due to continuous use for a number ofyears, should be invigourated by pruning practices. Better results are achieved withvegetative propagation. As compared to seed propagation, vegetative propagation inguava results in a uniform crop and short juvenile phase. There are various methods ofvegetative propagation but budding and stooling are found to be better.

Budding: Budding is done in several ways, but patch budding is considered to bemost efficient and satisfactory method of propagation in guava which gives high rate ofsuccess. However, success depends on vigour of both scion and stock. Seedlings ofabout one- year-old, uniform and active in growth are selected. The thickness shouldnot be more than that of an ordinary lead pencil. This method is most satisfactory whenvigorously growing plants, 1.25-2.5 cm in diameter, are used as stock. The trees fromwhich buds are taken should be highly vegetative lush, succulent growth to permit easyseparation of buds from the stem. It is better to take well-swollen and unsprouteddormant buds from leaf axil of mature twigs of the scion variety. A patch, approximately1 cm (0.5 inch) x 1.5 cm (0.75 inch) seems to take better than when a smaller patch orbud is used. Similarly, 1-1.5 cm long patch is removed from the rootstock and bud isfitted into the remaining portion on the stock seedling. Bud should be fitted at a height ofnearly 15cm above the ground level. Polythene strip is used for keeping the buds closeto the stock. When the bark adheres tightly to the wood, budding is usually successful.After about 2-3 weeks of budding the polythene strip can be opened to examine thesuccess. In successful cases, about one-third of top of shoot of the rootstock can beremoved for forcing the growth of buds. The remaining two-thirds can be removedafter three weeks of the first cutting, leaving about 2-3 cm above the bud. The best timefor budding is May, July and August.

Stooling: Stooling is the easiest and cheapest method of guava propagation. Thismethod can be used for quick multiplication of desired varieties and also rootstocks. Inthis method, self-rooted plants (cuttings and layers) are planted 0.5 m apart in thestooling bed. These are allowed to grow for about three years. Then these are cutdown at the ground level in March. New shoots emerge on the beheaded stumps. A30-cm wide ring of bark is removed from the base of each shoot rubbing the cambiumof the exposed portion in May. All the shoots are mounted with the soil to a height of 30cm. The soil is covered with mulch to conserve the moisture. After a period of twomonths of the onset of monsoon, the shoots are detached from the mother plant atringed portion and planted in the nursery. The shoots are headed back to maintain theroot and shoot balance before planting in the nursery by following the technique of


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ringing and mounding of the shoots, second time stooling is done on the same mothershoot in the first week of September. The rooted shoot layers are detached in the firstweek of November. Thus, stooling is done twice on the same mother stool in a year.The stooling of a mother stool can be done for many years. With the advancement of itsage, the number of stool layers also increases every year. The growth and developmentof a stool layer are better than seedlings. The application of rooting hormone is notrequired.

Establishment of Guava OrchardGuava is not difficult to grow, however, profitability depends on the ability of the

careful management programme to maximize production and to reduce fruit losses.Commercial production from guava orchard begins on third year after planting andcropping may continue for 40 years or more. Therefore, performance of a orcharddepends on its management, which includes water and nutrient management, selectionof right cultivars, planting technique, canopy management for flowering and fruiting,improved light efficiency through pruning to optimise the quality and production of youngand bearing trees.

Planting Technique

Before layout, the land should be well ploughed 3-4 times. The square or rectangularsystem of layout should be preferred as it facilitates orchard operations. The pits of 75cm x 75 cm x 75 cm size should be dug before the monsoon at a distance of 5m x 5mwhich results in 400 trees/ha. Rows should be planted in north-south directions toallow maximum sunlight exposure. After 15-20 days, the pits may be filled with top soilmixed with 30-40 kg of well-decomposed cattle manure and 1.0 kg of superphosphate.The pit is irrigated after filling so that the soil mixtures settle down. Pit should be treatedwith Tricel (2.5 ml/litre of water) or dusting of Seiven (20 g/pit) to prevent white ant(termite) infestation. After making the exact position of the plant in the pit with the helpof planting board, scoop out enough soil from the centre of the pit so as to accommodatethe guava plant with its ball of earth. The plant is placed straight in the centre of the pit.The soil around the plant is pressed firmly and a small basin is made for regular watering.Immediately after planting, it should be copiously watered. It is desirable to stake theplant to avoid breakage especially at the graft joint and to keep it erect. Planting is donefrom July to October.

Training and Pruning

The objective of pruning is to open up the canopy, as more sunlight leads to more


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number of shoots and higher yield. Pruning begins at an early stage of plant growth todevelop single trunk trees with well-spaced scaffold branches to form the framework.Within the first 3-4 months after planting, the guava plant needs to be pruned andtrained to allow maximum production of fruit as soon as possible and at the lowestpossible cost (6). In the initial stage, trees are trained to a single upright stem with thefruit bearing lateral structural branches emerging from the single stem beginning at aheight about 50-70 cm from the ground level, rather than having these laterals emergingat ground level, as usually in the case of untrained trees. As the trees become older andbetter able to support the scaffold branches, the main trunk can be extended upwardsby cutting off the lower interfering scaffold branches.

Lateral structural branches should be pruned and trained to radiate outwards fromthe central axis of the tree. Any branch that does not fix into such pattern should begradually removed. Essentially, then, guava trees are pruned to increase yield and toreduce the total cost of field operations by eliminating obstacles and branch hazardswhich slow down easier movement around the trees. Dried twigs should be removedregularly. Suckers emerging from the soil (ground level) should also be removed regularlyas presence of suckers' results in poor growth of the plants. A properly pruned andtrained tree can be gradually confined to a foliage canopy approaching 4m in radius.The angle between the branches of the stem must be wide so that sunlight is able topenetrate into the centre of the tree. Trees are pruned and fertilised to induce newaxillary growth upon which flowers will be produced. Branches grown horizontally arefar more productive than vertical ones(6). For dessert cultivars, an ideal tree shape isone with no branches 50-70 from the ground and 3-6 horizontal branches.

High-density Planting

Due to recent advancements in horticultural practices on one hand, and agriculturalengineering on the other, establishment of densely planted, dwarf, and intensive orchardsis becoming more and more a universal challenge for all guava growers (Fig. 3). Amongthe production practices, tree management, specifically size control, has become apriority for the modern guava producer due to the demands imposed by modern marketsin terms of production costs, yield and fruit quality. Early management of apical growthis necessary to maintain height control in guava (6). Recent advances in fruit tree trainingtechniques are rapidly changing production strategies throughout the tropics.Modifications in training techniques influences plant spacing and production decisions.

Similarly, unpruned tall and crowded guava trees pose a number of problemswhile carrying out various cultural operations. Canopy design and shape influence light


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interception (Figs. 4 A and B) and higher monetary returns can be assured to guavagrowers. In fact, guava responds well to canopy modification by pruning and trainingand is one of the most suitable for high density planting, as it bears fruits on currentseason's growth and responds to pruning (Figs. 6 a, b, c and d). Wide branch angles,producing a spreading tree are important to minimize the branch breakage when carryingheavy crop and to reduce labour input in guava tree shaping, particularly in high-densityplanting system. Control of apical growth must begin within first year of planting ofguava continue each year in high-density planting system. Topping and hedging havebeen found to be valuable techniques in controlling tree size during initial stage (Fig. 5).Planting density of 3.0 m x 6.0 m (555 plants/ha) has been found most suitable andhighly productive for Allahabad Safeda (6). However, HDP has been also developedfor Allahabad Safeda which accommodates 5,000 plants/ha: (1.0 m x 2.0 m) coupledwith regular topping and hedging, particularly during initial stage, are helpful in vigourcontrol and extending fruit availability and yield per unit area (Fig. 7)(6). In young

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

Fig. 3. High-density planting in guava. Fig. 4. Early shoot management for better production andcanopy shape. A, unpruned; B, pruned tree. Fig. 5. Initial canopy management, brings maximumshoots in fruiting, for better harvest under high-density planting system.

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vigorously growing trees the leading branches can be bent down and tipped to promotesprouting of laterals, which are capable of bearing profusely (Fig. 8).

Fig. 6. Concurrent shoot pruning has been found efficeint method for controlling tree size andbetter productivity under high-density planting. (a) Pruning for the initiation of new shoots,capable of producing flower buds; (b) repruning of new shoots when the fruits are 2-3 cm indiameter for initiation of new shoots; (c) new shoots emerging as a result of step (b) are alsoefficient in fruit producition; (d) reponse of topping and hedging (A) and unpruned row (B)under high density planting and (e) a portion of a tree showing several fruit-bearing shoots asa response of concurrent pruning.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d) (e)(d)

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Fig. 7. Reponse of topping and hedging duringinitial stage for accommodating morenumber of plants per unit area.

Fig. 8. Bending of branches in guava tree caninduce profuse flowering and fruiting.

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

Rejuvenation of Old Plantation

The old orchards which have turned unproductive and produce low grade fruitsrequire a special attention. They should be rejuvenated through heavy and systematicpruning, followed by fertilization and plant protection measures. Heading back ofunproductive guava trees (at the height of 1.5-2 m from the ground level) is done in themonth of May followed by pruning of newly sprouted shoots below the cut point ofparent stump in October has shown encouraging results (Figs. 9 a, b, c and d). Thenewly initiated shoots after 'October-cut' are found to be very conducive for floweringand fruiting in the following seasons.

Growth and DevelopmentOne of the critical characteristics of guava is that flowers are borne on newly-

emerging lateral shoots, irrespective of time of year (11). Consequently, the occurrenceof bloom and fruiting in the course of the year may be erratic or seasonal, depending onhow the environment affects shoot growth. This characteristics allows the tree to bemanipulated to crop when desired in a favourable climate. Defoliation/ pruning are themain methods to force the axillary bud to shoot (14). Presumably, the flowers arealready differentiated before the side shoots emerge, implying that the lateral buds shouldnot be forced to break before differentiation has been completed. Shoot growth isindeterminate under good growing conditions long vigorous shoots dominate, whichsuppress the emergence of flowering side shoots.

A load of fruits acts as strong sink to moderate extension growth and to delay theleafing out of lateral buds until after harvest. Good fruiting is therefore instrumental inestablishing the desired pattern of shoot growth thereby regulating canopy size.


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Crop Regulation

There are two major flowering seasons, once during March-May, the fruits ofwhich are harvested in rainy season (late-July to mid-October) and the other in July-August with the fruits harvested during winter (late-October to mid-February). Often athird crop is also noticed, from flower appearing in October and the fruits harvested inMarch (8). Among three flowering seasons, maximum fruiting occurs in rainy season(11). This is incidentally, the period when heavy rains are received and the wet-humidweather adversely affects quality while approaching the maturity stage. Various typesof fungal diseases and attack of fruit fly are common. This crop is poor in quality, fruitsare rough, insipid, watery and less nutritive. Rainy season fruits are also spoiled rapidlydue to loss of glossy appearance with discolouration followed by blemishes, desiccation,loss of firmness, protopectin and vitamin 'C' after harvesting. As regards the net returnin terms of cash, the winter season crop is more profitable than rainy season crop dueto high selling rates and less damage to fruits by diseases and insect pests (13). Winter

(b)

(c)

(d)

(a)

Fig. 9. (a) Rejuvenated (heading back) guava tree in the month ofMay (R) and unrejuvenated (UR) guava trees; (b) new shootsemerging on rejuvenated trees; (c) new shoots were prunedduring October to induce new laterals capable of fruiting and(d) a close view of fruiting twigs as a result of pruning shownin (c). Source: Singh, Gorakh, PFDC, Lucknow

RUR


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fruits have better storage life and can be transported over a long distance.

Orchard losses can be avoided by following simple and effective crop regulationpractices by which guava trees can be made to bear and mature as regular winter cropof disease free fruit of very good quality (9 and 12).

The crop regulation studies confirmed the efficacy of spraying fertilizer grade ureain May to increase the yield of winter season crop (Figs. 10, 11 and 12). A cropregulation technology has been developed at CISH, Lucknow (10), wherein the inferiorquality rainy season crop is eliminated by spraying twice with fertilizer grade urea (10per cent) in Allahabad Safeda and in Sardar, during bloom (April-May). This resultedin increase of good quality fruits during winters by four times in Allahabad Safeda andthree times in Sardar(7).

Fig. 10. Defoliation induced by fertilizer grade urea. Fig. 11. Fruit set on new shoots emerged asa result of defoliation. Fig. 12. Heavy winter crop as a response of defoliation throughfertilizer grade urea

Fig. 11

Fig. 10Fig. 12


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Weed Control

Weed control is crucial during first 2-3 years of orchard establishment. After that,the trees provide adequate shade to minimize interference by weeds. Mulching withblack polythene sheet or heavy mulching with organic material, such as, straw, driedgrass, banana leaves, immediately surrounding the main trunk drastically reduces weedgrowth. Herbicides are generally not recommended in young orchards due to thepossibility of causing severe damage by spray drift or direct contact. Herbicide such as,glyphosate may be applied by rope wicks or rollers saturated with the herbicide solutionand wiped on the weeds.

Irrigation

The chief economic consideration, which encourages growers to go for guavacultivation is that, this tree does not suffer much if it is not watered during hot months. Itis, however, observed that where the plantation receives better care and regular irrigationin early years, yield of fruits is heavier and fruits are of better quality than the trees,which are neglected, as it usually happens. Adequate moisture is required duringvegetative growth and for optimum flowering and fruit development. Almost completepost set drop is observed during drought. In dry tropics, flowering is greatly influencedof water availability. To promote the development of the fruiting twigs, irrigate every10-15 days in summer and about 25 days in winter should be given. During the rainyseason, plants hardly require any irrigation. The care of the young trees consists inwatering them regularly during the dry season. In regions, receiving 380-500 mm rainfall,an additional 2,460 mm water is required through 8-10 irrigation. Drip irrigation isbeing used increasingly to replenish daily water loss (25-50 mm per week). This methodcan deliver sufficient water if the entire orchard can be supplied on a daily basis. Inlarge orchards, where irrigation is done by selections, the microjet or a low sprinklersystem is more desirable. This system also make it easier to apply fertilizer for immediateeffect. At CISH, Lucknow, the maximum yield is obtained when irrigation is given at60 per cent OPE replenishment.

Intercultivation

Regular intercultivation is very essential for proper upkeep of the guava orchard.It improves physical condition of soil, ensures aeration by breaking soil surface crust,removes weeds that compete for soil moisture and nutrients and helps in serves thepurpose of mulching and thereby, reduces evaporation losses. In young guava orchards,


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intercultivation should be done as and when necessary to check weed growth. Regularintercultivation in young orchards helps in promoting shoot and root growth of trees. Inbearing orchards, one ploughing during June, second during August/September andthird in December depending upon the soil moisture conditions should be given. Thefirst ploughing helps in checking the run off losses and facilitates maximum intake ofwater into the soil. The second ploughing checks the weed growth, whereas third inducesvegetative shoot.

Nutrition

Guava is very hardy to soil and agroclimatic conditions, but shows good responseto manuring in increasing fruit production. Since leaf is the principal site of metabolicactivity in the plant and changes occurring in this leaf metabolic activity are reflected inthe plant performance, emphasis is now placed to adopt leaf analysis as a tool to assessnutrient needs of guava plants. Soil analysis can also be helpful since it gives a measureof the nutrients available in the soil, but leaf analysis can tell us whether these nutrientsare being absorbed. Among several factors associated with the plant system like variety,flushing season, fruiting on non-fruiting shoot, crop load, tree to tree variation, leaf part,leaf age, leaf size, leaf health and its position on shoot, tree age, and sample size arevery essential one. Such information would be useful in determining the proper periodof fertilizer application to guava trees, depending upon their needs.

Setting of Concentration Standards

The concentration below, which a response can be expected varies with variety,sampling procedure and site. Standards for the interpretation of guava leaf analysisdata have been established. These are based on experiments and partially on experiencesgathered over a number of years in a wide range of growing conditions. Tentativecritical concentrations are given below. Concentrations are empirically desired and evenwithin their own environment may not be very accurate. They do, however, provide auseful guide to the nutrition of guava when considered along with other characteristics,deficiency symptoms, soil conditions and previous fertilizer history. This accounts forthe widespread field use of leaf analysis in guava. Many experiments have been conductedto establish the concentration of an element below which a response to added fertilizermay be expected.


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Leaf nutrient status/guide to fertilizationCritical nutrient limits (per cent)

N P K Ca Mg

1.63-1.96 0.18-0.24 1.31-1.71 0.67-0.83 0.52-0.65

Stage and position of leaf for representative sample

Tissue to be Position Age Time StagesampledLeaf 3rd or 4th 50-60 July for Fruiting

pair leaf days rainy season terminals fromat chest and November all sidesheight for winter season of tree

Fertilization

The amount of manure and fertilizers to be applied depends on the age of trees,condition of plant and type of soil. For proper growth and profitable yields, fertilizershould be applied in the required optimum dose.

Application of manures to guava plant starts right from planting in the field. Firstapplication is made at the time of filling of pits (15-20 kg well-rotten FYM + 1.5 kgsuperphosphate per pit). Fertilizer application during first year of planting may be givenas urea 260g + superphosphate 375g + 100g muriate of potash per plant. This doseshould be increased every year up to five years in the multiple of first year's dose. Thus,a five year and above tree may get 1,300 g urea + 1,875 g superphosphate + 500 gmuriate of potash along with 50 kg of FYM. This mixture is to be applied in two splitdoses perfectly in June and September. Fifty per cent of urea and entire potash to beapplied in June and the rest of urea and entire superphosphate in September. Fertilizersare applied in a ring which covers an area of 30cm away from the trunk and coveringthe periphery of the tree. Soil should be dug to depth of only 8-10 cm and fertilizersproperly mixed in the soil. Deep digging should be avoided as most of the nutrientabsorbing roots are located close to the surface level. Use of fertilizer through dripirrigation has been found effective for enhanced yield efficiency. Yield increasessubstantially by drip irrigation when applied at 60 per cent open pan evaporation (OPE)in combination with 50 per cent recommended dose of nitrogen fertilizer (300g urea).

Nutrient Deficiency

Deficiencies of zinc and boron have become widespread in guava areas.

Zinc: Zinc deficiency is serious problem in waterlogged and saline areas. It is


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characterized by reduction in leaf size, interveinal chlorosis, suppression of growth anddie-back of leaders.

Remedy:

! Soil application of zinc sulphate at 800g/tree 10-15 days before every flowering.

! Two pre-blossom spray of 0.3-0.5 per cent zinc sulphate and hydrated lime (0.23kg) at 15 days interval.

Boron: Boron deficiency is characterized by red spots on young leaves.

Remedy:

! Pre-flowering spray of 0.3-0.4 per cent boric acid.

! 5 g borax in one litre of hot water sprayed during July -August is found beneficialfor fruit quality.

Bronzing: It is another common problem inguava attributed due to deficiency ofphosphorus and zinc, and toxicity of aluminium(Fig. 11). Water soluble P status of leaves isthe better index for bronzing (1). It can bereduced by soil pH and soil application of N,P, K and Zn at 200, 80, 150 and 80g/plant/year, respectively or fortnightly foliar applicationof these nutrients each at 2 per cent resulted inreduction of bronzing.

PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENTFruit fly, fruit-borer and bark-eating caterpillars are major insect pests, whereas

guava wilt, fruit-rot and die-back are important diseases(3).

Pest Management

Fruit fly (Bactocera dorsalis): The fruit fly is the most destructive insect in theproduction of guava, particularly during rainy season. When the fly is uncontrolled, theamount of marketable fruit is drastically reduced. Damage occurs as the larvae hatchout from eggs oviposited beneath the skin of ripening fruit and begin to feed on theflesh. Fruit turn progressively soft and mushy as the larvae begin feeding, until the fruitsbecome 'waterlogged and the juice begin to drip on handling.

Fig. 11. Bronzing in guava.


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Management! The traps are very useful tool in monitoring and control of population of fruit fly.

Hanging of bottle traps containing 100 ml of water emulsion of methyl euginol(0.1%) + malathion (0.1%) during fruiting season (April-July) is very effective forcontrol of fruit fly. Ten traps per hectare of orchard give satisfactory control. Trapscan be fixed during morning time.

! Collection and destruction of infested and fallen fruits along with maggots useful inreducing the pest population. Ploughing tree basin also helps in checking the pestpopulation as the pupae are destroyed by being exposed to unfavourabletemperature and also becomes the prey for predators.

! Adult fruit flies can be controlled by bait spraying of carbaryl (0.2%) + 0.4%protein hydrolysates or molasses at pre-oviposition time.

Bark-eating caterpillar (Inderbela spp.): It is another serious pest of guava foundin all over the India. The old, shady and neglected orchards are more prone to theattack of this pest. The caterpillars bore into trunk, main stem and thick branches ofguava trees and remain inside the holes during day. The caterpillars come out in night tofeed on the bark and make silken galleries inside.

Management! After removing the webs of bark-eating caterpillar, all the borer holes except the

fresh one, should be plugged with mud plastering.

! Application of monocrotophos (0.05%) or DDVP (0.1%) emulsion in holes andplugging with mud.

Mealy bug (Ferrisia virgata): The problem of mealy bug is more pronounced insummer months. This occurs on leaves and fruits. Mealy bugs are small, oval, suckinginsects which are cottony-white, and waxy covering on their bodies. They are foundsticking to the underside of the guava leaves. They secrete honeydew on which sootymould develops. Fruits covered with the mealy bug and sooty mould lose the marketvalue. All the commonly used insecticides do not provide adequate control because ofthe waxy coating over their bodies.

Management! Release of predator Cryptolaemus sp. @ 10-20 beetles/tree gives very effective

control within 30-45 days of the release.


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Guava fruit-borer (Virachola isocrates): The guava fruit-borer has been found innorthern region of the country. The caterpillars bore the raw fruits of all sizes and eat thepulp of the fruits. The infested fruits usually dry up.

Management! Collection of infested fruits with borer and their destruction to check the carry

over of the pest.

! The adults may be controlled by spraying of carbaryl (0.1%) or fenthoate (0.05%)or phosalone (0.01%) at the beginning of fruiting season and before ripening offruits.

! Spraying of carbaryl (0.2%) at the early stage of crop has been found effective inreducing the pest population.

Scale insect (Chloropulvianria psidii): These are small scale like, flat, green insectwhich are found sticking to leaves, shoots and sometime fruits. This is serious pest ofguava in India. The appearance of sooty mould on tree is the first recognisable symptomsto appear. In a badly infested orchard, trees are covered with scales, and sooty mould.In severe infestations, defoliation and flower abortion can occur, reducing yield drastically.Generally, the infestation is more in summer. The trees become black instead of theusual lush green.

Management

! Prune affected parts and burn at the early stage of infestation.

! Two-three sprayings with monocrotophos (0.05%) at 15 days intervals arenecessary in summer.

! Water spraying removes sooty mould.

! In heavy infestation, spray starch 2% or mixture of wetable sulphur + methylparathion + gum acacia (0.2% + 0.1% + 0.3%).

5 Since ants are nearly always associated with scales, they should also be controlled.

DISEASE MANAGEMENTGuava wilt: Among diseases affecting culture of this crop, wilt is most destructivedisease known to occur mostly in northern and eastern India. Disease starts with thewithering and yellowing of leaves. The leaves droop down and epinasty is the mainsymptom. The plant generally wilts within 15 days to two months. There may be either


109

partial or full wilting of the plant. The disease occur more severely in alkaline soil.Generally, the incidence is evident only during July-November and is however notobserved during winter and summer months. It is severe at the time of fruit bearing.Now it is felt besides pathogens, there are other factors, i.e. soil, nutrition and management,which are also responsible for this malady.

Management! Remove and destroy wilted branches. Uproot and burn severely affected trees.

! Proper sanitation in the orchards is essential.

! Avoid waterlogging.

! Use of organic and green manures helps in reducing the disease.

! As preventive control, soil treatment with neem cake (4.0 kg/plant) and gypsum(2 kg/plant) is useful.

! The soil may be drenched with Bavistin at the early stage of infection.

! Incidence of the disease can be minimised by application of Aspergillus nigerstrain AN17. Culture of A. niger is mixed in FYM at the rate of 1%, allow tomultiply it and after 10-15 days incubation the enriched FYM is applied at the rateof 5 kg/ plant.

Fruit canker: The fruit canker is widely prevalent in India. It produces numerouscircular to raised dark coloured corky cankerous growths on fruits. Infected fruits aredeformed and give a chickenpox appearance. They do not ripe and are not palatable.

Management! The disease can be effectively controlled by two sprayings of Dithane M-45

(0.2%) during green fruit stage.

Anthracnose : High humidity and frequent rains favour the spread and intensity ofdisease attack. It occurs mostly on fruits during rainy season. Most characteristicsymptoms include the appearance of small spots of the size of pinhead, which are firstobserved on unripe fully grown fruits during rainy season. They are dark brown toblack in colour, sunken, circular and bear numerous minute black pinhead growth in thecentre of the lesions. In favourable weather, several spots coalesce to form biggerlesions. The diseased portions are comparatively harder than the healthy tissues. Ripefruits become soft. Unopened flowers and buds are also attacked and they are shed.


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Management! Pruning of diseased twigs and destruction of fallen leaves and fruits are also helpful

in controlling the disease.

! Dithane M-45 (0.2%) or Topsin M (0.1%) or Bavistin (0.1%) or copperoxychloride (3g/litre of water) on mature fruits reduce the infection.

Stylar-end rot: Severe infestation occurs during rainy season which reduces the qualityof fruits. The symptoms start as a circular, water-soaked lesions at the stylar end andlater on they become reddish brown in colour.

Management! The disease can be controlled effectively by spraying of Bavistin or Topsin M

(0.1%) at 15 days interval during fruit maturity stage. However, no spraying isdone before 15 days of harvesting.

Fruit rot: The symptoms appear on mature green fruits as a water-soaked lesion thatdevelops very rapidly to affect entire fruits. This is very serious during rainy weatherand spoils nearly 20-25 per cent of the fruits before harvesting.

Management! Removal of diseases fruits from the orchard and destroying them so that fruit flies

and other insects cannot land on the fungal mass to pick up spores for reinfection.

! Pre-harvest spraying of carbendazin or thiophonate methyl (Bavistin or TopsinM,.5%) 15 - 20 days before harvesting.

HARVESTINGHarvesting of guava fruits is determined on the basis of visual fruits colour

observations. Fruits attaining maturity show signs of changing colour from pale green toyellowish green. However, experience is the best guide. During the peak period ofseason, harvest interval cannot be more than 2-3 days otherwise losses of over-ripefruits become a problem. When only fully ripe fruit are harvested on a 3-day cycle,losses between 35 and 40 per cent can occur, as fruits ripen so rapidly and abscise. Itis desirable to harvest the fruits with the stalk along with one or two leaves. It delaysripening and the fruits are attractive in appearance. The fruit is soft and requiresconsiderable care in picking and handling. The fruit is picked selectively by hand. Oncepicked, the fruit deteriorates rapidly if left standing in the hot sun in the fields. Hence,while in the field, they should be stored in a cool location under trees or in a centralised


111

shed protected from the scorching sun. Over-ripe fruits and those severely infectedwith fruit flies and diseases should be destroyed rather than left to fall and rot in thefield, as these fruits become the source of continuous field infection. If the fruit is to beshipped to distant market it should be mature, full sized and of firm texture, but withoutan obvious colour break on the surface. Fruits for local market can be harvested in amore advanced stage of maturity.

Packaging and Storage

Being a fruit of highly perishable nature, it must be sold out soon after its arrival inthe market. These fruits have less weight loss, high vitamin 'C', a high organolepticscore and no adverse changes in fruit quality. For larger markets, storage at 5 oCextends post-harvest life by two weeks in comparison with storage at 20 oC. Fruitspacked in polythene bags can be stored at 8-10 oC for 14 days.

Yield

The yield of guava varies greatly depending upon the variety and agroclimaticconditions prevailing in a region. At the end of the second year or at the beginning ofthird, the grafted guava trees can be put into production cycle. The production beginsfrom third year with about 8 tonnes/ha and increases to 25 tonnes/ha by seventh year.By adopting optimum package of practices for cultivation, guava trees can be madeeven to bear up to 40 years of age. The most economic period of the plants (plants withheavy bearing) is up to 20 years, and thereafter declines gradually.

HandlingThe fruit is delicate and should be handled with great care. To avoid damage, it

should be graded and transported in small boxes rather than in large crates immediatelyafter harvesting, when it is still firm, it should reach the consumer before it soften.

UtilizationThe guava is a sweet, juicy and highly flavoured fruit, eaten mostly as fresh or

processed. Guava puree is an important product predominantly used now in theproduction of guava juice or nectars, cakes, sauce, jams, jellies, pastry, and otherproducts. Guavas are also dehydrated and powdered.

POTENTIAL FOR COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENTThe guava is an ideal fruit because of its hardiness, high yield, long supply season

and high nutritive value. The potential for a larger role of guava in the fresh fruit market


112

appears to be mainly limited by its short shelf-life and its susceptibility to fruit flies,which make it difficult to fully exploit the high quality of ripe fruits.

In short, the points to be considered for profit are given below:! Selecting reliable and high-yielding varieties (Sardar, Allahabad Safeda, Lalit and

Pant Prabhat).! Adoption of high-density planting.! Management of tree canopy particularly in initial stage of planting under high-

density plantation.! Increasing water-use efficiency through modern systems like drip irrigation.! Development of balanced nutrition schedules for guava orchard based on nutrient

analysis of plant and soil.! Carrying out husbandry operations efficiently and intelligently in time.! Providing correct instruction to labour performing intercultural operations,

harvesting and handling etc.! Growers should regulate the cropping with the help of fertilizer grade urea, which

results in regular satisfactory yields, and fruit of high quality or pruning of branchletsto their half length (50 per cent) on entire trees in the month of May.

! Careful market survey and selection.! Rejuvenation of senile orchards.! Adoption of plant protection technologies with integrated pest and disease

management components.

CONCLUSIONFor the sustainable revolution in guava production, several issues on production

and marketing front need to be adressed. First and foremost is the need to producequality planting material to meet the international standards. Tree shape and size areimportant secondary characters that are required to be combined into a new improvedguava cultivar. Priorities are to be given on selection of varieties, planting system anddensity, canopy management, soil water and nutrient management, integrated insectpests and disease management, rejuvenation of senile orchards, post-harvest technologyand processing for value - added products.Precision technology is a key component inthe battle of increased and sustainable guava production and has potential to play amuch greater role in future.


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REFERENCES1. Edward, R.M. and Singh, Gorakh (1990). Studies on bronzing in guava. Adv. Hort. Forestry

1: 55-63

2. Knight, R. Jr. (1980). Origin and world importance of tropical and subtropical fruit crops. In:Tropical and Subtropical Fruits, pp. 1-20. Nagy, S. and Shaw, P. E. (Eds). AVI Publishing Inc.West-port Connecticut (USA).

3. Ragunathan, V., Pawar, A.D., Misra, M.P. and Singh, J. (2002). Integrated management ofpests in horticultural crops. In: Approaches for Sustainable Development of Horticulture,pp. 97-112. Singh, H.P., Negi, J.P., Samuel, J.C. (Eds). DAC, MOA.

4. Rajan, S., Negi, S.S. and Kumar, Ram (1996). Breeding high-yielding and coloured guavavarieties. Abstract. 2nd Int. Crop Sci. Congr., New Delhi

5. Singh, B.P. and Rana, R.S. (1993). Promising fruit introductions In: Advances in HorticultureVol. I. pp. 43-66. Chadha, K.L. and Pareek. O.P. (Eds). Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.

6. Singh, Gorakh (2000-01). High-density planting in guava. Annual Report, Central Institutefor Subtropical Horticulture, Lucknow.

7. Singh, Gorakh, Singh, A.K. and Verma, A. (2000). Economic evaluation of crop regulationtreatments in guava (Psidium guajava L.). Indian J. Agric. Sci. 70: 226-30.

8. Singh, Gorakh, Singh, A.K. and Pandey, D. (2000). Effect of cropping pattern on fruitingbehaviour of guava (Psidium guajava L.) trees. Annals Agric. Res. 21: 175-82.

9. Singh, Gorakh, Pandey, D. and Singh, A.K. (1995). The possibilities of regulating crop inguava through pruning and chemicals. Prog. Hort. 27: 168-74.

10. Singh, Gorakh, Pandey, D., Rajan, S. and Singh, A.K. (1996). Crop regulation in guava throughdifferent crop regulating treatments. Fruits 51: 241-46.

11. Singh, Gorakh, Rajan, S. Singh A.K. and Pandey, D. (1999). Fruit bud differentiation andcontribution of different flushes towards annual yield of guava (Psidium guajava L.). J.Appl. Hort. 1: 19-23.

12. Singh, Gorakh, Rajan, S. Pandey, D. and Singh, A.K. (1997). Effect of soil moisture stress onwater relation by plant and cropping behaviour in guava (Psidium guajava L.). Indian J.Agric. Sci. 67: 303-6.

13. Singh, Gorakh, Sinha, G.C., Pandey, D. and Rajan, S. (1995). Studies on the physio-chemicalcomposition of fruits of twenty four guava varieties. Indian Food Packer. 49: 15-20.

14. Singh, Gorakh, Singh, A.K. and Rajan, S. (1999). Effect of defoliation, decapitation anddeblossoming on fruit bud differentiation in guava (Psidium guajava L.). J. Appl. Hort. 1: 97-100.

15. Soetopo, L. (1991). Psidium guajava L. In: Plant Resources of South-east Asia, No.2. EdibleFruits and Nuts, pp. 266-70. Verheij, E.W.M. and Coronel, R.E. (Eds). Pudoc Wageningen,Netherland.

PRECISION FARMING OF BANANA INMAHARASHTRA

V.R. Balasubrahmanyam1, A.V. Dhake2, K.B. Patil3

Prosenjit Moitra4 and S. Daryapurkar5

Maharashtra is the leading state in fruit production in the country. Banana occupies72,200 ha, producing 433 lakh tonnes with an average productivity of 60 tonnes/ha.Banana is one of the few crops in India where hi-tech and precision farming techniqueshave been successfully practised with full advantage. Introduction of improved varietysuitable for processing and export, micropropagation, crop geometry, drip irrigationfertigation, mulching, green manuring, recycling of banana wastes (vermicompost), organicfarming, proper hygiene of banana plantation through integrated disease and pestsmanagement, processing to puree transfer technology, training, participativedemonstration etc. are some of the aspects responsible for the increased productivity,production and improvement in quality of the banana crop in Maharashtra. The resultsof some of the trials carried out at the R & D farms of Jain Irrigation Systems Ltd.,Jalgaon, and their impact on banana industry are briefly discussed below:

IMPROVED VARIETY

Basrai (AAA Group), a Dwarf Cavendish cultivar, and its improved selectionslike Srimanti and Ardhapuri and common varieties are grown in Maharashtra. Basrai islow-yielding (15-18 kg/bunch), susceptible to Sigatoka leaf spot, and having poorshelf-life. In order to meet international standards in quality and to export, tissue cultureraised plants of three varieties, viz. Grand Naine, William and Zeleig were introduced in1994 from Israel. Of these, Grand Naine has been observed suitable for the region interms of vigour, yield and quality long shelf-life. Williams and Zeleig although are high-yielding with good quality fruits but these are tall varieties and susceptible to winddamage during summer under Maharashtra conditions. The general characteristics ofBasrai and Grand Naine are given in Table 1.

1,2,3,4,5 Jain Irrigation Systems Ltd., Jalgaon (Maharashtra)


Precision Farming of Banana in Maharashtra

115

MICROPROPAGATION BY TISSUE CULTURE

The initial trials have shown the superior quality of Grand Naine over the localvarieties. The advantages of tissue culture raised plants over those of rhizome or suckerplanted ones need not be emphasized. The performance of tissue cultured plants andsucker planted (cv. Grand Naine) banana are shown in Table 2. A pilot tissue culturelaboratory was established in 1995 with a capacity of one million propagules.

Table 1. Characteristics of Grand Naine and Basrai varietiesParticulars Grand Naine - Cavendish

AAA Group Basrai - Dwarf Cavendish

triploid seedless

Intermediate between Giant and Dwarf Cavendish, withstand wind damage

Low in stature, less susceptible to wind damage

Psuedostem height (cm) 203 cm 157 cm

Psuedostem girth 61 cm 56 cm with brown and black large blotches

Leaves / leaf 29-31 26-27, leaves are clustered at crown with short internodes, winged petiole having widely open canals, not clasping

Planting to shooting (days) 246

Inflorescence --

Pendulous, 274 borne on a short having peduncle.

Planting to harvesting (days) 352 385

Bunch Large with compact hand impeded bunch emergence due to low temperature in winter

Medium with compact hands susceptible to 'Choke', impeded bunch emergence due to low temperature

Bunch weight (kg) 26.0 18.0

No. of hands 12-14 8-10

No. of fruits/hand 16-21 16-20

Fruit length (cm) 21 19

Fruit diameter (mm) 32 27

No. of fingers 178 142-155

Other characters Long, cylindrial fingers with small curvature, yellowish green, high pulp and peel ratio, more suitable for processing, sweet in taste, longer shelf-life and good for transport

The fingers are curved thick rind retains green colour on ripening, under cold conditions develop yellow colour pulp soft and more sweet and short shelf-life.


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Subsequently a laboratory of 5 million capacity with infrastructural facilities for primaryhardening, fully automised Greenhouses (0.5 ha) and shade houses (10 ha) for secondaryhardening have been established. The laboratory has so far distributed about 10 millionplants covering 12-14 per cent of area under tissue culture raised Grand Naine in theregion. The laboratory has registered an exponential growth in its capacity anddistribution in the last three years. As the farmers' response to tissue culture raisedGrand Naine has been positive and encouraging. The laboratory has a target to reach10 million plants in a year by 2004-05.

Grop GeometryThe normal spacing followed in Basrai plantation by the farmers in Maharashtra is

1.5m x 1.5m, accomodating 4,444 plants/ha. In this system, there is a severe competitionamongst plants for sunlight. Consequently the vegetative phase is prolonged and theper plant yield is quite low, with poor quality of bunches and fruits although per hectareyield is compensated because of more number of plants. The results of spacing trialscarried out at R & D farms showed that a spacing of 1.8 m x 1.5 m (3,703 plants/ha)alternatively pair row planting at 3m x 2m x 1m, accomodating 3,333 plants/ha aresuitable for Grand Naine banana and in the later spacing, the cost of drip system iscomparatively cheaper (Fig. 1 and Table 1). Most of the Grand Naine plantations areestablished either with 1.8m x 1.5m spacing and a few plantations are under pair rowplanting.

Drip Irrigation

Banana plants have large leaf area and the transpirational loss is heavy particularlyduring summer months. Hence, its water requirement is more. It is estimated that thecrop's annual water requirement is about 2,200 mm. This includes 600 mm of waterthrough rains.

The crop water requirement calculated on the basis of monthly average dailyevapotranspiration for Jalgaon, ranged between 155 and 680 mm/plant/month fromJune to May and a total of 4,200 mm/plant/year. Pair row planting at 3m x 2m x 1m(Fig.1) with two laterals having 4 LPH drippers at one m were found suitable for optimalresponse under rectangular planting system (1.8m x 1.5m), the lateral consists of two 4LPH drippers at 17 inches interval near the plants followed by 3.5 spacing before thenext pair of drippers are provided (Fig.2). This ensures uniform wetting of the bed andentire root zone. Besides uniform flowering and early harvest, better quality fruits, savingof labour and control of weed growth are other advantages under drip. The yield increasewas as much as 52 per cent over flow irrigated banana and water saved was to the


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Fig. 1. Crop geometry

63 mm PVC PIPE 4Kg/Cm2F.S.

W.S.64

m

63m

63m

m P

VC P

IPE

4kg/

Cm

2

1.52 m 1.52 m

PT12 mm1.

83 m

PT12 mm

0.23 Cm

1. LENGTH OF POLYTUBE : 2260 m2. DRIPPERS 8 Lph : 2862 NO.3. COST / ACRE : RS. 23062.00 BANANA PLANT

DRIPPER 4Lph


118

Fig. 2. Drip irrigation system

63 mm PVC PIPE 4Kg/Cm2F.S.

W.S.64

m

63m

63m

m P

VC P

IPE

4kg/

Cm

2

3 m

PT12 mm

1.83

m

PT12 mm

1.0 m

1. LENGTH OF POLYTUBE : 5250 m2. DRIPPERS 8 Lph : 675 NO.3. COST / ACRE : RS. 15158.00

BANANA PLANT

DRIPPER 8Lph


119

extent of 45 per cent. Amongst fruit crops, maximum area covered under drip is inbanana. More than 80 per cent of banana farmers have installed drip irrigation system(Table 3).

Fertigation

The results of fertigation trial carried out during 1995-97 using liquid and water-

Table 2. Performance of tissue culture raised and sucker planted banana (cv.Grand Nain)

Particulars Tissue cultured plants in polybags with 5-6 leaves

(secondary hardened)

Conventional sucker planting rhizome

(1.5-2.0 kg)

Spacing 1.8m x 1.5 m (3,700 plants/ha)

1.8 m x 1.5 m

Psuedosterm height at flowering (m) 2.33 2.3

Psuedostem girth (m) 0.65 0.60

Functional leaves at flowering 15.0 13.6

Days to flowering 248 294

Days to harvesting 352 403

Bunch weight 24.1 2.86

Yield tonnes/ha 89.17 77.20

Table 3. Performance of cv. Grand Nain under drip / flow irrigationIrrigation Particulars

Drip irrigation Flow irrigation Spacing (m) 1.8 x 1.5 1.8 x 1.5 Fertilizer NPK (kg/ha) 550, 111, 550 740, 148, 740 Days to harvesting 385 426 Av. Bunch wt. (kg) 23.6 15.54 Yield (tonnes/ha) 87.5 57.5 No. of hands 10.6 8.9 No. of fingers 159 138 Finger length (cm) 19.3 16.5 Finger girth (cm) 12.2 11.7 Water applied (cm) 97 176 Water saving (%) 45 -- Water-use efficiency (kg/ha/year) 902 327


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soluble solid fertilizers and conventional fertilizers showed increased fertilizer-useefficiency under drip system. The result from three crops, first plant crop and twosuccessive ratoons indicated the scope for increasing the nitrogen dose. Subsequenttrials with higher dose of nitrogen indicated that to get optimal yield of acceptablequality of banana cv. Grand Naine planted at 1.8 m x 1.5m (3,703 plants/ha), it isnecessary to apply NPK 550, 111 and 550 kg/ha through liquid fertilizers (grade 8:8:8and 12:0:12) at weekly interval for 40 weeks along with irrigation water (Tables 4 and5). Foliar spray of water-soluble solid fertilizer 0:52:34 at 3 g/litre of water at fruitdevelopment stage 2-3 times at 15 day intervals improved finger length, size and colourof fruits.

Vermicompost

From the banana processing plant wastes consisting of peels, spoiled fruits, pedicelsetc. constituting 40 per cent by weight of raw material are removed. These wastesconsisting of cellulose, lignin, pectin, starch, fibres etc. are subjected to microbialdegradation by spraying microbial culture on the heap. After 4-5 days, in the secondstage, the partially degraded wastes are mixed with filler material like cowdung andpress-mud cake and inoculated with earthworms. The worms voraciously feed on these

Table 4. Response of Grand Nain to fertigation and conventional fertilizers

Particulars

Fertigation at weekly interval, 40 weeks (NPK 555, 111, 555

kg/ha)

Solid fertilizers (NPK 740, 148, 740

kg/ha)

Spacing (m) 1.8 m x 1.5 m 1.8 m x 1.5 m

Psuedostem height at flowering (cm) 203 196 Psuedostem girth (cm) 61 55

Leaf area (m2) 8.95 7.40

Days to flowering 248 257

Days to harvesting 344 352 Bunch wt.(kg) 24.86 21.8

Yield(tonnes/ha) 92.0 81.0

Average no.of hands 9.2 8.5

Average no. of fingers 148 136

Length of fingers (cm) 21.5 20.7

TSS (%) 19.0 18.2

* Urea in 4 split doses 1) Basal, 2) 60 days, 3) 90 days and 4) 120 days after planting. SSP and MOP in two doses at planting and 60 days after planting.


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Table 5. Dose of NPK for fertigation in bananaFertigation N: P : K 555 : 111 : 555 kg/ha

Grade 8:8:8 1387.5 kg 12:0:12 3700 kg. Particulars Grade Total Quantity (kg) kg/week/ha

75% 8:8:8 1040.25 69.35 First 15 weeks 25% 12:0:12 925.0 62.0 Next 16-20 weeks 25% 12:0:12 925.0 185.0

25% 8:8:8 347.0 17.35 Next 21-40 weeks 50% 12:01:12 1850.0 92.5

material and the castings ejected by worms is vermicompost in granular form. After 45-50 days, vermicompost is ready for harvesting. Eisennia fotida and Megascolex marutiiare species of worms used for vermiculture. These worms have a short life-cycle andhigh reproductive potential. Each kg earthworms convert 5 kg of wastes into 3 kgmanure per day. For every tonne of organic waste, about 5 kg of earth worms areneeded. The vermicompost beds are made under shade and the moisture level ismaintained using microsprinkler. On an average about 2 tonnes of vermicompost areproduced per day. It is a high-value biofertilizer used for improving fertility and textureof the soil. Efforts are being made to totally shift to organic farming.

Green Manuring and Mulching

One month after planting and immediately after first monsoon rain in June-July,dhaincha is sown as a green manure crop @ 40 kg seed/ha in between the rows ofbanana crop. When dhaincha attains 0.60 m height, before flowering, the biomass isploughed and mixed in soil. Dried disease-free banana leaves are used for mulchingduring summer months to prevent evaporation loss and suppress weed growth.

Hygiene and Crop Protection

Jalgaon and adjoining banana-growing districts being arid, the crop iscomparatively free from major diseases and pests. Generally pesticides are not usedfor spray. Proper hygiene of the plantation is maintained by maintaining the plots needfree. The bunches are covered with vented polythene bags to get blemishless brightcoloured fruits.

Ratoon Crops

Generally, farmers take only one crop of banana, the duration of the crop being16-18 months with sucker planted crop. The results of trials carried out at the R & D


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farm using tissue culture raised, Grand Naine plants under drip system amplydemonstrated the profitability of two ratoon crops after the first planted crop and all thethree crops can be harvested in 30-31 months, the vigour of plants and average yield offirst ratoon crop were even better than plant crop and that of the second ratoon wasalmost equal to the first plant crop. The followers for ratoon crops have to be selectedcarefully. Two healthy, sword suckers as flowers should be retained after 35-40per cent flowering. The irrigation and fertigation schedule are the same for the ratooncrops as recommended for main crop (Table 6).

Table 6. Performance of Grain Naine in Maharashtra

Particulars Main crop I ratoon II ratoon

Plant height at flowering (m) 2.15 2.46 2.3

Psuedostem girth 0.60 0.65 0.58

Days to harvesting 352 605 910

Av. bunch wt. (kg) 24.8 27.0 23.2

Yield/ha 91.7 99.9 85.8

With high-tech inputs like tissue culture plants, high-density planting, drip irrigation,

fertigation with liquid fertilizers and vermicompost as basal dose, it was possible toharvest high-quality bunches close to 100 tonnes/ha.

Processing into Puree

The group has established a processing plant of 140 tonnes/day capacity in 1997.On receiving the bunches at the plant, hands are separated from the main peduncle,inspected for any defects and healthy fingers in crates sent to ripening chambers. Uniformripening is triggered by exposure to ethylene under controlled conditions. The ripefingers are washed, blanched and inspected. The fruits are peeled manually, pulped,centrifuged, homogenised, thermally processed and aseptically filled into presterilizedhigh barier bags in drums, preserving the taste, flavour, colour and aroma of the freshfruit. The banana puree is homogenous in texture, cream coloured at 19-22oC, pH 4.6-5.5 and rich in flavour with characteristic taste. Good manufacturing practices (GMP),Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP), Quality Assurance (QA), StatisticalProcess Control (SPC), strict sanitation, hygiene and other modern concepts arepractised in processing. The processed puree samples are analysed for variousparameters before shipped for sale / export.


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TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY AND TRAINING TO CONTRACTFARMERS

The team consisting of agronomists, design engineers and extension specialists arein constant touch with about 1,500 banana contract farmers, who follow hi-tech, precisionfarming practices like propagation with tissue culture, Grand Naine banana, irrigationby drip, fertigation with liquid fertilizers and other improved practices. The team visitsthe banana plantations and advise the farmers on nutrition and disease management.The group is the only organization in the state where banana farmers not only get hi-tech inputs but also the know-how and expertise of precision farming. Participativedemonstration, group discussion, farmers' meet and other modern extension techniquesare employed to improve banana industry and thereby improve the quality of life offarming community.

APPROACHES AND STRATEGIES FOR PRECISIONFARMING IN MANGO

Shailendra Rajan1 and Gorakh Singh2

Mango is the most important fruit crop of India, accounting for about 39.16 percent of total area under fruits and more than 23.09 per cent of total production in thecountry. Uttar Pradesh ranks first in area under mango, i.e. 0.24 million ha followed by0.20 and 0.15 million ha in Andhra Pradesh and Bihar, respectively. However, AndhraPradesh is largest producer of mango with production of 3.07 million tonnes as against2.39 and l.79 million tonnes produced by Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, respectively.

India ranks first in the world for mango production and area under cultivation butwith a very low productivity as compared to Israel, Mexico and South Africa. In spiteof large area under mango, per capita availability of mango is insufficient in India.Therefore, there is a need and great scope of boosting mango production for freshconsumption and processing into various products, both for domestic as well as exportmarkets. Adoption of proper strategies, for overall increase in mango productivity isthe present-day need to sustain commercial viability of the orchards.

STRATEGIES FOR HIGHER PRODUCTIONSelection of Suitable Variety

In India, more than a thousand mango varieties are being grown in different partsof the country. A considerable area is under seedling orchards, majority of which istotally neglected, uncared, least productive and without any major economicalsignificance. Most of the Indian commercial cultivars are characteristically specific togeographical adaptation and their performance is satisfactory in a particular region.Therefore, selection of varieties for mango cultivation should be based on their suitabilityfor a particular region.

In north India, varieties can be selected from an array of varieties, well adaptedin different regions. In north, Dashehari, Langra, Chausa, Bombay Green and Lucknow

1, 2 Senior Scientist, Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture, Lucknow-227 107, India


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Approaches and Strategies for Precision Farming in Mango

Safeda; in south, Banganapalli, Bangalora, Neelum, Mulgoa and Suvernarekha; inwest, Alphonso, Kesar, Pairi, Goam Mankurad, Jamadar and Rajapuri; in east,Himsagar, Fazri, Zardalu, Kishanbhog, Gulabkhas and Langra can be selected forcommercial plantation.

Newer varieties developed in different parts of the country can be exploited forvarious regions (Figs. 1 A, B, C, D and E). Some hybrids, Mallika and Amrapali, haveperformed well in most of the parts of the country and show wider adaptability. However,Arka Puneet, Arka Neelkiran and Arka Anmol developed from IIHR, Bangalore; Ratnaand Sindhu from Vengurla; Ambika from CISH, Lucknow and Neelphanso, NeeleshanGujarat and Neeleshwari from Paria, Gujarat, can be successfully grown in respectiveregions. Bangalora, Neelum and Mallika have been recommended for south Telenganaregion (5). Selection of a cultivars, for specific purpose, is one of the important factors.Cultivars like Ramkela in Uttar Pradesh and Ashwina in West Bengal are suitable forpickle-making. Alphonso, Dashehari and Mallika are suitable for canning propose.

Variability in clones of commercial varieties like Dashehari, Langra, Neelum,Totapuri and Sunderja have been exploited through making clonal selections. A regular-bearing and high-yielding clone, Dashehari 51, has been released by CISH, Lucknow(4). Clonal selections in Langra from Varanasi, Sunderja at Rewa, Neelum and Rumanifrom Tamil Nadu have been recommended for commercial plantation (10 and 13).


Establishment of healthy mother tree block with desirable characteristics of varietiesis one of the important factors deciding the fate of the production efficiency in mangoorchard. Multiplication of low-yielding clones of undescript cultivars may lead touncertainty in mango orcharding. Therefore, high-yielding clones of various commercialvarieties should be selected for developing mother blocks. Several propagation methods,suitable for respective regions have been standardized in the country. Adoption of thesemethods in different mango-growing states for making healthy planting material on alarge scale for expanding area under mango cultivation is of importance.

Currently most of the mango-production areas use traditional methods of plantpropagation such as inarching. But, mango can be commercially propagated by veneergrafting in north India, soft wood grafting in eastern India, side grafting in central Indiaand stone grafting in western India. Coastal areas with higher humidity and moderatetemperature are suitable for mass multiplication through soft wood grafting. However,protected nurseries in polyhouses and use of sprinkler and drip is becoming common


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B

A

C D E

Fig. 1. Newly developed promising hybrids: (A) Ambika with profound fruiting and its attractivefruits, (B) Arka Puneet, (C) Mallika, (D) and (E) Amrapali

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for raising humidity level, which is required for higher grafting success rate in mango(Figs 2 A and B).

Experiments have shown that veneer grafting technique can be used with highsuccess in Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Epicotyle andsoftwood grafting are suitable for Konkan region of Maharashtra and other costalregions. Use of salt tolerant rootstock, 13-1 should be tried in problem soils of India.

Water-use Efficiency

Several factors, which determine the response of irrigation like soil type, season,region, stage of tree growth and varieties, should be taken into account while makingirrigation schedules. Juvenile mango plantation, responds well to irrigation (10,950 litres/tree/year), whereas bearing trees (5-9 years-old) require a minimum of 20,280 litres/tree/year. Normally, non-bearing trees up to 4-5 years of age are irrigated at 10 daysintervals during summer because of their undeveloped root system. In bearing orchards,irrigation should be stopped during winter months coinciding with flower-buddifferentiation. In north India, 3-5 irrigations are required, starting from March to June,depending upon the soil type and depth, rainfall and its distribution. For judicious wateruse, drip irrigation is being used in mango growing. Young plants require 9-12 litreswater/plant/day, 3-6 years old 30-35 litres, 6-10 years old 50-60 litres and 9-12 yearsold 80-90 litres/day/plant. Fully-grown trees require 120 litres of water/day/tree. Twodripper lines (1-1.5m apart) along both sides of tree row; distance between emitters onthe line 0.75-1.5 m; interval between irrigation application 1-2 days; dose of watercalculated based on an index of 0.6 of the evaporation. However, method requirelocation-specific modifications for different types and depths of soil, varieties and season.Daily replenishment of evaporation losses with 4 emitters/plant results in higher yield inbearing mango trees (11).

Balanced Nutrition

Studies on leaf sampling techniques has shown that a sample of 6-7 months old,30-40 normal and healthy leaves from middle of the shoot, representing almost allelevations on the crown from all directions reveals the correct nutrient status of the tree.Critical limits of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu have been worked out whichare 1.23, 0.06, 0.54, 1.71, 0.9, 0.12 per cent and 171.0, 66, 25, 12 mg/g, respectively.Optimum levels of leaf N have been worked out in the range of 1.40 to 1.54 per centfor maximum production.

Beneficial effect on growth, flowering, fruiting and fruit quality can be achieved


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Fig. 2. Mango seedlings grown in polybags are better than conventionally grown field nursery.(A) Multiplication of mango plants by softwood grafting, (B) Drip and polybags are beingused for mass multiplication of mango through grafting

A

B

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with foliar sprays of Zn (2-4% ZnSO4 + half quantity lime) in the orchards thriving onsandy soils. Drop of young fruitlets in mango is also attributed to Zn deficiency, besidesdeficiency of promoters and excess of inhibitors during early and fast rate of fruit growth.Boron deficient soils are commonly found in mango-producing areas of India and itsapplication to deficient mango trees increases fruit set (7). Application of organic manurein addition to balanced nutrients is important in the maintenance of soil fertility whichplay vital role in tree growth and productivity.

Soil testing, as the sole basis for making fertilizer recommendations, has limitedapplicability with mango due to its large root distribution, perennial habit, rootstockeffects and differential fruiting. Soil and leaf analysis should, therefore, be complementaryfor determining the optimum dose of nutrients. However, leaf analysis is more useful. Aconsiderable amount of research has gone into the sampling technique. Due to limitationof critical or balance ratio concepts, DRIS (diagnosis recommendations and integratedsystem) can be applied to fulfil predictive use of leaf diagnosis. Contrary to otherapproaches, e.g. sufficiency of range method, DRIS is an integral approach that identitiesthe sufficiency of each nutrient in relation to others in the plant rather than a criticalconcentration of a specific nutrient. DRIS can be used to identify mineral deficiencyassociated with mango decline due to nutritional imbalance conditions. Nutrient imbalanceindex is higher for trees in orchard with the highest percentage of declined tree thangenerally healthy orchard. DRIS should be utilized in conjunction with critical value fornutrient concentration. At present, newer fertilization practice is “Fertigation”, usingliquid fertilizers in tank. Common mixtures are 12:2:8 and 8:2:4 of N, P2O5, K2O,respectively.

Manipulation of Vegetative Growth and Flowering

The habits of growth, flowering and fruiting of mango cultivars should be thoroughlyunderstood by to safegaurd the adversaries of cultivation, if any. The seasonal cyclicchanges of growth in shoot, root, flower, fruit and their development differ betweencultivars and location. Environmental stimuli are dominant factors on yield potential of amango cultivar. Tree canopy size of mango depends upon the variety, climate, edaphicconditions and cultural practices. Mango tree requires new vegetative growth in orderto produce fruits each year. Temperature of 24-30oC is considered optimum for propergrowth. A cessation of vegetative growth is required to induce transformation fromvegetative to reproductive phase. Therefore, canopy management and reproductivemanipulation practices vary according to cultivars and climatic conditions. In tropics,with the understanding of flowering behaviour along with advances in technology it is


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possible to manipulate the time of flowering and indirectly productivity and net returns.

High-density Planting and Tree Canopy Management

Poor yields experienced in Indian mango industry are partly due to wide treespacings of conventional orchards with spacings ranging from 10 to 12 m betweentrees in rows and between rows. Canopies of these trees often take more than 10 yearsto fill the allocated space in orchard row. This problem can be resolved with higherdensity plantings. Although, optimal spacing for commercial cultivars still has to bedetermined, it appears that there is a tremendous scope for increasing orchardproductivity by increasing planting density.

Tree canopy management, especially size control, has become a priority for reducingproduction cost and increasing fruit yield and quality. However, unlike temperatefruits, where tree management technologies have been developed and refined for overa century, the similar tools and experiences can be applied with a few modifications inmango. Tree management techniques, especifically for mango have been developedand being used in different parts of the world, which can be adopted after certainmodifications in different mango-growing regions. Early height control and tree canopymanagement are important techniques and should be practised in India . Similarly, theproblem of large tree size in mango can be tackled by using topping and hedgingbecause large and crowded trees pose many disadvantages. Appropriate height, toppingand hedging, cutting angles, as well as time and frequency of hedging determined formango, which are common practices in Israel, USA, Australia and South Africa, canbe used for increased efficiency and production in India.

Proper control of vegetative growth is a prerequisite for high-density plantingand without it there is overcrowding and shading, which reduces flower-bud formation,fruit retention, fruit size and fruit colour. Control of apical growth must begin within thefirst year of planting and continue each year in high-density planting (HDP). Ifmanagement techniques are not applied early in the life of tree, encouraging lateralcanopy growth and fruiting, the resulting tree canopy will be difficult and expensive tocontrol in future (12).

Shaping the mango tree immediately after planting has its own importance forkeeping desirable plant height at first branching, so that proper clearance for equipment,etc. is possible (Figs 3 A and B). An initial branching height between 60 and 70 cm isappropriate. A single cut is made on main stem of the graft at this point, which gives riseto multiple leafy branches from the buds just below the initial cut. Of these, three or fourhorizontal shoots, spaced equally around the stem are allowed to grow. Upright growing

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shoots should be removed. These selected horizontal shoots form the main scaffoldlimbs of the tree. These shoots should be allowed to grow to about 40-50 cm long, thislength is generally reached during the second growth flush of leaves. The flush at thistime is pinched off with the fingers or left to mature and then pruned. Multiple shootsemerge from the buds below the cut. These are allowed to extend about 40-50 cm inlength and then pruned. This procedure is continued in second year also. If selectedshoots grow vertically, these can be pulled down by attaching some weight with thehelp of string. These weights are left for about three months. These horizontal scaffoldlimbs are stronger and flower and fruit earlier. Short branches within tree canopy producea complex, compact, strong structure of fruiting shoots after three years.

Fruiting is expected in these plants after second or third year after planting dependingon the cultivar. Fruiting should be allowed in initial years, because it is one of the besttools for maintaining tree size. After harvesting, trees are pruned and headed backsmall branches to a length of 50 cm whcih favour horizontal shoots. In vigorous-growncultivars, proper pruning may lead trees to develop large, structural limbs with less

BA

Fig. 3. Initial pruning is one of the important steps in developing high-density planting.(A) unpruned plant, (B) new shoots developing as a result of initial pruning.


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energy fruit production. Annually some portion of this wood is removed by thining outentire limb. These cuts affect the vigour of tree and allows to maintain tree dwarfwithout excessive vegetative growth. Therefore, efficient mango tree canopy managementstarts early in the life of the tree and continues indefinitely.

In absence of dwarfing rootstock, application of mechanical tree size control(hedging, topping, pruning and tree thinning) has increased in high-density orchards (9).This may be the only practical method of tree size control of inherently large trees inHDP. Tree height control is accomplished by removal of multiple central leaders withinthe canopy of young tree. The dominant, upward shoot or shoot from each growthumbel (whorl of new shoots) is removed and when there are parallel branches withinthe canopy, more dominant upright shoots are removed.

Overcrowding of mango tree in mature orchards generally has occurred in mostof mango-growing areas. In such cases, hedge pruning and topping should be practised,mostly on an annual orbiennial cycle. Inaddition, one or moremajor limbs aresometimes removedfrom centre of eachtree (opening). Youngtrees are sometimesgetting light pruning ofscaffold formation, butcultivars with poornatural ramificationare regularly prunedseverely (headingback) during first 4-5years, and sometimeslater.

High-density planting of Dashehari with regular pruning after harvesting followedby application of paclobutrazol in tarai region of Uttaranchal has been recommended(Fig. 4) (8). Amrapali being a regular-bearer, high-density planting (1,600 plants/ha)can be recommended provided that, pruning after harvesting is performed for sustainablehigh production.

Fig. 4. High-density plantation of Dashehari mango at Pantnagardeveloped by annual pruning after harvesting and using ofPaclobutrazol.

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Alternate Bearing ManagementAlternate-bearing is a common phenomenon in majority of commercial mango

cultivars, which is mostly because of existing antagonism between vegetative andreproductive phases. To manage this problem, efforts can be made to regulate vegetativegrowth and flowering. The suppression of vegetative flushes using growth retardant andreducing the magnitude of antagonism between vegetative and reproductive phases isnecessary to promote concomitant development of new shoots at the time of flowering.Under north Indian conditions, application of paclobutrazol (3.2 ml/m tree canopydiameter) in soil can induces 80-90 per cent flowering in biennial bearing cultivarsduring off year also.

To overcome the problem of biennial bearing in mango, paclobutrazol has givenencouraging results in different parts of the country. Soil application of paclobutrazolhas produced higher number of hermaphrodite flowers, improved fruit set and increasedyield in Dashehari. Soil application of paclobutrazol to Alphonso during July-Augustreduces vegetative growth, induces 3-4 weeks early profuse flowering, regular andhigher yield every year than the control trees. A regular yield, which is 2-8 times morethan the control, can be obtained. Use of paclobutrazol (5-10 g/m canopy diameter), 3months before bud-burst applied through soil drenching can be used for obtaining regularbearing.

Rejuvenation of Unproductive Orchards

One of the reasons for the low productivity is a large number of old mango orchardsin the age group of 30-60 and above, have either gone unproductive or showing markeddecline in productivity. This is attributed to overcrowded and intermingling of largebranches and meager foliage, allowing poor light availability to growing shoots withinthe canopy. This renders them uneconomical. In north India, exhausted trees can berejuvenated by severe pruning in winters for the production of new shoots, which canbear good crop in the following years (3). Heading back (4-5 m) induces several newshoots on pruned branches after winters and a few healthy shoots are retained at properspacing and growing towards periphery of tree. Successive removal of unwanted shoots,considering the vigour and growing direction is important. Proper development of newcanopy in horizontal direction should be kept in mind while practising thinning of shoots.Tree health is maintained by judicious application of fertilizers, irrigation, protectionfrom insect pests and diseases. New shoots bear flowers and fruits 2-3 years afterpruning. The yield continues to increase in succeeding years turning the unproductivetrees into productive ones (Figs 5 A, B, C, D and E).


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Fig. 5. Steps involved in rejuvenation of unproductive mango trees. (A) Mango tree is headedback at the height of 4 m by selecting branches in each direction, (B) newly-emerged shootson beheaded branches, (C) new developing canopy after one year as a result of heading backand thining of undesirable shoots, (D) tree starts flowering after second year, (E) a close viewof fruiting twig of Dashehari mango as a result of rejuvenation.

A

BC

D

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Often this technique does not hold good under warm and humid tropics whereonly new growth following pruning remains vegetative for several years. Under suchsituations, soil application of paclobutrazol @ 5-7 g/tree one month before flower-buddifferentiation can be practised (2).

MANAGING DISORDERSSpongy Tissue

It is the development of white corky tissue in the fruit mesocarp in maturing andripening fruits. This is non-edible sour patch and slightly desiccated in nature. Symptomsof spongy tissue are not apparent externally at the time of harvesting and the affectedtissues are visible only when cut open. In severe cases, the epicarp turns brown blackforming a flat depression outside. The spongy tissue could be separated from surroundingflesh with ease. Mostly fruits of Alphonso suffer from this malady to the extent of 55 percent. Damage varies with fruit weight, picking time, place of harvesting, orchard conditionsand season. Fruits exposed to sunlight suffer more, when temperature is also high thefruits under shade are also affected. Reproduction of disorder has been claimedsubjecting the fruit to sun exposure, infrared rays and incubation at high temperaturesabove 400C at post-harvest stages.

Sod culture should be practised in Alphonso orchard. Minimize post-harvest fruitlosses through creating infrastructure and employing scientific management in post-harvest handling and storage of fruits and standardizing cost-effective processingtechnologies. Early picking in Alphonso mango escapes the disorder to some extentbut the quality of ripe fruits is poor. Higher percentage of spongy tissue in larger fruitsthan smaller ones has been observed. Varying degree of damage in fruits of the sametree or at different places in the same cultivar may be observed due to differences inplant environments. Post-harvest dipping of CaCl2 (1-2%) increases Ca content andhas been reported to reduce spongy tissue in ripe Alphonso fruits.

Malformation

Malformation is a very serious disorder of mango in subtropics and sometimescausing up to 90 per cent crop loss, varying from place to place, cultivar to cultivar,year to year in the same cultivar, depending on tree age and other climatic factors.None of the commercial cultivars grown in subtropics of the world are resistant to thismalady. However, great variability in severity of the disorder occurs among cultivars atthe same location. The causes and control of this disorder/disease are still the subject ofinvestigation.


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Several causes have been suggested for malformation which include mites,nutritional problem, physiological or hormonal imbalance and viruses. Many treatmentshave been suggested for its control including removal of affected shoots, deblossomingat bud stage (1.0 cm long) alone or in combination with spraying of 200ppm NAAduring fruit-bud differentiation. Since, safe and effective chemical control measureshave not been identified, the only viable control option is annual pruning of shoots afterharvesting.

Black Tip

This disorder is mainly prevalent in the vicinity of brick kilns or areas having higherconcentrations of industrial gasses like sulphur dioxide and carbon monooxide. Theearliest noticeable symptom of black tip is etiolation (yellowing) of distal end of fruitsleaving mesocarp and seed unaffected. Etiolated area, which gradually spreads andturns nearly black and covers the tip completely. Smoke emanated from the brick kilnlocated in vicinity of 1.6 km is the causal factor for this malady. Spraying of Borax (1per cent) or caustic soda (0.8 per cent) can control this disorder.

Leaf Scorch

This disorders show characteristic symptoms of potassium deficiency, i.e. scorchingat the tip and margin of old leaves. The affected leaves fall down and affect the healthand vigour of tree adversely. Excess of chloride ion appears to make potassium unavailableto tree and thus this disorder is more prevalent under saline soil/water-logged conditions.Potassium sulphate should be used as potassium fertilizer and use of muriate of potashshould be avoided under such situations. Potassium sulphate (5 per cent) as foliar onnewly-emerged leaves is effective in controlling this disorder.

PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENTEfficient management of insect pests and diseases is important because they affect

essentially every phase of growth and development. Out of 260 species of insects andmites, 87 are fruit feeders, 127 foliage feeders, 36 inflorescence feeders, 33 damagebuds and 25 feed on branches and trunk. Most of the insect pests and diseases requireannual control measures. Fortunately, except fungal and bacterial diseases, attack ofother pathogens like virus, viroid, phytoplasma on mango is not common. Controlmeasures are available for most of the major diseases. If some of the insect pests, likemango mealy bug, stem-borer and shoot-gall maker, are controlled continuously forcouple of years, can be eradicated for a long period of time. However, fruit flies, seedweevils, shoot-borer, mango hoppers etc. are required to control every year. Some of

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the diseases and pests such as anthracnose, powdery mildew, mango hoppers, midgesetc. cause severe damage and are present throughout the mango-growing areas of theworld (1). Therefore, future of mango insect pests and disease control has a greatpromise with the development of IPM technology in view of a large number of insectpests and diseases attacking mango trees throughout the year. A large number of chemicalsare recommended to control them. It may be difficult to produce mango crop in theabsence of some of these control measures.

Of the mango pests, hoppers, fruitfly, mealy bug and stone weevils are consideredas major constraints in mango production (6). Many of the major insects and pestshave developed resistance due to rapid change in agro-ecosystem, advancement inorchard management practices and indiscriminate use of pesticides. This has ledorchardist to use high dose of toxic insecticides, thereby causing imbalance in populationdynamics of pollinators and other useful fauna and incorporating high toxic residues infruits. Therefore, it is necessary to bring out modern concepts of IPM for importantmango pests.

Mango hopper (Idioscopus clypealis, I. nitidulus and Amritodusatkinsoni): In general, this is a serious pest and starts attacking during flowering season.Nymphs damage more than adults by sucking sap from tender shoots and panicles.The attacked panicles wither away resulting in no fruit set. Furthermore, sooty mouldfungi develops on leaves and panicles due to honeydew secreted by hoppers. Over-crowding and neglect of orchard results in more severe infestation by hoppers. Thusproper canopy management is important in high-density plantations. Spraying ofmonocrotophos (0.054 per cent), quinalphos (0.05 per cent), carbaryl (0.15 per cent),dimethoate (0.06 per cent) and chlorpyriphos (0.04 per cent) are effective at panicleemergence and fruit set stages to control this pest.

However, this pest has developed resistance to some of these pesticides andtherefore, needs further investigation on its control measures through IPM. The effortson biological control of insect pests have given some encouraging results but large-scale field testing may lead to conclusive results.

Mealy bug (Drosicha mangiferae): Its nymphs emerge in December-January andclimb the tree by crawling and suck juice from young shoots, panicles and flower pedicels.Adults lay eggs under soil clods up to a depth of 5-15cm around tree trunk during May.Destroying eggs and pupae through ploughing is a very effective control measure.Fastening of polyethylene strip 400 gauge thick, 25 cm wide around tree trunk (30-45cm above the ground level) in December to check nymphs from climbing the tree is


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one of the most effective methods. Raking of soil around the trunk and mixing withneem cake or application of chlorpyriphos dust (2 per cent) or methyl parathion dust@ 200-250 g/tree around tree trunk is effective to control mealy bug. Application ofBeauvaria bassiana near tree trunk before emergence of first instar of nymphs hasbeen found effective (6).

Infloresence midge (Erosomyia indica): The pest attacks on pre-flowering shootsand inflorescence buds, axis of inflorescence, panicles, newly-formed fruits and post-flowering shoot buds. The adult female lays eggs in between leaves and buds. Thenewly-hatched larvae penetrate the tissues and form small blister like galls. The larvaefeed within galls and at the time of pupation come out with swift jump and pupate in thesoil. Black spots of varying sizes are normal features of their infestation. It is also observedthat at the site of infestation, inflorescence gets bent at an angle. The larvae also enterinside the small ovary of the fruit and develop inside. The attacked fruits turn pale,become deformed, stop growing and finally drop. The exit holes are usually observedin infested fruits.

It is controlled by need-based foliar spraying of 0.05 per cent fenitrothion or 0.45per cent diazinon after monitoring the adult population in Febraury. Summer ploughingof orchard has been found useful in reducing the midge population as the diapausingmidge larvae are exposed to sun, hot wind, etc. and are killed.

Stem-borer (Batocera rufomaculata): The pest makes tunnel through the main trunkand branches can be identified by dry hard balls of excreta on affected parts. The borermay be controlled by clearing tunnels with hard wire, pouring kerosene oil or petrol orquinalphos (0.05 per cent) and plugged with mud.

Shoot gall psylla (Apsylla cistellata): It is prevalent in tarai region. Its nymph entersthe axillary and terminal buds turning them into hard conical galls through their secretion.It lays egg in rows of two on underside of the leaf of new flush along the midrib inMarch-April. The nymphs on emergence, 5-6 months after egg laying enter axillary andterminal buds. Spraying of Monocrotophos (0.05 per cent) during September is effectiveto control this pest.

Fruit fly (Bactocera dorsalis): Fruit flies are spread widely throughout the world.Other species are confined to specific regions, they continue to be major problem,particularly to the export fruit producing areas. The pest makes the fruits rot by layingits eggs in clusters, just before the ripening, under the peel of fruits. Hanging of trap(methyl eugionl 0.1 per cent + 0.01 per cent malathion ) during April - June check fruit

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fly effectively. Ten traps/ha of orchard give satisfactory control. Fruit fly can be controlledby spraying of bait (0.2 per cent carbaryl + 0.1 per cent protein hydrolysate or molasses)at preoviposition stage. Vapour heat treatment (VHT) at 52oC temperature isrecommended for exporting fruits to foreign markets.

Stone weevil (Sternochetus mangiferae): Stone weevil has been a major deterrentto mango export. Grubs damage both the pulp and cotyledons mostly of sweet cultivars.The grubs developed from the eggs laid in partially developed fruits, travel through thepulp and enter the seed. After pupation in the seeds the adults come out piercing throughthe stone and pulp. The pest can be effectively controlled by destroying the adults in thebark crevices and holes during August. For effective control , spraying of trees withfenitrothion (0.01 per cent) during oviposition period is recommended.

Anthracnose (Colletotrichurn gloeosporioides): Anthracnose is one of the mostimportant diseases of mango in almost all mango-producing areas, as it attacks leaves,flowering panicles and fruits. Yields are drastically reduced when the inflorescence isattacked. Blackish spots on shoots, leaves, panicles and fruits are caused by thispathogen. Its severity is more during rainy season, because of hot and humid atmospherewhen fruits are in the last stage of maturity. This disease also expresses itself duringstorage of fruits. The disease produce die-back symptoms on young shoots. The fungussurvives on dried twigs, hence these should be removed from trees and destroyed.Diseased leaves, twigs and fruit lying on floor of the orchards must be removed. Sprayingof Blitox (0.3 per cent), Bavistin (0.1 per cent) and Phytolan (0.3 per cent) can controlthis disease.

Powdery mildew (Oidium mangiferae): The disease is more prevalent during panicledevelopment and fruit setting period under environmental conditions of high humidityaccompanied by cloudy weather. Affected flowers and fruitlets show the appearanceof greyish-white powdery growth and the panicles ultimately turn black and die outrapidly. For effective control measures wettable sulphur (0.2 per cent), Karathane (0.1per cent), Bavistin (0.1 per cent)and Bayleton (0.05 per cent) can be used. Threesprays of these fungicides at 15 days interval starting from fourth week of Februarymay be required.

Mango bacterial canker disease (Xanthomonas campestris pv.mangiferaeindicae): Small dark green water-soaked spots on leaves and fruits whichfinally assume the shape of raised dark brown to black lesions are its symptoms. Fruitsbecome unattractive and unmarketable because affected parts of fruits show longitudinalcrack and oozing of bacterial exudate and leading to fruit drop. StreptocycIine (100-


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200pprn), Agrimycin-100 (100pprn) and copper oxychloride (0.3%) are reportedeffective against bacterial canker.

Sooty-mould: The disease is common where honey dew or sugary substances secretinginsects, viz. mangohoppers, scales, coccid and mealy bugs are found. These insectsmust be controlled for controlling the mould. Spraying of wettable sulpher + methylparathion + gum Accacia (0.2 per cent + 0.10 per cent + 0.3 per cent) in Indian oilformulation No. I and 2 at 15 days interval has proved to be quite effective.

PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT SCHEDULEMonthly integrated pest and disease management schedules have been suggested

for mango (6). It is :

July

! Deep ploughing of orchard after harvesting to expose eggs and pupae of mealybug and inflorescence midge.

August-September

! Removal of webs (made by leaf webber) and burning them.

! If infestation still continues spray carbaryl (0.2 per cent) or monocrotophos (0.04per cent).

! Pruning of over-crowded and overlapping branches for control of leaf webber.

October

! Pruning of infected and dried branches, 10 cm below the dried portion and pastingof copper oxychloride for control of die-back.

! Spraying of 0.3 per cent copper oxychloride (3g/litre) after pruning for the controlof die back, phoma blight, anthracnose and red rust disease.

! Removal of diseased foliage/twig infected with anthracnose (twig blight phase).

! Removal of weeds.

November

! Deep ploughing of the orchards for exposing eggs and pupae of insects and removalof weeds in mango orchard which harbour pests and diseases.

! Second spraying of copper oxychloride (3g/litre) for control of die-back and foliardiseases.

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! Collection of dropped diseased leaves and burning them.

December

! Fastening of polythene sheet of 400 gauge thickness, 25 cm wide around the baseof tree for controlling mealy bug.

! Raking of soil around the trunk and mixing with neem cake for management ofmealy bug nymphs or apply 2 per cent dust of methyl parathion @ 250 g/tree or 2per cent chlorpyriphos dust. Application of Beauvaria bassiana around tree trunkto manage nymphs of mealy bug.

January! Cleaning of polythene bands at regular intervals.! Spraying of fenitrothion (0.05 per cent) or dimethoate (0.045 per cent) at bud-

burst stage for control of inflorescence midge.! Removal of weeds and infected young leaves of mango for control of powdery

mildew.February! First spray of 5 per cent neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) or Nimbicidine (2 per

cent) at bud-burst stage for control of hoppers.! Spraying of Verticilium lacani (106) at bud-burst stage for control of hopper and

it should be repeated during July (second appearance) for controlling nest generationhoppers.

March! Second spray of 5 per cent neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) or Nimbicidine (2

per cent) when fruits are at pea-sized stage.! First spray of sulphur (2g/litre) to control powdery mildew.April! Third spray of endosulfan (0.07 per cent) if required after 5 days of second spray.! Second spray of sulphur (2g/litre) after fruit setting against powdery mildew.

! Removal of powdery mildew infected leaves and malformed panicles.

May

! Hanging of fruit fly traps (0.1 per cent methyl euginol + 0.01 per cent malathion)for control of fruit fly.


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June

! Methyl euginol traps should be continued.

! Early harvesting of mature fruits to avoid fruit fly infestation.

! Collection and destruction of fruit fly infested fruits

HARVESTING AND POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENTThe mango fruits should be harvested at mature green stage during morning hours.

The maturity stage is determined on the basis of skin and pulp colour, specific gravityand number of days from fruit set. Mango Dashehari and Langra require 12 weeksafter fruit settling for maturity, while Chausa and Mallika require 15 weeks andBanganapally and Alphonso require 16 weeks. Fruits should be hand picked or pluckedwith a harvester. Shaking of branches to drop them should not be followed for bettershelf-life. Simple, low-cost and portable mango harvesters, designed and developed atdifferent centres in the country can be used. With the harvester, fruits are harvested withstalks, which appear better on ripening as undesired spots on skin caused by sap burnare prevented. Fruits are also less prone to stem-end rot disease during storage whenharvested in this manner.

In recent years, mechanical harvest aids have been developed in view of causticnature of fruit sap causing sap burn and requirement of stalk attached to fruits forharvesting and desapping in the packaging line. Fruits are picked with 2-5 cm fruit stalkto prevent sap spurting. The fruits are then placed in field crates and taken to packagingshade for desapping. At present, fruits are harvested by pulling them from the treeusing hooks that separate the fruit from the panicle, without stalk. Thus, harvesting byhand with fruit stalk should be prefered.

Fruit yield of mango is dependent on variety, bearing habit, climate, tree age,incidence of pest and diseases and cultural practices followed in the orchard. Graftedtrees begin to yield 3-4 years after planting. The period of fruit development fromflowering to fruit maturity varies from 100 to 150 days. Tree age and planting densityare important factors contributing towards yield. However, fruit quality is dependentmostly on variety, cultural practices followed and nutrition. In vigorous varieties likeLangra and Chausa, bearing potential is realized after 15-20 years as compared to 10years in Dashehari.Packaging and Transport

During post-harvest handling and distribution, there is a great loss of produce.

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Timber and bamboo have been used for making packaging containers in most part ofIndia. However, alternative packaging material such as corrugated card board packagesare available in market and can be used as suitable alternative to timber and bamboo.Tissue paper and polythene foam paper are used for wrapping high-value fresh mangoes.

Post-harvest handling of mango comprise all activities concerning bringing fruitfrom tree to table. These activities are important because shelf-life of fruits after harvestingdepends upon health and quality of fruits, time of harvesting and post-harvest handlingincluding fruit maturity, colour, shape, size, sweetness, position on tree, occurrence ofpest and diseases, weather conditions, soil moisture, nutrient availability etc. Thesefactors vary from tree to tree, orchard to orchard and season to season. Hence, precisemanagement of these factors is the key for getting better returns. Oozing of latex afterdetachment of stem trickles over skin and causes shabby appearance of fruits byblemishing the skin. Thus, picking of fruits is followed by washing, desapping, precooling,hot-water dipping and fungicide application, grading, waxing, packaging, ripening,transport and marketing. Fruit maturity is very important at the time of harvesting amongall the considerations which affect the quality and shelf-life of fruits after harvesting.CONCLUSION

Production and productivity of mango can be optimized by efficient and judicioususe of inputs like water, nutrients, useful herbicides, need-based eco-friendly pesticidesexpanding area in problematic soils through developing/selecting suitable cultivars/rootstocks; high-density plantation and canopy management. Better returns are assuredby efficient post-harvest handling, which is responsible for better shelf-life, quality andmakes it high-value commodity.

REFERENCES1. Anonymous (1998). The Mango. Tech. Bull., CISH, Lucknow.

2. Burondkar, M.M., Gunjate, R.T., Nagdum, M.B. and Govekar, M.A. (2000). Rejuvenation ofold and overcrowded Alphonso mango orchard with pruning and use of paclobutrazol. ActaHort. 509:681-86.

3. Lal, B., Rajput, M.S., Rajan, S. and Rathore, D. S. (2000). Effect of rejuvenation of old mangotrees, Indian J. Hort. 57:240-42.

4. Negi, S.S. (2000). Mango production in India. Acta Hort. 509:69-78.

5. Negi, S.S., Rajan, S. and Kumar, Ram. (2000). Developing mango varieties throughhybridization. Acta Hort. 509:159-60.

6. Ragunathan, V., Pawar, A.D., Misra, M.P. and Singh, J. (2002). Integrated management of


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pests in horticultural crops. In: Approaches for Sustainable Development of Horticulture.Singh, H.P., Negi, J.P., Samuel, J.C. (Eds). DAC, MOA, pp. 97-112.

7. Ram, S., Bist, L.D. and Sirohi, S.C. (1989). Internal fruit necrosis in mango and its control. ActaHort. 231 : 305-13.

8. Ram, S. and Tripathi, P.C. (1993). Effect of cultar on flowering and fruiting in high densityDashehari mango trees. Indian. J. Hort. 50 : 292-95.

9. Ram, S., Singh, C.P. and Kumar, S. (1997). A success story of high-density orcharding inmango. Acta Hort. 455 (1) : 375-82.

10. Singh, R.N., Singh, Gorakh, Rao, O.P. and Mishra, J.S. (1984). Improvement of BanarasiLangra through clonal selection. Prog. Hort. 17:273-77

11. Srinivas, K.(2001). Microirrigation and feritigation in fruit crops. In: Microirrigation, 252-55.Singh, H.P., Kaushik, S.P., Kumar, Ashwani, Murthy, T.S., Samuel, J.C. (Eds).Central Board ofIrrigation and Power.

12. Stassen, P.J.C., Grove, H.G. and Davie, S.J. (1999). Tree shaping strategies for higher densitymango orchards. Journal of Applied Horticulture 1: 1-4.

13. Yadav, I.S. and Rajan, S. (1993). Genetic Resources of Mangifera. In: Advances in Horticulture,vol. 1, part 1, pp. 77-93. Chadha, K.L. and Pareek, O.P. (Eds). Malhotra Publishing House,New Delhi.

INTEGRATED APPROACH IN MANAGEMENT OFMANGO DISEASES

Om Prakash1

The changed horticultural scenario has to focus attention on disease managementto cut the losses so as to avoid wide fluctuations in production and sustain higher levelof productivity. A wide genetic variation in mango gene, largely tropical and subtropicalclimate, overlapping growing seasons, different varieties, production systems, and varyingcultural practices favour the occurrence of a number of diseases. A few of them arequite serious and cause heavy losses. Fungal diseases are a menace in mango cropaffecting yield and quality of the produce. The indiscriminate use of fungicides has resultedin serious damage to the ecosystem. It has, therefore, become imperative to turn tomore eco-friendly methods of management. The success obtained so far with the use ofbiopesticides / bioagents would definitely lead to the development of precisiontechnologies for disease management strategy in mango without causing furtherenvironmental deterioration. The trees tend to be more productive in term of bothquality and quantity in localities, where there are at least 4-5 months of dry weatherfrom flowering to harvesting. Frequent showers and heavy rains hinder pollination andfruit setting, apart from inducing fungal infections. A list of important diseases and disordersincluding phoma blight, gummosis, red rust, sooty mould, wilt, sclerotium rot, root rot,damping-off, and stem bleeding, flat limb, crinkle, tumour, woody gall, clustering andchimeras causing various types of symptoms are mentioned in Table 1.

MANAGEMENT OF MAJOR DISEASES

The major diseases are discused below :

Powdery Mildew (Oidium mangiferae Berthet)Dropping of unfertilized infected flowers and immature fruits cause heavy loss by

mildew pathogen (32). In India, the loss varies from 22.35 to 90.41 per cent ( 24). The

1Principal Scientist and Head, Division of Crop Protection, Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture,Lucknow 227 107, India



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Table 1. List of major diseases which affect mango production

Disease Causal pathogens

Parasitic diseases

Fungal

Powdery mildew Oidium mangiferae Berthet

Anthracnose Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz., Glomerellacingulata (Ston.) Spauld and Schrenk.

Die-back Lasioldiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griff.& Maubl.(Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat.)

Phoma blight Phoma glomerata (Corda) Woll. & Hochapf.

Gummosis Lasioldiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griff. & Maubl.

Leaf spot Phoma sorghina (Sacc.) Boerema Doren & Vankest

Angular leaf spot Planotrichella mangiferae Prakash and Mishra

Mango malformation Fusarium subglutinans, F. moniliformae var. subglutinans)

Sclerotium rot Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc.

Bacterial

Bacterial canker Xanthomonas campestris pv. mangiferaeindicae (Patel), Moniz& Kulkarni) Robbs, Ribiero & Kimura

Non-parasitic diseases

Sooty mould/sooty Meliola mangiferae Earle, Capnodium mangiferae Cke.blotch & Brown, Microxyphium columnatum Bat, Cif & Nasc.,

Leptoxyphium fumago (Woronichin) Srivastava

Algal and lichen

Red rust and lichen Cephaleuros virescens Kunze., Strigula elegans(Fee.) Mull. Arg.

disease can be noticed on inflorescence, stalk of inflorescence, leaves and young fruits.Mildew pathogen attacks flowers resulting in white superficial powdery growth of thefungus on inflorescence which causes its shedding. The sepals are relatively moresusceptible than petals. The affected flowers fail to open and may fall prematurely.Dropping of unfertilised infected flowers leads to serious crop loss (Fig. 1).

Integrated Approach in Management of Mango Diseases

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Young fruits are covered entirely by whitemildew growth. When it grows, epidermis of theinfected fruits cracks and corky tissues are formed.Purplish brown blotchy areas appear on skin of olderfruits with cracking. Dropping of immature fruits leadsto serious crop loss (Fig. 2).

It is frequently noticed on young leaves, whentheir colour changes from brown to light green. Youngleaves are attacked on both the sides as small irregulargreyish patches, but on the underside the symptomsare generally more conspicuous. Often, these patchescoalesce and occupy larger areas turning into purplishbrown in colour. At a later stage, patches becomedarker in colour. The pathogen is frequently restrictedto the area of the central and lateral veins. Such leavesoften twist, curl and get distorted.Recently, it has been observedthat distortion of leaves is morecommon in plains, while in foothillareas, it shows ashy brownpatches with white powderygrowth on leaf surface.

Perpetuation: Mildew is foundthroughout the year on leaves,mostly under shade. The mildewpathogen persists on infectedleaves of the previous year’s flush,which are retained on plants in succeeding year. During flowering (January-March),conducive environmental conditions activate dormant mycelium already persisting innecrotic tissue of previous year’s infected leaves. Abundant conidia are produced andblown over to new flushes or young flowers, which in turn provide sufficient spore loadfor initiating the disease (18 and 23).

Epidemiology: Prakash et al. (18) advocated that high wind velocity (3-4 days) withmaximum temperature (15-300C) and relative humidity (23-84%) are conducive forthe rapid spread of mildew pathogen.

Fig. 1. Powdery mildew on flowers

Fig. 2. Powdery mildew on fruits


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Management: Removal of diseased leaves and malformed panicles and fruits reducethe load of primary inoculum and improve the control achieved by spraying of fungicides.

As the inflorescence infection causes serious harm, 3 sprays of fungicides duringflowering season are recommended at 15-20 days interval. The first spray of wettablesulphur (0.2%) is done when panicles are 3-4” in size, second spray of dinocap (0.1%)after 15-20 days of first spray and third spray of tridemorph (0.1%) after fruit setting.All sprays with wettable sulphur had no adverse effect on mildew, fruit setting and yieldof mango. Bioagent (Actinomycetes) gives some encouraging results (2 and 3).

Anthracnose [Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz.=Glomerella cingulata(Stons) Spauld & Schrenk]

Losses due to anthracnose are estimated to be as high as 2-39% (16 and 25).Young plantation of mango. Bombay Green and germplasm of East Indian cultivarswere completely wiped out in tarai and Lucknow regions of Uttar Pradesh due tosevere wither tip. Anthracnose pathogen causes various manifestations, viz. blossomblight, twig blight, foliar blight, staining, russetting, tear staining and shoulder browning.On leaves, symptoms appear as oval or irregular vinaceous brown to deep brownspots of various sizes scattered all over the leaf surface. Under damp conditions, thefungus grows rapidly forming elongated brown necrotic areas measuring 20-25 mm indiameter. Young leaves are more prone toattack than the older ones.

Petioles, when affected, turn grey or black,the leaves droop down, slowly dry up andultimately fall-off, leaving a black scar on twigs.Disease produces elongated black necroticareas on twigs. The tip of very young branchesstarts drying from tip downwards showingcharacteristic symptoms of wither tip (Fig. 3).

On blossom, the earliest symptoms areproduction of blackish brown specks onpeduncle and flowers. Small black spots appearon panicles and open flowers, which graduallyenlarge and coalesce to cause drying up offlowers (22). On fruit, initially the spots are roundbut later coalesce to form large irregularblotches. Sometimes it covers the entire fruit Fig. 3. Anthracnose on foliage


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surface. The spots have large deep cracksand the fungus penetrates deep into the fruitcausing extensive rotting (Fig. 4).

Association of anthracnose pathogenwith gall midge infested leaves, twigs andinflorescence is often noticed in most ofthe places in India. Injuries caused by theinsect on tissues, activate the pathogen,resulting in heavy incidence of the disease.After the larvae are left for pupation in thesoil, the injuries caused by them developsinto spot and subsequently attacked by thepathogen and produces into “Shot hole”symptom, the most destructive phase ofthe disease.

Perpetuation: The pathogen survives onfallen leaves, blighted peduncle, dead stem, and diseased twigs attached to trees. Thepathogen produces spores under favourable conditions and these serve as foci of infectionfor the succeeding bloom. However under tropical conditions, fresh supplies of sporesare being continuously made throughout the year. About 70 per cent spores of thefungus, produced in acervuli on twigs are viable. On diseased leaves, the fungus remainsviable for 14 months (16).

Epidemiology: The optimum temperature for infection of pathogen is around 250C.The injury caused by the pathogen is dependent on humidity, rain, misty condition orheavy dews at the time of blossoming. Continuous wet weather during flowering causesserious blossom blight. Relative humdity above 95% for 12 hr is essential for infectionand development of C. gloeosporioides on mango fruits. Infection progresses faster inwounded tissues as well as in ripe fruits.

Management: The management strategies recommended to control anthracnose includecultural practices and tree management, varietal selection and use of protective andcurative fungicides. Remove gall midge infested foliage (twig, leaf and panicles) andfruits from the orchard. Combined sprays of insecticide and fungicide are essential tocombat both anthracnose and gall midge. Bagging of individual fruits with brown paper/newspaper bags enhances the shelf-life, minimize the sunscald and develops attractive

Fig. 4. Anthracnose on fruit


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colour without foliage attack. Mustard oil treated fruits have more shelf-life and lessfungal invasion (25).

Blossom infection can be controlled effectively by 2 sprays of carbendazim (0.1%)or copper oxychloride (0.3%). The major strategies in controlling post-harvestanthracnose are scheduled pre-harvest sprays with thiophanate methyl or carbendazim(0.1%) in the field to reduce the latent infection and treatment of fruits with hot wateralone or hot water with fungicides after harvesting to eradicate the leftover latent infection.Hot-water treatment at 520C for 30 minutes gave good control of anthracnose. However,duration of hot-water treatment could be reduced to 15 minutes by supplementing withfungicides, viz. carbendazim or thiophanate methyl @ 0.1 per cent (19).

Die-back [Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griffon & Mouble, syn.Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat.]

About 30-40 per cent roadside trees are found infected, but it goes much moreeven up to 96.5 per cent in seedling cultivars(32). It is characterized by drying back oftwigs from top downwards particularly in the older trees followed by drying of leaveswhich gives an appearance of fire scorch. Dark patches are usually seen on young

Fig. 5. Die-back (partially infected plant) Fig. 6. Die-back (fully infected tree)


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green twigs (Fig. 5). When the dark lesions increase in size, dying of young twigsbegins. The upper leaves lose their green colour and gradually dry (Fig. 6). Internalbrowning in wood tissue is observed when its slit open along with the long axis. Cracksappear on branches and exude before they die out (13,14 and 26). When graft union ofnursery plants are affected, these usually die. It has also been noticed that the infectionoccurs at nodes at variable distances below growing point and the part of twigs onboth the sides of infection die (32).

Perpetuation: The organism is a wound parasite and capable of causing great damageunder favourable conditions. The pathogen penetrates the host through epidermal woundsand lenticels. Artificial inoculation experiments have shown that establishment of thefungus requires at least 48 hr at 27-300 C and RH of 80-85 per cent. The fungusremains in vascular tissues until tissues die. Diseased twigs bearing fruiting bodies arethe main source of perpetuation and survival of the pathogen. Use of infected bud stickis largely responsible for carry over of the pathogen from one season to the next and forspreading to new areas. Within orchards, the most important means of spread areinoculum already present and contaminated garden tools. The former accounts for theincrease in disease severity and the latter contributes to the survival and spread of thepathogen within an area and from season to season. Trees damaged by gummosis,insects, sun scorch, tangle foot, stress, injury and mineral deficiencies favour diseasedevelopment (10).

Epidemiology: High summer temperature predisposes the mango plants to the attackof pathogen through reducing the vitality of plants. Disease development is favoured byrains, relative humidity (approximately 80%) and maximum and minimum temperaturesof 31.5 and 25.9oC. The growth of germ tube of single celled spores was best at 30oC.On exposure to higher temperature (54oC) for 10 minutes, loose spores lost their viability.The mango beetle (Batocera rufomaculata) aggravates the disease incidence (12 and26).

Management: Scion wood selected for propagation should be free from infection,while multiplying the planting material. Pruning (3” below the infection site) followed byspraying of copper oxychloride (0.3%) is most effective method to control it. Pasting ofcowdung at cut ends is very effective (2).

Phoma Blight [Phoma glomerata (Corda) Woll. & Hochapf]Symptoms of this disease are noticed on matured/old leaves generally. Initially,


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lesions are minute, irregular, angular, yellow to lightbrown, scattered all over the leaf lamina. As thelesions enlarge, their colour changes from brown tocinnamon, and these become irregular in shape. Fullydeveloped spots are characterized by dark marginand dull grey necrotic centres. In severe cases, thespots coalesce to form big patches, which result inwithering and defoliation of infected leaves (Fig. 7).Such plants can be identified easily from a distance(27 and 31).

Management: Spraying of benomyl (0.2%) orcopper oxychloride (0.3%) have been found effectiveagainst this disease (32).

Gummosis [Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Grifton and Mauble, syn.Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat., perfect stage Physalospora rhodina].

The disease is characterized by the presence of profuse oozing of gum on thesurface of affected wood, bark of trunk and also on larger branches but more commonon cracked branches. In severe cases, droplets of gum trickle down on stem and thebark turns dark brown with longitudinal cracks. Bark rots completely and tree dries upbecause of cracking, rotting and girdling effects (32).

Management

The affected bark/portion should be removed, cleaned and covered withcowdung or copper oxychloride paste. Application of copper sulphate (500 g/tree,depending upon the age of the tree) in soil around the tree trunk is advocated. Applicationof fresh cowdung around trunk or cut portion is also advocated (2).

Leaf Spot [Phoma sorghina (Sacc.) Boerema. Doren. & Vankest]

This leaf spot disease caused by Phoma sorghina has been reported on mangofrom Lucknow, India (20). Disease manifests itself in the form of small, irregular, oval toroughly circular water-soaked spots on young leaves, measuring mere pinhead to 2.5mm in size. Lesions are brown, later differentiated into brown margin with straw colour.Yellow halo around the brown margin is also observed. The infected leaves becomebrown and ultimately dry. Lesions near the midrib are elongated and more conspicuous.In severe cases, the spots coalesce to form large spots measuring up to 14 mm. Symptoms

Fig. 7. Phoma blight


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produced by this fungus are very much much similar to those of anthracnose and thesemay sometimes be confused. In this case, spots are smaller and there is no cracking inthe centre as found in anthracnose (10 and 32).

ManagementControl measures are the same as reported for phoma blight disease.

Angular Leaf Spot (Plenotrichella mangiferae Prakash & Misra)Initially spots are minute, irregular and brown in colour. In due course, they enlarge

and turn darker in colour. Spots are distinctively visible on both the surfaces of leavesand are irregularly scattered on the entire leaf surface more towards midrib. The spotsare mostly angular in shape and are generally restricted by the midrib or side veins. Asthe spots turn older, the central area becomes grey to almost white, with distinct darkbrown margin, which is characteristic symptom of the disease. Spots vary in size (3-11mm x 2-8 mm) (Fig. 8). Number of black pycnidial bodies are distinctly visible in greyarea on the old spots (17).

Spot epiphyllous, irregularly circular,olivaceous, with black dots, measuring 3-11 mm x2-8 mm of diameter. Mycelium superficial, hyphaeseptate, not constricted, abundant, ramified, havingarborescent disposition, olivaceous-maroon, havingcells of 7.0-14.5 x 2.0-2.5 µm covering thepycniostromata. Absence of septa and hyphopodia.Pycniostromata superficial, membranous, isolated,orbicular, scutellar, dimidiated, meandriform,astomous, of irregular dehiscence at maturity, 320-490 µm of diameter., 15-24 µm of height, maroon,glabrous; edges thin, clear maroon, film-like, up to85 µm of extension; lower wall indistinct.Conidiophores not observed. Hymenium superior and hence inverted. Pycnidiosporesfusoid, continuous, sessile straight or curved with 9.0-1.5 x 1-2.0 µm.

Management : The disease is controlled by spraying of Carbendazim (0.1%) at 20days’ interval before emergence of symptoms (17).

Malformation (Fusarium subglutinans)Malformation, also known as bunchy top, is a serious threat in mango-growing

Fig. 8. Angular leaf spot


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areas of the world. In recent years, the extent of this malady has taken such a highmagnitude that the mango industry is badly threatened in India, particularly in northernmango belt. In spite of a lapse of hundred years since the disease was first reported anda good number of papers published on mango malformation (MM), the etiology of thedisease still remains obscure. The complex nature of the malady is obvious by thediverse claims made by different workers from different countries about its cause(s)ranging from physiological, viral, fungal, acarologicalto nutritional (12 and 18).

Mango malformation is of two types –vegetative and floral. Vegeative malformation ispronounced in young seedlings. The afected seedlingsdevelop excessie vegetative growth. The internodesare of limited growth and short. These form bunchesof various sizes, which are often produced on tips ofseedlings giving buncy top appearance. Suchformations are also found on bigh plants but arerelatively less (Fig. 9).

Floral malformation is characerizied by thereduction in length of primary axis and secondarybranches of the panicle, which make the flowers,appear in clusters. The flower budsare transformed into vegetative budsand a larger number of small leavesand stems, which are characterizedby appreciably reduced internodes,give a witch’s broom-likeappearance (Fig. 10).

Management: Definite controlmeasures for mango malformationcan be advocated. However,following measures may reduce theincidence of malformations. It is advisable to avoid scion stick from trees bearingmalformed inflorescence for propagation. Indexing of healthy mango trees be done toserve as material for propagation. Only certified samplings should be used forpropagation.

Fig. 9. Vegetative malformation

Fig. 10. Floral malformation


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As soon as the disease symptom is noticed, the affected terminals should be prunedalong with the basal 15-20 cm apparently healthy portion and burnt. Healthy orchardslocated in disease-prone pockets should be sprayed with fungicides/insecticides as aprophylactic measure to avoid further recurrence of the disease. Spraying of 200 ppmNAA in the first week of October is advocated followed by deblossoming at bud-burststage. Early flowers should be deblossomed.

Sclerotium Rot (Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc.)

About 18 per cent mango seedlings died of stemrot and many of the seeds (stones) rotted before orin the course of germination (28 and 30). The diseaseis characterized by the presence of mycelial weft onthe base of the stem at the ground level. Beneath themycelial growth, a dark brown spot may developwhich gradually encircles the base of the stem. Atthis stage, the succulent top droops and bendstowards the ground, tissues lose turgidity andseedlings die within a week. When the disease is atpeak, the fungus may be seen encircling stem up tothe height of 2" or even more above the ground level.The disease also causes severe rotting of seeds duringor before germination. Numerous sclerotia developon cotyledons of rotted seeds (Fig. 11).

Perpetuation: The sclerotia remain viable for more than a year under drought conditionswhile in moist conditions persist longer or indefinitely, especially if susceptible hosts arepresent. The fungus passes over adverse conditions by means of sclerotial bodies. Thesclerotia kept in dry conditions remained alive for more than a year.

Management: Infected soil should be thoroughly surface burnt before the seed bedsare prepared. Diseased mango and weeds should be removed and burn. Excessiveuse of water and close planting should be avoided as the organism is moisture-loving.Seed beds should be prepared with sufficient drainage arrangement. Planting ofsusceptible hosts should be avoided. Two minutes dipping of stones in Agallol/Brassicol/Captan/Thiram/ Carbendazin (0.1%) and subsequent soil drenching at 10-15 daysinterval reduce the intensity of the disease (28).

Fig. 11. Sclerotium rot on youngseedlings


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Bacterial Canker Disease (Xanthomonas campestris pv. mangiferaeindicaePatel, Moniz & Kulkarni) Robbs, Ribiero & Kimura

The promising mango industry in northern India is threatened by bacterial cankerdisease. During early sixties, the disease was considered as a minor, but now it isposing a great threat to the commercial cultivars (Dashehari, Mallika and Amrapali) aswell as seedling cultivars grown in the country. Canker incidence was noticed first timein polyembryonic cultivars of mango. Its widespread and severity posed much losses ofmango fruits. Recurrence, intensity and spread of the disease have also been observedgradually extending in new areas (15,18 and 20).

Bacterial canker caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. mangiferaeindicaebecame serious in Uttar Pradesh mainly in Lucknow as early as 1978 and thus hasbeen commonly present in most of the states. The disease is quite widespread in mango-growing regions of the world (15,18 and 21). The losses are as high as 100% in certaincultivars.

On leaves, minute water-soaked irregularstellate to angular raised lesions measuring 1-4 mmin diameter are formed. These lesions are lightyellow in colour initially with yellow halo but withage, enlarge or colaesce to form irregular darkbrown necrotic cankerous patches usually on thelower side but occasionally on both sides. Onyoung leaves, the halos are larger and distinct, whileon older leaves, these are narrow and could beobserved only against light. In server infections,leaves turn yellow and are dropped off. Cankeron leaf stalks, sometimes progresses superficiallyalong the midrib (Fig. 12).

On twigs and branches, freshly developedlesions are observed as water-soaked, darkbrown, raised with longitudinal fissures exposing the vascular tissues mostly filled withgummy substance which oozes outward. The infections are deep seated. Blackdiscolouration of underlying tissues with cracked bark are also characteristic symptom.

On fruits, the symptoms are quite conspicuous, water-soaked, dark brown toblack coloured lesions are observed which gradually develop into cankerous, raised or

Fig. 12. Bacterial canker on leaves


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flat spots. These spots grown bigger usuallyup to 5 mm in diameter, which cover almostthe whole fruit. These spots often, burstextruding gummy substances containing highlycontagious bacterial cells (Fig. 13).Sometimes, the exposed flesh in cankerousspots attracts insects and subsequentlyinvolved by secondary micro-organisms, whichinitiate rooting. Fruit dropping is observedmore when cankers develop near the stalk end.Severaly infected fruits crack and becomebrown in colour. In some excessive infectedfruits, pulp and stones are also found to beinfected.

Perpetuation: Bacterium survives in infectedplant parts on trees. Cankers on mango leavesare reduced by fall of infected leaves but pathogen survives up to 8 months in diseasedleaves. Twig canker initiates the infection on fruits. Bacterium is found pathogenic onAnacardium occidentale, Acanthosperma hispidum, Caesalpinia mimosoides,Ficus glomerata, Lantana camara, Psophocarpus tetragonolobus, Schinusterebenthifolius, Solanum tarvum, Spondias mangifera and S. mombin (7). Roleof mango stones in the survival of pathogens has been established (15 and 32). Pathogenalso survives in resident form on weed hosts (7) and mango leaves and fruits. Diseasespread is rapid during rains. In new areas, the disease spreads through infected plantingmaterial and from diseased to healthy ones through wind splashed rains (18).

Epidemiology: Development of the pathogen in the field is favoured by highrelative humidity (above 90%) and temperatures between 25 and 30oC (6). Pathogenhas been found to be more active under field conditions from July to September thanfrom November to March. Though the temperatures from April onwards remainfavourable (28-30oC), fresh infections do not occur until it rains. However, in treeshaving infected twigs, infection on fruit starts early in the last week of April and continuesto increase during May, when weather is dry (32 and 15). Maximum and minimumtemperature between 30-40 and 17.3-26.0oC, RH 68-100%, evening RH 25-68%and high wind velocity during April-May have been found favourable for the diseasebuild-up (15).

Fig. 13. Bacterial canker on fruit


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Management: Regular inspection of orchards, sanitation and seedling certification arerecommended as preventive measures against the disease. Selection of stones fromhealthy fruits for rootstock is advisable (15). Streptomycin sulphate (250 ppm) followedby Aureofungin (15) and 3 sprays of Streptocycline (200 ppm) at 10 days intervals (8)reduce the fruit infection. Streptocycline (300 ppm ) and copper oxychloride (0.3%)are more effective in controlling bacterial canker (32). Garg and Kasera (1) have reportedessential oil from A. occidentale effective against campestris mangifera indicae. Anantagonistic phylloplane bacterium, Bacillus coagulans, isolated from mango, hasbeen found very effective against X.c.m.i. strains and may be further utilized in biocontrolof mango bacterial canker disease (4 and 5).

Sooty Mould and Black Mildew (Capnodium mangiferae Cke. Borwn,Microxyphium columnatum, Leptoxyphium fumago and Tripospermummyrti)

The disease has created a history during the year 1984 when appeared in anepidemic form and gradually engulfed the entire mango belt of Siyana, districtBulandshehar (Uttar Pradesh). The disease was so much serious in certain pockets thateven thick branches of tree died resulting in serious casualties of older plants (32 and10). The disease is characterized by the presence of a black velvety thin membranouscovering on leaves, stems and fruits. These range from thin, diffuse webs of dark hyphaeto opaque felty layers. In severe cases, the tree appear black due to heavy infection ofmould on entire surface of leaves and twigs. The affected leaves curl and shrivel underdry conditions. Because of the production of masses of black spores, which stick toleaf surface due to sticky ‘honey dew’, the foliage appears black, ugly and hence thename ‘sooty mould’. The severity of incidence is dependent upon the sugary secretionby insects. During flowering time if the fungus infects the blossoms, fruit setting is affectedand sometimes even small fruits fell down. Mature fruits having black patches are alsodetract considerably from the appearance and marketability.

Causal organisms : Meliola mangiferae Earle, Capnodium mangiferae Cke. andBorwn, Capnodium ramosum Cke., Microxyphium columnatum, Leptoxyphiumfumago and Tripospermum myrti.

Epidemiology: Disease is severe in old and dense orchards where penetration of lightintensity is low. Trees exposed to eastern side (sunlight) have less incidence while treesin centre of the orchard, especially those growing dense have 95% incidence. Sugarysubstance secreted by the insects is stated to be a condition favourable for development


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of sooty mould. Continuous and heavy rainfall results in continuous washing off suchsubstances. Incidence of insects on shoots is directly associated with disease severity.High humidity, however, proved to be congenial for growth of the fungus (11).

Management: The remedy for this disease consists of destroying the insects. Themould will die out for want of a suitable growth medium if honey dew-secreting insectsare killed by suitable insecticides. Spraying of wettasulf (wettable sulphur) + metacid(methyl parathion) + gum Accacia (0.2 + 0.1+ 0.3%) and Indian oil formulation No. 1and 2 at 15 days interval could control sooty mould (9 and 11).

Red Rust (Cephaleuros virescens Kunze)The disease is readily recognised by the presence of rusty red fructification of

alga on surface of leaves, veins, petiole, young twigs and foliage infected with gallmidge. Initially spots are greenish grey in colour and velvety in texture and finally turnreddish brown. Spots are circular to irregular in shape, erumpent, measuring 2 mm indiameter. When coalesce, they may be up to 1 cm in diameter. After shedding of spores,the algal matrix remains attached to leaf surface, leaving a creamy white mark at theoriginal rust spots.

The upper surface of spot consists of numerous, unbranched filaments in whichsome of the filaments are sterile hairs while others are fertile ones. The latter bearcluster of spores at thetop. Such fruiting bodiesare formed in moistatmosphere, that is whythe disease is morecommon on closelyplanted orchards. Theparasite can makeheadway only whenplants grow slowly. Thealga is generally shed offby exfoliation of outertissues when plants arevigorous. Thus, disease israre on newly-emerging shoots (Fig. 14).

An alga, Cephaleuros sp., is well-known part of the lichen, Strigula, which is

Fig. 14. Red rust on upper and lower lamina


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widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. The S. elegans (Fee.) Mull. Arg. withC. virescens has been found on mango. It was reported that Cephaleuros may enterinto a lichenous association with different fungi and fungal component is parasitic onalga and ultimately destroy the phycobiont (32).

The disease appeared in an epidemic form in the tarai region of Uttar Pradeshand was reported to cause reduction in photosynthetic activity and defoliation resultingin lowering the vitality of plants.

Management: The main stress for controlling alga is laid on correcting culturalmalpractices and alleviating nutritional deficiencies. The direct link between host vigourand damage caused by alga has been noticed. Avoidance of close planting is helpful.Thus, pruning the canopy, mowing beneath trees and using wider row spacing whichincrease air circulation and sunlight penetration help reduce conditions which favour thepathogen. Pruning and manuring of host trees are also beneficial. Copper oxychloride(0.3%) is effective in managing the algal infection (29). Control of insect pests, mitesand other foliar diseases, all increase the tree ability to cope with algal leaf spot.

CONCLUSIONMango crop is prone to attack by a number of diseases. Failure to check the

attach of diseases from root to crown and fruits would more or less tantamount to totalcrop loss. About over 160 pathogens are known to cause damage to crop, but thereare a few diseases, which are of great economic importance. The most destructivediseases of mango in India are powdery mildew, die-back and anthracnose/blossomblight and bacterial canker. These diseases take heavy toll and have become a limitingfactor in the profitable cultivation of mango. Powdery mildew is widely prevalent and insome years, it has completely destroyed the crop. Die-back, recorded in late seventiesin Northern India, has assumed an alarming proportion everywhere and is threateningmango cultivation for the last one decade. High summer temperatures predispose themango plants to the attack of pathogen. Anthracnose//blossom blight, anotherwidespread disease, is directly influenced by excessive rains, heavy dews, high humidityand warm weather. Similarly bacterial canker has also assumed importance in recentyears, destroying choicest varieties like Langra, Dashehari and Lucknow Safeda.

Mildew disease is known to cause extensive damage at the latitude of 400NS ofthe equator.Highest foliage incidence of mildew was recorded in Dashehari and Langraduring early-March after refoliation. Fresh infection on refoliated plants during Decemberat Durgapura, Rajasthan is a unique event in disease epidemiology and help in maintaining


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high inoculum load for further recurrence and outbreak of the disease. The diseaseperpetuates on newly infected leaves/ hidden malformed panicles throughout the year.The production of abundant fungal propagules on such leaves helps in initiation of newinfection on panicles. To reduce the inoculum load persisting on leaves/ hidden malformedpanicles, removal of the such infected leaves/ malformed panicles are prerequisite foreffective disease management. Repeated sprayings of wettable sulphur (0.2%) afterexpansion of panicle, before opening of flowers and after fruit setting (mustard size) arerecommended. Studies are required to be expanded on the bioagent tried for control ofmildew pathogen.

Anthracnose pathogen perpetuates in the detached diseased twigs / leaves, whicheither falls on the ground or remain attached to trees up to 14 months. Association ofanthracnose pathogen with gall midge infected leaves/panicles/twigs has also beennoticed. Injuries caused by midge, activate the pathogen. In the management strategiescultural practices, tree management, removal of midge infected parts, varietal selectionand protective/curative fungicidal sprays are found very effective. Bioagents likeactionomycete isolated from cowdung give encouraging results in controlling the disease(3).

Botryodiplodia [Lasiodiplodia] theobromae is an important mango pathogen inIndia. Its infection mainly causes die-back besides many other manifestations likegummosis twig blight etc. The fungus is frequently encountered in the affected plantparts exhibiting from these manifestations. It seems to be universal in its occurrence butthe main domains lie in the tropics and subtropics (300 NS of the equator). Invariably indie-back infected trees, trunk-borer beetle (Batocera rufomaculata) was noticedand seems to be an important biological means in the dissemination of vegetative part(mycelium) of the fungus (L. theobromae). The galleries made by the beetle in treetrunk / branch, provide necessary entrance to fungus into the plant tissues. The vegetativeparts adhere to beetle body are carried over from one plant to other and thus, theinfection spreads. Pruning of dead twigs (about 10 cm below the infection site) andspraying / pasting of copper oxychloride (0.3%) or fresh cowdung are most effective inmanaging the disease (2).

Development of precise detection techniques particularly causal organisms ofdiseases whose etiology is not yet known needs special emphasis as it would eventuallylead to standardize the dependable management schedules for diseases of unknownetiology. Adoption of any single method for control of mango disease has its ownlimitations. Hence, judicious integration of various measures like cultural, mechanical,use of resistant varieties with need-based fungicidal and biopestcidal/bioagents


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applications are needed for development of precise technologies for the end-users.

REFERENCES1. Garg, S.C. and Kasera, H.L. (1994). Antibactrial activity of essential oil of Anacardium

occidentale L. Indian Perfumer 28 : 95-97.

2. Garg, Neelima, Prakash, Om and Pathak, R.K. (2002). Use of cowdung paste for controllinggummosis and die-back disease of mango. Proc. Ann.Conf. Association of Micribiology,HAU, Hissar, Dec 11-13.

3. Garg, Neelima, Prakash, Om and Pathak, R.K. (2002). Actinomycete of cowdung origin aspotential biogent against anthracnose and stem end rot diseases of mango (Ibid).

4. Kishun, R. (1994). Evaluation of phylloplane micro-organism from mango againstX.c.pv.mangiferaeindicae. Indian Phytopath 47 : 313.

5. Kishun, R. (1995). Detection and mangement of Xanthomonos campestris pv.mangiferaeindicae In: Detection of Plant Pathogens and Their Management, pp. 173-82.Verma, J.P. (Ed.). Angkar Publishers, New Delhi.

6. Kishun, R and Sohi, H.S. (1983). Bacterial cankar in mango. Indian Farmers Digest 14 : 21-23

7. Kishun, R. and Chand, R. (1994). Epiphytic survival of Xanthomonas compestris pv.mangiferae indicae on weeds and its role in MBCD. Plant Disease Research 9 : 35-40

8. Misra, A.K. and Prakash, Om (1992). Bacterial canker of mango, incidence and control.Indian Phytopath 45 : 142-75.

9. Misra, AK, Prakash, Om (1993). Host range and efficacy of different chemicals for the controlof sooty mould of mango. National Academy of Science (India) 63: II.233-35.

10. Ploetz, C.R. and Prakash, Om (1997). Foliar, floral and soil borne diseases of mango. In : TheMango – Botany, Production and Uses, pp. 281-326. Richards, E. Litz (Ed.). C.A.B.International, Wallingford, U.K.

11. Prakash,Om, (1991). Sooty mould disease of mango and its control. Int. J. Trop. PlantDiseases 9 : 277-80.

12. Prakash, Om (1996). Principal diseases of mango, causes and control. In: Advances in Diseasesof Fruit Crops in India, 397 pp. Singh, S. J. (Ed.). Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.

13. Prakash, Om and Eckert, J.W. (1998). Twig die back disease of mango (Mangifera indica L.)caused by Botryosphaeria ribis from California , Proceedings of Sixth International MangoSymposium, held at Pattaya, Thailand.

14. Prakash, Om and Eckert, J.W. (2002). Twig die back disease of mango (Mangifera indica L.)caused by Botryosphaeria ribis in California. Biological Memoirs 27 : 71-72.

15. Prakash,Om and Misra, A.K. and Raoof, MA (1994). Studies on mango bacterial cankar


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disease. Biological Memoirs 20 : 95-107.16. Prakash, Om; Misra, A.K. and Pandey, B.K. (1996). Anthracnose disease of tropical and

subtropical fruits. In : Disease Scenario in Crop Plants, Vol. II, pp. 1-27. Agnihotri, V.P.,Prakash, Om, Kishun, R and Mishra, A.K. (Eds). International Books and Periodicals SupplyService, New Delhi.

17. Prakash, Om and Misra, A.K. (2001). A new species of Plenotrichella causing angular leafspot of mango and its control. Indian J. Pl. Pathol. 19 : 97-99.

18. Prakash, Om, Misra, A.K., and Kishun, R. (1997). Some threatening disease of mango andtheir management. In: Threatening Plant Disease of National Impartance, pp. 197-205.Agnihotri, V.P., (Ed.).

19. Prakash, Om and Pandey, B.K. (2000). Control of mango anthracnose by hot water andfungicidal treatments. Indian Phytopath. 53 : 92-94.

20. Prakash, Om and Raoof, M.A. (1985). New records of fungi on leaves and twigs of mango (M.indica). Indian J.Pl.Pathol. 3 : 243-44.

21. Prakash, Om and Raoof, M.A. (1985). Bacterial canker of mango. Proceedings of SecondInternational Symposium on Mango, Bangalore (India), 50 p.

22. Prakash, Om and Raoof, M.A. (1985). Blossom blight disease of mango. Indian J. PlantPathology 3 : 271-72.

23. Prakash, Om and Raoof, M.A. (1985). Perpetuation of powdery mildew of mango. Indian J.Pl. Pathol. 3 : 273-74.

24. Prakash, Om and Raoof, M.A. (1994). Studies on powdery mildew (Oidium mangiferae)disease of mango : Distribution, perpetuation, losses and chemical control. BiologicalMemoirs 20 : 31-45.

25. Prakash, Om and Raoof, M.A. (1996). Post harvest diseases of mango and their control.Journal of Andaman Science Association 7 : 23-30.

26. Prakash Om and Raoof, M.A. (1989). Die back disease of mango (Mangifera indica), itsdistribution, incidence, cause and management. Fitopatologia Brasileira 14 : 207-15.

27. Prakash, Om and Singh, U.N. (1976). New Disease of mango. Proc. Fruit Res. Workshop,Hyderabad, May, 24-28, pp. 300-2.

28. Prakash, Om and Singh, U.N. (1976). Basal rot of mango seedling casud by Scelerotiumrolfsii. Indian J. Pl. Pathol. 6 : 75.

29. Prakash, Om and Singh, U.N. (1979). Fungicidal control of red rust of mango. Indian J. Pl.Pathol. 9 : 175-76.

30. Prakash, Om and Singh, U.N. (1980). Root rot and damping off of mango seedlings casued byRhizoctonia solani Kuhn. Indian J. Mycol Pl. Pathol. 10 : 69.

31. Prakash, Om and Singh, U.N. (1977). Phoma blight, a new disease of mango. Plant DiseaseReporter 61 : 419-21.

32. Prakash, Om and Srivastava, K.C. (1987). Mango Diseases and their Management, 175 pp.Today & Tomorrow’s Printers and Publsihers, Karol, Bagh, New Delhi.

APPROACHES AND STRATEGIES FOR PRECISIONFARMING IN PAPAYAA. K. Singh1 and Gorakh Singh2

Papaya (Carica papaya L.) is widely grown in tropics and India is the largestproducer in the world. It requires less area for tree, comes to fruiting in a year, is easyto cultivate and provides more income next to banana. A rich, well-drained sandy loamsoil is ideal for its cultivation. Papaya fruits are extremely valued for their nutritive valueand are rich source of vitamin ‘A’ (1500-2020 IU/100g). From the latex of unripefruits, ‘papain’ is prepared for which there is a great demand in pharmaceutical andcosmetic industries. There is a great potential for the export of papaya fruits and itsproducts. Papaya has a wide range of adaptability and for high economic return perunit area. Basic information on sex expression and genetics of papaya which havehelped in developing improved varieties (both dioecious and gynodioecious lines) andhybrids. Improved production technology on papaya has been developed for differentagroclimatic regions of the country through multilocational trials. However, it is felt thatprecision farming be used in India, it will be possible with the introduction of hi-techtechniques in papaya cultivation like water management through drip irrigation, fertigation,crop geometry, plastic mulching and tissue culture techniques with introduction andmultiplication of excellent varieties.

PRECISION TECHNOLOGIES FOR IMPROVED PRODUCTIONIn India, papaya is raised in about 70,000 ha of land, producing annually 1.68 Mt

of fruits. Orissa, Kerala, Assam, West Bengal, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Gujaratare major papaya-growing states, the highest productivity being 87.16 tonnes/ha inKarnataka followed by Andhra Pradesh (75.57 tonnes/ha), Tamil Nadu (56.0 tonnes/ha), Madhya Pradesh (47.78 tonnes/ha), Gujarat (41.38 tonnes/ha), West Bengal (33.2tonnes/ha), Rajasthan (31.80 tonnes/ha), Bihar (30.82 tonnes/ha) and Uttar Pradesh(23.75 tonnes/ha). The lowest productivity is from the north-eastern region includingKerala.

1,2 Senior Scientist (Hort.), Division of Crop Improvement and Production, Central Institute for SubtropicalHorticulture, Lucknow 227 107, India


Approaches and Strategies for Precision Farming in Papaya

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Selection of Varieties

A large number of varieties are cultivated in India. As a matter of fact many ofthem are not real varieties since these cannot be relied upon to reproduce the parentalcharacters in their progenies. Based on sex expression, papaya varieties can be classifiedeither as dioecious or gynodioecious. The dioecious varieties produce male and femaleplants in a 1:1 ratio when propagated from seeds. However, gynodioecious varietiesproduce female and bisexual (hermaphrodite) in a 1:2 ratio. Seven varieties (CO1,CO2, CO3, CO4, CO5, CO6 and CO7) have been released from TNAU,Coimbatore. Of them, CO2 and CO5 are recommended for papain extraction, whileCO3 and CO7 are suitable for table purpose. Pusa Delicious, Pusa Majesty, PusaGiant, Pusa Dwarf and Pusa Nanha have been released from IARI regional station. Ofthese, Pusa Majesty is recommended for papain extraction, while Pusa Nanha forkitchen gardening and high-density planting. Other gynodioecious variety Suryadeveloped from IIHR, Banglore, having pink flesh colour is good for table purpose.Propagation and Nursery Production

Papaya is normally propagated by seeds. To ensure genetic purity, seeds shouldbe procured only from reliable sources. For planting one hectare area, about 500 gseed is required. The seedling can be raised in 3 m x 1 m x 10 cm nursery-beds or inpolythene bags. The seeds should be sown 10 cm apart and one cm deep in rows andcovered with fine compost or leaf-mould. Light irrigation may be followed in morninghours. The nursery-bed may be covered with polythene sheet / paddy straw / dry strawmulch to protect it from adverse weather conditions. Apart from nursery-beds, seedsare also sown in polybags of 20 cm x 12 cm size at the rate of 4 seeds/bag. The potmixture should consist of one part each of sand, top-soil and FYM/vermicompost. Theseeds should be sown not deeper than 1.5 cm. Regular watering with water-can shouldbe done gently in morning and evening until seeds germinate.

The soil in bag should be treated with 100 ml of 0.1 per cent copper oxychlorideto prevent damping-off, a fungal disease, which affects young papaya seedlings. Repeatafter one month. Thin out seedlings to 2/bag 30 days after germination. Tender seedlingsmust be protected against heavy rainfall. The most serious disease in the nursery is‘damping off’. Treating seeds with 0.1 per cent Monosan (phenyl mercury acetate)before sowing is the best preventive measure against this disease. Drenching withfungicide, copper oxychloride (0.3 per cent) prevents fungal rots at nursery stage. Theoptimum temperature for germination of papaya seeds is 35oC and temperatures below23oC and above 44oC are detrimental. The seedlings become ready for transplantingwhen they are 45-60 days old or attain the height of 25-30 cm.


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Vegetative PropagationSince papaya is commercially propagated by seed, this leads to variation and a

varietal name becomes misnomer. Even after six or seven generations of inbreedingonly a maximum of 90 per cent homozygosity is attained (15). Hence, to perpetuatepapaya true-to-type, utilisation of easy method of vegetative multiplication is necessary.The multiplication of papaya through budding has been attempted by Singh et al. (16).

Preparation of stock seedlings: Seedlings are raised by sowing papaya seedsbefore 60 days of budding and transferred to pots/polybags/field when they attain aheight of 8 cm. The seedlings of 1-1.5 cm diameter are ready for budding.

Selection of scion: For scionmaterial, vigorously grown femaleplant is headed back well in advanceof budding (about 45 days), to induceaxilliary growth (Fig. 1). Side shootsemerging from below the cut point,having a length of 24 cm and 1.2 cmdiameter, are taken for bud wood. Inthis regard juvenility of the plant hasto be given due consideration. It hasbeen observed that female plant cutat a height of 30 -60 cm gives rise toshoots which have vegetative buds.At a higher level, emerging shoots have reproductive buds only.

Using the aboverootstock and scion material,patch and shield budding aredone during July, August,September and October(Table 1). The top of seedlingstock is removed after a weekof budding. The budssprouted after 15 days ofbudding attain sufficient lengthafter a month (Fig. 2). Thehighest success of 90 per centis obtained in patch budding if

Fig. 1. Axillary growth after heading back papayaplant

Fig. 2. Patch budded plant Fig. 3. Shield budded plant


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done in the first fortnight of September closely followed by 80 per cent in the secondfortnight of August, whereas in shield budding good success is obtained (80 per cent) ifdone in the first fortnight of September (Fig. 3). There is earliness of flowering andincreased yield in budded plants as compared to the control plants.Table 1. Seasonal effect on success in different methods of budding in papaya

Time of budding Success (per cent)

Patch budding Shield budding

July 60.0 37.5

August 80.0 56.0

September 90.0 80.0

October 50.0 40.0

Source: R.N. Singh, Gorakh Singh and O.P. Rao (16 )

Planting Season

The season of planting has a great influence on growth and fruiting. Seedlingsplanted during monsoon, grow taller and bear fruits at higher level on trunk than thoseplanted in other seasons (8), thereby increasing the cost of production. Allan et al. (1)reported various effects of environment on seedlings of papaya but the use of differentplanting times is desirable to obtain accurate information on papaya plantation.Muthukrishnan and Irulappan (7) observed that the best season of papaya planting wasbeginning of monsoon but transplanting could be continued from June to November.Singh and Singh (12) reported that September planting was more beneficial as it gavehigher yield, better fruit quality and less incidence of papaya ring spot virus and can berecommended for end-users.

Spacing

Planting distance is determined by the integration of light interception, cultivar andeconomic consideration. In various papaya-growing tracts of India,spacings arerecommended as per papaya cultivars (7). High-density planting of papaya has increasedthe productivity per unit area and considerable information has been published (6, 8and 12). A spacing of 1.8 m x 1.8m is normally followed for most of the cultivars. Acloser spacing of 1.33 m x 1.33m (5,609 plants/ha) is optimum for Coorg Honey Dew.The spacing of 1.4m x 1.4m or 1.4m x 1.6m is best suited for cv. Pusa Delicious undersubtropical condition of Bihar. Spacing of 1.6m x 1.6m gives highest yield of fruits as


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well as papain in Tamil Nadu. A closer spacing of 1.2m x 1.2m for Pusa Nanha isadopted for high-density orcharding, accommodating 64,000 plants/ha. Singh and Singh(13) suggested that 2.0m x 1.8m spacing is optimum plant density (OPD) for bettercanopy development, yield and fruit quality of papaya cv. Pusa Delicious under UttarPradesh condition (Figs 4 and 5).

Sex Expression and ThinningRecent studies confirmed precocious separation of one pair of chromosome with

complete 9 : 9 chromosomal separation. The karyological analysis indicates that thereis a satellite chromosome in male plant. This satellite chromosome determines sex inpapaya (10) but homologue chromosome is not a satellite. According to Chaudhary etal. (5) leaves of male plants are rich in total carbohydrate, phosphorus and chlorophylla and b than those of female plants, which are rich in nitrogen and potassium. Theprediction of sex of nursery seedlings by chlorimetric test of leaf extracts was providedcorrect up to 88 per cent in case of female and 61 per cent in male (14).

In dioecious varieties, male and female plants will be in a 1:1 ratio. Keeping 5 percent male plants in the orchard for proper pollination, other male plants should beremoved. Normally, male plants flower earlier than female ones and can easily beidentified as they have pendulous, hanging and branched stalks. In gynodioecious varieties,stamens can be seen adhering to petals surrounding the ovary. Only one plant per pitshould be retained.

Fertilizer ApplicationThe development of nutrition management to maintain plant health and encourage

successful fruiting in papaya depends on improving our understanding on the role ofeach nutrient on different components of growth. Papaya is a heavy feeder and adequate

Fig. 5. Good yield of papaya can be obtained inhigh-density planting

Fig. 4. High-density planting in papaya


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manuring of young and mature plants is essential to maintain the growth and vigour oftree for regular high yields. The petiole analysis methodology proved satisfactory infertilizer recommendation to papaya. The petiole from sixth fully opened leaf from top,6 months after planting is found best indicator for the nutrient status of papaya. Criticallimits of N, P and K have been workout which are 1.01 - 2.50 per cent, 220-400 mg/g and 3.30 - 5.50 per cent, respectively. The importance of N for the growth of papayawas demonstrated by Awada (2) and Awada and Long (3 and 4). Application of N, Pand K increased the concentration of respective elements in papaya petiole (11). TheCa and Mg content of petiole was not related in any way to applied N, P and K.Before planting, each pit should be filled with 10 kg well- decomposed farmyard manure/ compost, Azospirillium (20 g) and Phosphobacterium (20 g), neem cake (20 kg)and bone-meal or fishmeal (1 kg). The following dose of fertilizers (Table 2) has beenstandardized to achieve the objective of precision farming.Table 2. Fertilizer dose for papaya plants

Fertilizer Form Dose(g/plant/year)

Nitrogen (N) Urea 250

Phosphorus (P) Single superphosphate 250

Potash (K) Muriate of potash 500

These fertilizers should be applied in five split doses (after 4 moths of age) at two-month intervals. Deficiency of lime and boron has often been observed in papayaorchards. Spraying of 0.5 per cent zinc sulphate (twice) and one spray of borax (0.1per cent) may be done depending upon the nutrient status of soil.Irrigation Management

Irrigation in papaya is empirical and not based on soil plant water relationship. Itdepends upon the soil and climatic conditions of specific region. Papaya is a shallow-rooted crop and is highly sensitive to fluctuation of soil moisture. Prolonged moisturestress affects the growth and development, encouraging the production of male flower,leading to poor fruit set. Fruits of papaya produced in high rainfall and humid regionsare usually larger than those grown in low rainfall regions irrespective of varieties.Lower moisture level shifts plants towards sterility and male floral characters, whilehigher moisture conditions results in excessive production of undesirable carpelloidtypes in which the stamens fuse with developing ovary, resulting in mishappened fruits.Trials taken up have revealed that irrigation at 60-80 per cent available soils moisturedepletion is found optimum for papaya.


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The crop is extremely sensitive to collar rot under flood irrigation where watercomes in direct contact with the trunk. In north Indian condition, papaya requires irrigationat 5-7 days intervals during summer and 15 days in winter. Low-volume, high frequencyirrigation like drip irrigation is becoming increasingly popular in long-duration commercialcrops and could be an alternative system of irrigation for papaya in order to efficientutilization of water which is becoming a scarce and costly input in recent years.

Replenishment of evaporation losses under basin irrigation up to 100 per centincreased the yields although the yield difference between 75 and 100 per cent werenot significant. The evapotranspirational loss was around 3,510 mm with 75 per centof evaporation replenishment (28 months crop) (17). Whereas drip irrigation of papayawith 60 per cent of evaporation replenishment was found to be optimum. The wateruse with 60 per cent replenishment was around 2,985 mm. Restricting the water flowunder drip irrigation by allowing the water to flow in pipes embedded in soil 30 cmaway from the trunk on either side of the plant resulted in higher yields (Table 3). Dailyirrigation of papaya with 2 emitters/plant placed midway between the trunk and skirtlinewas found to be ideal for papaya growing (17). The relative performance in papayawith drip irrigation in comparision to traditional system of irrigation is given in Table 4.

Table 3. Growth, yield and water use of papaya in relation to irrigation frequency,number of emitters and their placement under drip irrigation

Treatment Plant height

(m)

Trunk girth (m)

Fruit number /

plant

Average fruit

weight (kg)

Fruit yield (tonnes/ha)

Total soluble solids (0Brix)

Water-use efficiency

(kg/ha/mm)

Irrigation frequency Drip daily 2.46 0.36 36 1.32 116.5 12.6 42.4 Drip alternate 2.31 0.32 31 1.24 110.2 12.8 36.9 day

Number of emitters 1 emitter/plant 2.25 0.33 30 1.21 98.2 12.1 32.9 2 emitters/plant 2.38 0.38 35 1.30 115.6 12.4 38.7 Emitter

placement Skirtline 2.25 0.32 30 1.12 101.4 12.5 33.9 Midway between trunk and skirtline

2.40 0.36 34 1.20 120.5 12.3 40.4

Source : Srinivas, K. (17)


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Table 4 Relative performance of papaya with drip irrigation in comparisonwith traditional irrigation method

Yield (q/ha) Irrigation water (cm)

Water-use efficiency (q/ha/cm)

Advantage of drip irrigation

Place

Surface Drip Surface Drip Surface Drip Saving of water (%)

Increase in average yield

(kg/plant) Coimbatore 130.0 230.0 228.0 73.0 0.6 3.20 68.5 43.5

Kalyani 312.0 383.0 24.0 11.0 13.0 34.8 54.2 18.5

Source : Approaches for Sustainable Development of Horticulture. Singh, H.P., Negi, J.P. andSamuel, J.C. (Eds), pp. 81-91.

Drainage and Productive Life

Papaya plants are very much susceptible to waterlogging. Even 24 hours stagnationof water may kill the well-established orchard. Therefore, it is essential to make somefurrows/ trenches for quick and complete drainage of water during rainy season. Theprofitable productive life of papaya is two-and-a-half years under north Indian conditionsprovided the crop is well-managed.

IntercropWhen papaya is grown as a main crop, all kinds of vegetables can be grown as

intercrops for about six months from planting. Vegetables such as cowpea, tomato andclusterbean can be grown as intercrops. Papaya is itself grown as intercrop in combinationwith perennial fruit orchards where the spacing required for the main crop like mango,sapota, guava, lemon etc., is more than 5 m especially during early periods of orchardestablishment.

PLANT PROTECTIONInsect Pests

Papaya is not preferred host for many species of insects. But, a few insects likescales, mealy bugs, aphids and thrips have been reported infesting it. Scale insects andmealy bugs on stem and leaves are effectively controlled by spraying of malathion 50EC 4 ml/litre (or) methyl demeton 25 EC (2 ml/litre of water).

Aphids can be controlled to a large extent by keeping the papaya orchard relatively


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free of weeds. In severe attacks, methyl demeton 25 EC 2 ml/litre or Demeton 30 EC(2 ml/litre) can be used. Thrips are controlled by spraying of methyl demeton 25 EC (2ml/litre).

Mite incidence may be occasionally noted especially during summer. It can becontrolled by spraying of kelthane (1 g/litre of water).

Diseases

Collar rot and wilt: Wilting of young seedlings and grown-up plants in main field is acommon problem. This occurs mainly due to the incidence of Pythiumaphenidermatum and Photophthora palmivora. One per cent Brdeaux mixture orcopper oxychloride (2 g/litre of water) may be used to drench the nursery bags (25 ml/bag) to protect against wilting of (damping off) young seedlings. Prior to commencementof heavy monsoon rains, soil around plants in the main field may be drenched with anyone of the above chemicals at the rate of 2 litres/plant. Metalaxyl @ 2 g/litre can also bedrenched 2-4 times at 15 days intervals. Water stagnation should be avoided.

Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloesporioides) : It is on eof the major diseases ofpapaya affecting fruits and leaves in most of papaya-growing areas. The initial symptomsare small, round, water-soaked areas on fruits which later develop into sunken orconcentric lesions. The disease also affects the petioles of lower leaves leading to theirshedding. Papaya grown in dry areas is usually less affected than those grown in highrainfall areas. Good control of anthracnose can be achieved by spraying the fruits ontree with copper oxychloride or Mancozeb @ 2 g/ litre.

Powdery Mildew (Oidium caricae): The fungus is found mostly growing on uppersurface of leaves, withdrawing nutrients from cells of the leaf surface. Under severeattack of powdery mildew, the top portion of seedlings may die. It can be controlled byspraying of wettable sulphur @ 2g/ litre.

Viral DiseasesThree major viral diseases namely mosaic, leaf curl and ring spot are commonly

found in most of the regions of papaya cultivation. Of these, papaya ring spot virus iscommon in north India, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Of late it has become a majorthreat to papaya production in several tracts. The plant should be watched carefully forany virus like symptoms and removed and destroyed as soon as symptoms appear. It isbetter to avoid seeds or planting material from virus prevalent areas and unknown


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sources. The virus is usually transmitted by any form of aphids and these vectors shouldbe controlled by employing systemic insecticides such as methyl demeton 25 EC ordimethoate 30 EC @ 2ml/litre.

NematodesRoot knot (Meloidogyne sp.) and Reniform (Rotylenchulus reniformis) can

damage the root system and cause yield reductions. Nematodes can be contolled bythe application of carbofuran 3 G @ 3 g/polybag at nursery stage and 15-20 g/plant inthe main field. Neem cake 250g + carbufuran 1g a.i. + Pseudomonas fluorescensformulation (4 g) can be applied in each pit. Incorporation of neem cake in nurserystage and in main field greatly reduces nematode incidence.

HARVESTING AND YIELDThe fruits should be left on tree until they fully mature. Usually fruits are harvested

when they are of full size, light green with tinge of yellow at apical end. On ripening,fruits of certain varieties turn yellow white while some of them remain green. When thelatex ceases to be milky and become watery, the fruits become suitable for harvesting.While picking fruits from the tree, care must be taken that they are not scratched, andare free from any blemishes, otherwise they are attacked by fungus and start decayingduring marketing. The fruit yield of papaya varies widely according to variety, soil,climate and management of the orchard. On an average each plant of improved varietiesbear 30-50 fruits, weighing 40-75 kg in one fruiting season.

Being perishable in nature a good crop may fail, if, harvesting of fruits is not doneproperly. The fruits should be left on trees until they are fully mature, but pick them upbefore they soften, otherwise, it is difficult to protect fruits from birds and to marketthem without spoilage.

CONCLUSIONThe future looks quite bright for papaya. However, there are certain apprehensions

which need to be addressed. The first and foremost is the clonal propagation of papaya,not only for nursery raising but it attains special significance for maintaining varietalpurity/ homogenity. Improve the availability of quality seed by increasing production ofquality seeds of improved varieties/hybrids. Emphasis needs to be given on popularizationof high-yielding / disease resistant varieties bred by ICAR institute and universities.Expand area under improved varieties. Develop area-specific package of practicesand intensify transfer of technology programme on latest available production and post-


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harvest technologies. Approaches and strategies for precision farming is one ray ofhope to resolve most of the issues related to production and productivity of papaya.

REFERENCES1. Allan, P., Charley, J. M. C. and Biggs, D. (1987). Environmental effects on clonal female and

male Carica papaya L. plants. Sci.Hort. 32 : 221–32.

2. Awada, M. (1977). Relations of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilization to nutrientcomposition of petiole and growth of papaya. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 102 : 413-18.

3. Awada, M. and Long, C. (1978). Relation of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization on fruitingand petiole composition of ‘Solo’ papaya. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 103 : 217-19.

4. Awada, M. and Long, C. (1980). Nitrogen and potassium fertilization effects on fruiting andpetiole composition of 24-48 months old papaya plants. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 105:505-7.

5. Choudhaery, R.S., Garg, O.K. and Borah, P. C. (1957). Physiological changes in relation to sexin papaya (C. papaya L.). Phyton. 9: 137-41.

6. Kohli, R. R., Biswas, S. R., Ramachander, P. R. and Reddy, Y. T. N. (1986). Systematic designfor a spacing trial with Coorg Honey Dew papaya. Indian J. Hort. 43: 88-93.

7. Muthukrishnan, C. R. and Irrulappan, J. (1990). Papaya. In : Fruits—Tropical and Subtropical,pp. 314-15. Bose, T. K. (Ed.). Naya Prakash, Calcutta.

8. Purohit, A. G. (1981). Growing papaya the proper way. Indian Hort. 25 : 3-5.

9. Ram M. (1983). Some aspects of genetics, cytogenetics and breeding of papaya. SouthIndian Horticulture 31: 34-43.

10. Ram, M. (1982). Studies on genetical cytogenetical and some breeding aspects of papaya(Carica papaya L.). Ph.D. Thesis, Agra University, Agra.

11. Reddy, Y.T.N., Kohli, R.R. and Bhargava, B.S. (1988). Growth of papaya and petiole nutrientcomposition in relation to N, P and K fertilization. Gartenbauwissenschaft 53: 92-95.

12. Singh, A. K. and Singh, Gorakh (1998). Effect of time of planting on growth, fruiting behaviourand sex relations of papaya (Carica papaya L.). Indian J. agric. Sci. 68: 769-72.

13. Singh, A. K. and Singh, Gorakh (1999). Canopy development and yield efficiency of papayain different plant densities. In : Plant Physiology for Sustainable Agriculture, pp. 321-26.Srivastava, G.C.; Singh, K. and Pal, M. (Eds) Pointer Publishers, Popular Offset Services,Jaipur.

14. Singh, R. N., Majumadar, P. K. and Sharma, D. K. (1961). Sex determination in papaya, seedlingidentification in nursery stage by colorimetric test. Hort. Adv. 5: 63-70.

15. Singh, R. N., Rao, O. P. and Singh, Gorakh (1985). A new approach to papaya propagation.Curr. Sci. 54 : 1189-90.


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16. Singh, R. N., Singh, Gorakh and Rao, O. P. (1986). Vegetative propagation of papaya throughbudding. Indian J. Hort. 43: 1-8.

17. Srinivas, K. (1996). Growth, yield and water use of papaya under drip irrigation. Indian J.Hort. 53: 19-22.

APPROACHES AND STRATEGIES FOR PRECISIONFARMING IN AONLA

R. K. Pathak 1, D. Pandey2 , Gorakh Singh3 and Dushyant Mishra4

Aonla or Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis Gaertn.) is indigenous to Indiansubcontinent. Owing to hardy nature, suitability to various wastelands, high productivityand nutritive and therapeutic values, aonla has become an important fruit. In fact, aonla,in its processed form is very popular among the social elites. As an indigenous fruit, ithas extensive adaptability to grow in diverse climatic and soil conditions ranging fromwestern and eastern Himalayas, Arawali, Vindhyan and southern hills. The climate rangesfrom hot tropical plains to humid subtropical mid-elevation hills is suitable for its cultivation.It is successfully raised in arid, semi-arid, coastal and warm temperate conditions.Similarly, it grows well in saline, alkaline, and degraded as well as in sandy, red and claysoils. Mature plant can withstand tepmperature as high as 460C, as well as freezingtemperature as low as 00C. Aonla seedlings have shown excellent salt tolerance up toESP (Exchangeable Sodium Percentage) 43.5 and Ec 10 mmhos/cm.

CURRENT STATUS AND PROJECTIONSIndia ranks first in the world in area and production. Apart from India, naturally

growing aonla trees are also found in different parts of the world like Sri Lanka, Cuba,Puerto Rico, USA (Hawaii and Florida), Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, China, Malaysia, Bhutan,Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines, Trinidad, Panama and Japan. The major aonla-growing states in India are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, AndhraPradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Haryana, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. UttarPradesh ranks first in area and production. The major producing areas in Uttar Pradeshare Pratapgarh, Raibareli, Varanasi, Jaunpur, Sultanpur, Kanpur, Fatehpur, Agra andMathura districts. In Madhya Pradesh, major aonla-producing regions are Dewas,Hoshangabad, Shiwani, Tikamgarh, Betul, Chindwara, Shivapurkala, Panna, Rewa andSatna. In Haryana, aonla is mainly grown in Bewal and Gurugaon areas. In Karnataka,Bilgiri Rangan Hills in Mysore is aonla-producing area. In Tamil Nadu, concentrated

1Director, 2,3Senior Scientists, 4 Scientist, Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture, Lucknow 227 107,India


Approaches and Strategies for Precision Farming in Aonla

177

production is around Salem and Dindugal. In Himachal Pradesh, aonla is grown inPalampur, Bilaspur and Hamirpur areas.

All India estimates of area and production of cultivated aonla during 1999-2000are about 50,000 ha and 1,10,000 tonnes, respectively. Uttar Pradesh is the largestproducer of cultivated aonla, with an annual production of about 63,000 tonnes froman area of about 15,700 ha with an average productivity of 4.0 tonnes/ha. The secondand third largest states in terms of area are Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. The highestproductivity of aonla (5.2 tonnes/ha) is reported from Haryana, whereas lowest fromRajasthan (1.2 tonnes/ha) (Table 1).

State Area

(ha)

Productivity

(tonnes/ha)

Production

(tonnes)

Uttar Pradesh 15,750 4.0 63,000

Gujarat 10,050 1.5 12,000

Rajasthan 5,000 1.2 6,000

Maharashtra 4,000 1.4 5,600

Haryana 600 5.2 3,100

Mizoram 70 2.9 200

Tamil Nadu 5,500 1.5 8,250

Andhra Pradesh 3,000 1.5 4,500

Karnataka 1,800 1.5 2,700

Bihar 1,350 1.5 2,000

Others 2,500 1.5 3,750

Total 50,000 - 1,11,100

Table 1. Area, productivity and production of aonla (1999-2000)

Source: Market Study of Aonla (UPLDC –Nov. 2002).

Forests have been the traditional source of aonla. Traders, researchers and NGOsworking in forest areas indicated that major collection of aonla is done from MadhyaPradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Himachal Pradesh. In relatively smaller quantities,it is also collected from the forests of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu andMaharashtra. The supply from forest area in the major states is given in Table 2.


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All-India Production/SupplyYear-to-year fluctuations in productions are largely influenced by variations in

yield caused by rainfall and weather aberrations. However, long-term trend in growthof production of aonla is largely influenced by growth in area through new plantationsand improvement in yield due to better management of orchards.

As rainfall and weather are assumed to be normal for the projected period, growthin area and yield, are important determinants of production in future. There are twopossible methods for projecting production, i.e. (a) using the trends as observed in thepast, and (b) using growth in area and yield, as estimated through new plantations.

Based on projected growth rates of area and yield (Table 3), it is expected thatproduction of aonla in country will reach the level of 2,72,089 tonnes by the year 2011-12. This translates into an increase of about 51.2 per cent in a period of 10 years, overthe existing base level production of 1,80,000 tonnes in 2001-02.

Current Status and Demand

The domestic consumers provide major market to aonla. Increasing healthconsciousness of middle income group consumers and growing popularity of alternatemedicine, health foods and herbal products are enhancing the requirement of aonla.The demand of aonla generated from different product segments, i.e. household usage,health food, herbal medicines, food products, personal care and export are increasingvery fast.

PRECISION TECHNOLOGIES FOR IMPROVED PRODUCTION

Attributes of Ideal Aonla Varieties

! Dwarf tree stature which can be accommodated 4-5 m apart.

State Production (tonnes)

Madhya Pradesh (including Chhattisgarh) 35,000 Karnataka 3,000 Uttar Pradesh 1,000 Himachal Pradesh 1,000 Others 1,000

Total 41,000

Table 2. Supply estimation of forest aonla produce (1999-2000)


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Year Area (ha) Production (tonnes)

Yield (kg/ha)

2001-2002 (base year) 51,500 180,000 3,495

Growth rate for next 5 years (%) 2.8 4.7 1.6

2002-2003 52,942 188,064 3,552

2003-2004 54,424 196,354 3,608

2004-2005 55,948 204,876 3,662

2005-2006 57,515 213,636 3,714

2006-2007 59,125 222,642 3,766

Growth rate for next 5 years (%) 2.8 4.4 1.3

2007-2008 60,781 231,993 3,817

2008-2009 62,483 241,606 3,867

2009-2010 64,232 251,488 3,915

2010-2011 66,031 261,646 3,963

2011-2012 67,879 272,089 4,008

Table 3. Projected area, production and yield of aonla in India during 2002-03 to 2011-12

Source: Market Study of Aonla (UPLDC-Nov. 2002)

! Precocious and prolific bearing.

! Medium-to large-sized fruits (60-80 g/fruit).

! Less fiber content and good self-life.

! Self fruitful variety with stiff branches.

! Resistance/tolerance to fruit cracking, necrosis and diseases like rust andanthracnose.

Selection of Suitable Varieties

Although a large number of varieties are known in India, the commercial cultivationrevolves around only a few of them such as Kanchan (NA 4), Krishna (NA 5), NA 6,NA 7 and NA 10. The salient features of these varieties are given below:

Kanchan (NA 4) : A seedling selection from Chakaiya, it is heavy and regularbearer (7.7 female flowers/branchlet) with medium-sized fruits and higher fibre content(Fig. 1). It is mostly preferred by industries for pulp extraction and manufacturing of


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Demand during Tenth Five-Year Plan

(tonnes)

Category of aonla Base level of

demand

Assumed growth rate

2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07

Household 61,500 4.24 64,108 66,826 69,659 72,613 75,692

Health food 36,500 4.48 38,135 39,844 41,629 43,434 45,442

Herbal pharmaceutical

26,000 4.24 27,102 28,252 29,449 30,698 32,000

Food products 8,500 4.48 8,881 9,279 9,649 10,129 10,582

Personal care 11,500 4.24 11,988 12,496 13,026 13,578 14,154

Export 6,500 4.48 6,791 7,095 7,413 7,745 8,092

Transit losses and storage

31,500 4.00 32,760 34,070 35,433 36,851 38,325

Total 182,000 4.27 189,765 197,861 206,304 215,107 224,286

various products. This variety is adopted very well in semi-arid region of Gujarat andMaharashtra.

Krishna (NA 5) : A seedling selection from Banarasi, NA 5 is an early-bearer(October-November). It has large fruit, smooth skin and whitish green to apricot yellowsurface with red spot on exposed surface (Fig. 2). Flesh pinkish green, less fibrous,highly astringent and having moderate keeping quality. It is an ideal variety for preserve,candy and aonla juice.

NA 6 : This is a selection from Chakaiya, possess all the desirable attributes. Thefruits are attractive and shining, medium-to large-sized, flattened and less fibrous (Fig.3). It has heavy bearing capacity and is highly suitable for candy, preserve, jam andsauce.

NA 7 : A seedling selection of Frencis having precocius and prolific regular-bearer (9.7 female flowers/branchlet). The incidence of necrosis has never beenobserved. Fruits are medium to large-sized with conical apex. This variety has adoptedwell in Rajasthan, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. It is

Source: Market Study of Aonla (UPLDC-Nov. 2002)

Table 4. Demand projections of aonla during Tenth Five-Year Plan


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recommended for making of chavanprash, chuteny, pickle, jam and squash preparation(Fig. 4).

NA 10 : This is a selection from Banarasi. It is an early-maturing and its fruits aremedium-to large-sized, flatten with roundish styler end. It has heavy bearing capacityand suitable for dehydration and pickle (Fig. 5).


Aonla plants raised through seeds have slow growth, long juvenile period and donot produce true- to-type fruits. Therefore, only vegetatively propagated genuine plantingmaterial should be planted. Aonla is successfully propagated through patch or modifiedring budding from mid-May to September with 60-100 per cent success. Consideringthe efficacy of single bud, budding is an ideal method of propagation. Six months toone-year-old seedlings obtained from desi and sometimes even from cultivated varietiesare used for rootstock. Sincere efforts are required for selection of ideal rootstock inaonla. Ideal rootstock should have following characteristics:

! Dwarfing influence on scion variety.

! Resistance/tolerance to abiotic stress, viz. sodic/saline, moisture stress and dampsoils.

! Efficient utilization of macro/micronutrients.

Mature aonla fruits are collected during January-February and their seeds areextracted after drying. Seeds are sown in raised beds April onward and these aretransplanted in separate beds for subsequent budding. Polythene bags of 35cm x15cm x 24cm size are best for growing rootstocks (1). The plants transplanted inpolythene bags have maximum rate of survival. The post field planting losses are hardly1.5-2 per cent against 25-30 per cent in case of ball of earth. Generally, better resultsare obtained by putting the plants in polyshed. After budding within 21 days, the sproutingtakes place and the growth picked up. However, there is a need to modernized nurserythrough:

! Establish of separate mother block from elite clones of promising varieties of theregion.

! Manage mother block scientifically in such a way that healthy scion shoots areavailable round the years.

! Standardize media, use of containers for year round multiplication with the aid ofpoly and net house facilities.


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! Standardize micropropagation techniques for quick multiplication by newly-developed varieties.

Planting Techniques

Budded aonla plants are planted 7-10m apart during July-August or February.However, planting at a distance of 6m x 6m or 6m x 4m or 5m x 5m are ideal to get highyield and quality fruits. These densities are being commonly used for planting in differentparts of India. The pits of 75cm x 75cm x 75cm size are dug 2 months prior to planting.In each pit, 3-4 basket (25-40kg) of well-rotten farmyard manure and 1kg neem cakeor 500g bone-meal are mixed with 50 per cent of top soil and filled. In sodic soil, 5-8kg gypsum along with 20 kg sand is also incorporated. Filled pits are irrigated thoroughlyif there is no rains. The budded plants with their earth balls should be taken and placedin the centre of the pit by excavating the soil to accommodate the earth ball. It is betterto adjust at same depth at which it was in the nursery. The moist soil of the pit is thenpressed around the earth ball. Light irrigations are given just after planting. In order toestablish aonla orchards particularly under adverse soil conditions, it is desirable togrow seedlings directly in the pits and perform budding (in-situ) at uniform height.Aonla scion shoots can be safely stored/transported in moist moss grass/ moist newpaper for 5-7 days with good success. Self-incompatibility in aonla is a common problemamong various cultivars, hence two varieties in alternate rows are planted for higherproductivity. Planting of mixed varieties results in better yield. The best combination isNA 6 with NA 7, NA 7 with NA 10 and Kanchan with Krishna.

Training and Pruning

Aonla plant should be encouraged to develop a medium headed tree. The mainbranches should be allowed to appear at a height of 0.75-1.0 m above the groundlevel. Plant should be trained to modify central leader system. Two to four brancheswith wide crotch angle, appearing in the opposite directions should be encouraged inearly years. The unwanted branches are pinched off during March-April. In a subsequentyears, 4-6 branches should be allowed to develop. Regular pruning of a bearing aonlatree is not required. As per growth habit, shedding of all determinate shoots encouragesnew growth in coming season. However, dead, infested, broken, weak or overlappingbranches and suckers appearing from rootstock should be removed regularly.

Top-working

Old and unproductive trees of Banarsi, Francis and desi type can be rejuvenatedand easily changed into superior type by top-working. The plants are headed back


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during December-January to the extent of 3-4 m above ground level (leaving 4-6 maincut limbs in all the directions). The cut portion of the trees is then pasted with the treepaste (cowdung + soil) to avoid infection of fungal diseases. Four to six shoots from theouter directions in main limbs should be allowed to develop. During June-July, patchbudding with superior variety is done on each selected shoot. After sprouting, the topportion of the shoot is removed. Care should be taken to manage the insect pest problemsas these plants are prone to insect and sometimes wind damage (Figs 6a,b and c).

Manuring and Fertilizer

Though no systematic work has been done on nutritional requirement of aonlafruits. However, fertilizer dose depends upon soil fertility, age of plant and production.Recommendation based on visual experience and personal communication, fertilizerand manure can be recommended to aonla plant for better production efficiency. Fertilizerapplication during the first year of planting may be given 10kg FYM, 100g nitrogen,

Fig. 6. Top-working in aonla. (a) Newly-emerged shoots on beheaded branches, (b) patch buddedshoots, (c) new developing canopy, as a result of top-working.

a

b

c


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50g phosphorus, 100g potash per plant. This dose should be increased every year upto 10 years in the multiple of first year dose. Thus, a 10-year-old and above trees mayget a fertilizer dose of 100g nitrogen + 500g phosphorous + 1000g potash along with1,000kg FYM. Fifty per cent of urea and entire phosphorous and potash should begiven during January-February before flowering and the rest of the nitrogen during theend of August. The manure and mixture of fertilizers should be spread under the entirecanopy of tree and it should be incorporated well in the surface soil with the help ofspade. Light irrigation should be given immediately after fertilizer application. In sodicsoil, 100g each of boron, zinc sulphate and copper sulphate should also be incorporatedalong with fertilizer as per the tree age and vigour. Besides, two sprays of micronutrient(August/ September), viz. B, Zn, Cu (0.4 per cent) along with hydrated lime is helpfulin reducing fruit drop, improving fruit quality and reduction in fruit necrosis particularlyin Francis.

Efficient Water Management

Established aonla orchards in general do not require irrigation particularly in normalsoil. Aonla plantation is highly susceptible to waterlogging, hence care should be takento save the plantation from excess of waterlogging condition particularly during rainyseason (2). No irrigation is required during rainy and winter season too. However,irrigation at an interval of 15-20 days is desirable in dry summer particularly duringearly years of orchard establishment under wasteland conditions. Brakish water shouldnot be used for irrigation. In the bearing plantation, first irrigation should be given justafter manure and fertilizer application (January-February). Irrigation should be avoidedduring flowering (mid-March to mid-April). Irrigation at 15-20 days interval should begiven after fruit set (April-June). Among variousirrigation systems, basinsystem is well suited foraonla. Recently, dripirrigation has shownpromising response inaonla (Fig. 7). Dripirrigation at 60 CPE wasfound very effective overthe control in improvingnumber of fruits, yield/plant and fruit quality. Fig. 7. Aonla plantation under drip irrigation


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Plant height, canopy spread and stock girth have been found significantly better underalternate day drip irrigation over the conventional method (4). With the use of dripirrigation yield of 30kg/tree is achieved in third year itself in gravelly soil against 20 kg/tree in 4-5 years in rainfed aonla orchards (1).

Mulching

Mulching with organic wastes has been found very effective for establishment ofaonla orchard. Various mulches in aonla orchard in sodic soil were found better withpaddy straw, sugarcane trash, coconut husk and FYM. Apart from increasing growthand yield, it also improves organic matter content, infiltration rate, restricting the upwardmovement of soluble salts and thus escaping their toxicity menace in salt affected soil.Among various mulching materials, black polythene and paddy straw proved bestmaterials in respect of yield, number of fruits, nutrient status, water-use efficiency andsoil microbial population (6 and 4).

Aonla-based Cropping System

During initial 2-3 years of planting aonla groves present an excellent opportunityfor utilizing vacant interspace in the orchards. Aonla being a deep rooted, deciduoustree with sparse foliage is an ideal plant amicable for 2 or 3-tier cropping system. Fruits(guava, caronda and ber), vegetables (bottle gourd, okra, cauliflower and coriander),flowers (gladiolus and marigold) and medicinal and aromatic plants are well suited forintercropping in aonla orchards. Some models are aonla + ber (2-tier), aonla + guava(2-tier), aonla + ber + phalsa (3-tier), aonla + sesbania + wheat or barley, aonla +sesbania + onion/garlic + fenugreek/brinjal and aonla + sesbania + german chamomile.

PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT

Among pests, bark-eating caterpillar, shoot-gall maker, mealy bug, leaf-rollingcatterpillar and pomegranate butter fly are major constraints in aonla production.

Pest ManagementBark-eating catterpiller (Interbela tetraonis): It is a serious polyphagous

pest, which attacks on guava, mango, jackfruit and aonla. Larvae and caterpillarsnibble the tree bark, it breaks continuity of sap flow, which results in poor growth andfruiting. Silken webs consisting excreta and chewed particles can be seen particularlynear the junction of two branches.

The pest can be managed through clean cultivation, avoiding the over-crowding ofbranches, killing the larvae by inserting iron spoke or injecting dichlorovas or endosulphon


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0.05% plastered with mud in the holes.

Shoot-gall maker (Betonsa stylophora): Nursery plants and old bearing trees areinfested by caterpillar during July-September. It forms a tunnel in the shoot and infestedportion bulge abruptly into galls. The affected shoots do not grow and a number of sideshoots appear.

Galled shoots should be collected and destroyed, over-crowding of branchesshould be discouraged and monocrotophos (0.05%) should be sprayed during July-August.

Mealy bug (Nipaecocus vastator) : Nymph and adults have been reported infectingaonla orchards from April to November.

Organophosphates provide excellent control of this insect. Monocrotophos(0.04%) or malathion (0.08) or methyl parathion (0.03%) are affective as spray.

Leaf-rolling catterpillar (Garcillario acidula): This caterpillar roll the leaf andfeed inside reducing the photosynthetic capacity of leaves and causes leaf sheding.

It can be effectively controlled by spraying of malathion (0.08%) or monocrotophos(0.04%).

Pomegranate butter fly (Virachola isocrates): It lays eggs on young fruits, caterpillarsbore into the fruits and feed on developing seed. It makes a hole in fruit, which facilitatesthe infection of microorganisms resulting in rotting of fruit.

Pomegranate and guava being major host plants, should be discouraged close toaonla orchard. Infested fruits should be collected and destroyed. Spray ofmonocrotophos (0.04%) or endosulphon (0.05%) is effective during July-August.

Diseases Management

Aonla rust (Ravellia emblicae): It is a serious disease of aonla, characterized byappearance of brown pustules on leaves and fruits, which become dark brown to blackin colour. Affected fruits may drop before reaching to maturity.

In case of severe infection spraying of dithane Z-78 (0.2%) or indofil-45 0.2 (%)is effective in minimizing the incidence. Two applications during August-September areeffective.

HARVESTING AND POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT

The change in seed colour from creamy white to brown is indicative of fruit maturity.


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However, Singh (5) defined the other maturity indices like specific gravity (1.07-1.10),TSS/ acid ratio (5-6), ground colour (change to dull grenish yellow), fiber appears onseed cover and seed colour from creamy white initiate to brown. Fully developed fruitswhich show sign of maturity are harvested. This helps in size gain of remaining fruits.Delay in harvesting results in heavy drop of fruits and also affect the bearing in followingyears. Individual fruits are plucked by hand wherever possible and by climbing on treeswith the help of the ladder. Harvesting should be done early or late hours to reducedfield heat.

Yield

The fruiting in aonla starts in three years in grafted tree, whereas seedling treestake 6-8 years. Budded plants attain full bearing in 10-12 years and may continue tobear up to 60-75 years’ of age under well-managed conditions. The yield varies greatlyin aonla cultivars. NA 6, Krishna and NA 10 are average bearer, while Kanchan andNA 7 are prolific bearer. Aonla tree may produce 1-3 q fruits/tree/year.

Grading

Aonla fruits should be graded into three grades on the basis of size and appearancefor getting attractive price. Large-sized fruits (4.0 cm and abaove and free fromblemishes), medium-sized fruit (less than 4.0 cm and free from blemishes) and blemishedand necrotic fruits.

Packing and Storage

Gunny bags and baskets are used for packing of aonla fruit though they have poordimentional stability as well as staking strength, yet they are the prime packagingcontainers for aonla fruits. Basket made from pigeonpea stems and jute gunny bags of40-50kg capacity with newspaper lining and aonla leaves as a cushioning materials.Aonla fruits can be stored for 6-9 days at ambient temperatures. However, with saltsolution (10-15 per cent), they can be stored up to 75 days.

Processing

Aonla fruits because of high acidity and astringent taste are not palatable for directconsumption. It is consumed mainly in the processed form. The excellent nutritive andtherapeutic values of its fruits offer great potential for processing into several qualityproducts. In general, aonla fruits are utilized for three purposes. They are :

As food item: RTS, nectar, squash, syrup, jam, preserve, candy, pickle, sauce, chutney,dehydrated shreads etc.


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Ayurvedic preparation: Chavanprash, trifla, trifla prash, trifla mashy, trifla churn,amalaki grith, brahad dhatri lauh, madhumeh churn, brahad dhatri ghrit, maahatikatghrit, bavasir nashak mahausidhi etc.

Cosmetic and industrial uses : Hair oil, shampoos, tooth powder and in tanningindustries.

ISSUES CONCERNING MARKETING

There are several aspects regarding marketing of aonla, that need to be addressedso that the atmosphere is conducive for its growth. These are:

! Market integration

$ Spatial integration

$ Temporal integration

! Marketing infrastructure

! Absence of grower cooperative

! Lack of information

! Post-harvest, processing and other techniques

! Marketing extension

! Patents and Intellectual Property Right (IPR).

CONCLUSION

Aonla cultivation is gaining popularity due to its commercial attractiveness togrowers. It presents with tremendous commercial possibilities to growers in differentagroclimatic zones, such as dry regions of arid zones, salt affected soils and in ravines.It has been successfully attempted and demonstrated also in saline land. Such landoffers vary vast potential to undertake aonla cultivation. The following points need tobe considered for better output and profit.

! Identification of right variety.

! Supply of elite and quality plant.

! Demand-driven expansion of area.

! There is an increasing trend for consumption of aonla based products owing to itstherapeutic value, hence technologies for organic/biodynamic production of aonla


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based cropping need to be standardized.

! In the production season, often there is glut in the market, and farmers are forcedto market their produce at throwaway price. There is a need to standardizetechniques of storage of whole fruit and pulp with minimum use of chemicals.

! Develop processing technology of aonla into new products and improving oftraditional foods made from them, such as, low sugar containing Chavanprash.

! Study prevailing post-harvest technologies of aonla and devise improvement anddevelop technologies suitable under Indian conditions.

! Development of processing technology for the production of intermediate andfinished product/ production including design and building of prototype equipment/pilot plants.

! Update processing, packing and storage technologies for all major processedproducts so that they meet International Standards.

! Development of new cost-effective packaging for food products both domesticand export purposes.

! Standardization of various factors such as bacteriological standards, preservationstandards, additives, pesticide residue etc.

! Design and development of equipments for manufacture of products, developmentof new inexpensive packaging techniques and equipments, analysis of existingpackaging methods, materials, processes, quality control norms, studies onimprovement in currently used systems and newer packaging possibilities.

REFERENCES1. Mehta, S.S. (2002). A case study on development of aonla in Tamil Nadu. In : Approaches for

Sustainable Development of Horticulture. Singh, H.P., Negi, J.P. and Samuel, J.C. (Eds), pp.160-63.

2. Pathak, R.K. (2000). Aonla. In : Handbook of Horticulture, pp. 115-18. Chadha, K.L. (Ed.).DIPA, ICAR, New Delhi.

3. Rao, V.K. and Pathak, R.K. (1998). Effect of mulches on aonla (Emblica officinalis Gaertn.)orchard in sodic soil. Indian J. Hort. 55: 27-32.

4. Shukla, A.K., Pathak, R.K., Tiwari, R.P., Vishal Nath (2000). Influence of irrigation and mulchingon plant growth and leaf nutrient status of aonla (Emblica officinalis Gaertn.) under sodicsoil. J. Appl. Hort. 2 :37-38.


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5. Singh, I.S. (1997). Aonla: An Industrial Profile. Department of Horticulture, NDUA & T,Kumarganj, Faizabad.

6. Suhail, M. (1998). Efficiency of drip irrigation and mulching in aonla (Emblica officinalisGaertn.). Ph. D. Thesis, NDUA & T, Kumarganj, Faizabad.

PRECISION FARMING IN ONIONU.B. Pandey1

Onion is an important commercial vegetable crop grown almost all over the country.It is consumed by the common masses round the year. As fresh, it is used as salad andcooked in various ways. Dehydrated products of onions are also now being useddomestically. Onions are also being exported both in fresh and dehydrated forms. Thetotal annual production of onion is about 55 lakh tonnes. Annual requirement includingexport is about 47-48 lakh tonnes. Its consumption is, however, increasing and it isexpected that by the year 2020, the total requirement will be 120 lakh tonnes. Presentlyproductivity of onion in India is about 11 tonnes/ha which is quite low. The experimentalfindings on the productivity are 25-30 tonnes/ha. If, we are to make available 120 lakhtonnes of onion for meeting domestic and export requirements, we shall have to increaseour productivity. There are many recommendations available on improved varieties,production technologies and also post-harvest technologies. Government of India hasinitiated many developmental schemes for improving production and productivity asalso reducing losses. If farmers adopt new technologies with precision, the productivityand production certainly could be increased.

Precision farming in India in the real sense is yet to take up in its specific terms forcommercial cultivation of crops in open fields. In general, if, all the specific findings ofthe researchers for cultivation of a particular crop are followed with precision, it canalso be called as precision farming. Precision farming in other countries has emerged asa management practice with the potential to increase yield, reduce cost of cultivationand thereby increasing profit by utilizing more precise information about all resources.This means management of all input variables, such as application rate, selection ofcultivar and cultivation practices including irrigation scheduling. In other countries,technology has now been developed where field information controlled and monitoredabout every 3' in the field at a reasonable cost. Pesticide can be applied only in areas ofpest infestation, thereby reducing the quantity of pesticide applied. Fertilizer can beapplied where needed. Plant population may be chosen to optimize soil nutrients, while

1Director, National Horticultural Research and Development Foundation, Nasik (MS)


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varietal selection to take advantage of the field conditions. Crop yield can be monitoredto create maps with high and low production areas in a field for improved managementdecisions. In a crop planted in row, following operations require decisions with precision.! Selection of variety / seed! Fertilizer application rate and time for application! Date of planting, population and depth! Cultural practices! Irrigation scheduling and various methods! Pesticide application rate and time! Harvesting and curing (time and further operations)

The details of specific recommendations for precision farming with a view to getgood yield of quality bulbs in onion are given below :

PRECISION FARMING IN ONION

Selection of Variety

Common onion is produced normally in two seasons, i.e. kharif and rabi. Thevarieties are different for both the seasons and as such for good yield of quality bulbs,only those varieties should be selected which are recommended for a particular season.Agrifound Dark Red, Baswant 780 and Arka Kalyan are improved varieties for kharifand Agrifound Light Red, Pusa Red, N-2-4-1 and Arka Niketan are recommendedfor rabi season. It may be added here that kharif varieties, if, planted in rabi mayproduce premature bolters, whereas rabi varieties, if, planted in kharif may not developbulbs due to difference in their day length requirement. Since rabi varieties requiremore day length 12-13 hr, do not develop in kharif where day lengths are shorter atthe time of bulb development.

Use of SeedIn the market, seeds of improved as well as local varieties are available. Further,

seeds are available in loose conditions and also in packed with proper labeling. Tomake sure that seed is genetically pure and has good germination and vigour, it isnecessary to purchase and use labeled seed of improved variety from genuine sources.

Seeding/TransplantingDropping of individual seeds at a predetermined spacing within a row produces a

crop of uniform shape and size and less culls, thus higher yield of desired size. Similarly,transplanting at proper spacing is a must for getting good yield of quality bulbs. Direct


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seeders are available in other countries. In India NDDB, New Delhi, andM/s Jain Irrigation Systems Ltd., Jalgaon, have also imported direct seeding machineswhich have been found quite useful in direct sowing of onion seeds. It may be mentionedthat direct sowing gives crop one month earlier which may be beneficial to farmers inkharif all over the country in getting better price and in rabi in Eastern India wherefarmers suffer badly on account of rains in May. In direct seeding planters are oftenused with coated / pellated seeds. It is necessary to drop seeds at 2-2.5 cm depth. Atthis depth, good global round-shaped bulbs develop. Shallow planting results in flattenbulbs and deeper seed placement results in latten or top-shaped bulbs. Similar depthshould be maintained for transplanting also.

Further, it is better to have raised beds for good uniform bulb development. Timeof sowing / transplanting also affects yield and quality. June-July sowing and July-Augusttransplanting for late-kharif onion, August-September sowing and September-Octobertransplanting for late-kharif, October-November sowing and December-Januarytransplanting in rabi crop give good yield and quality. Early planting gives bolting andlate planting particularly in rabi results in production of small bulbs. The details ofrecommended sowing, transplanting and harvesting timings of onion in different statesare given in Table 1.Table 1. Sowing, transplanting and harvesting times of onion in different parts

of India.Season Time of sowing Time of transplanting Time of harvesting

Maharashtra and some parts of Gujarat Kharif May-Jun Jul-Aug Oct-Dec Early-rabi or late-kharif Aug-Sep Oct-Nov Jan-Mar Rabi Oct-Nov Dec-Jan Apr-May

Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh Early-kharif Feb-Apr Apr-Jun Jul-Sep Kharif May-Jun Jul-Aug Oct-Dec Rabi Sep-Oct Nov-Dec Mar-Apr

Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar Kharif May-Jun Jul-Aug Nov-Dec Rabi

West Bengal and Orissa Kharif Jun-Jul Aug-Sep Nov-Dec Late-kharif Aug-Sep Oct-Nov Feb-Mar

Hills Rabi Sep-Oct. Oct-Nov Jun-Jul Summer (long day type) Nov-Dec Feb-Mar Aug-Oct


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Table 2. Requirement of manures and fertilizers in onion for different seasonsand areas of the country.

Details of fertilizer (kg/ha)

N P K

Variety / season Area

150 60 00 N-53 (kharif) Rahuri (MS) 150 80 00 Pusa Red (rabi) Karnal (Haryana) 150 40 50 Agrifound Dark Red (kharif) Karnal (Haryana) 150 60 60 Pusa Red (rabi) Jabalpur (MP) 100 50 50 Punjab Selection (rabi) Ludhiana 80 00 00 Patna Red (rabi) Sabour (Bihar)

100 80 50 Arka Kalyan (kharif) Hessarghatta (Bangalore) 100 80 50 Arka Pragati and Arka Niketan (rabi) Hessarghatta (Bangalore) 125 50 125 Bangalore Rose (rabi) Karnataka 60 60 30 Multiplier Tamil Nadu

100 50 50 Agrifound Light Red (rabi) Karnal (Haryana) 100 25 25 Agrifound Light Red (rabi) Nasik (MS)

With 25 FYM (25 tonnes/ha)

Spacing

A spacing of 15 cm x 10 cm is recommended for getting 5-6 cm sized bulbs,10 cm x 5 cm for medium-sized bulbs and 8 cm x 5 cm for small onions. Accordingly,spacing should be selected for different sized onions as required in domestic / exportmarkets. Nursery age for kharif transplanting should be 6-7 weeks while for rabi, itshould be 8-9 week for good quality onions.

Fertilizers and Manures

General recommendations are application of 20-25 tonnes of FYM and 100 kgN, 5 kg P and 5 kg K/ha. The requirement, however, depends on soil type, region,varieties and removal of major nutrients. It is, therefore, necessary to analyse the soiland apply fertilizers and manures as per the recommendations. Some of therecommendations on manuring and fertilization for different areas, varieties and seasonsare given in Table 2.

Fifty per cent nitrogen should be applied before planting and rest in two splits at30 and between 45 and 60 days for effective use in growth and development. The Pand K should be applied before planting. Fertigation is also now being considered inmany crops particularly when drip irrigation is followed which gives effective utilization.In onions also irrigation has given good results as 25-45 per cent increase in yield withbulb of uniform size and shape has been obtained. Care should be taken in applying all


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N before initiation of bulbing otherwise thickness of neck will be more. Application ofZn, Cu and B gives increased yield and quality in soils having deficiency of thesenutrients.

Cropping Pattern

It is necessary to follow definite cropping pattern for getting good crop. In rabi,paddy–onion crop rotation has been found good, whereas in kharif, onion is takenafter Frenchbean-millets or groundnut. Intercropping with sugarcane and banana isalso recommended.Irrigation

Onion is a shallow-rooted crop. The water requirement of its crop at the initialgrowth period is less. In fact, it depends on crop growth, soil type and planting season.In kharif season, one irrigation immediately after transplanting is necessary to avoidmortality of seedling particularly in Northern India where temperature at the time isvery high. Since there is a problem of power supply, it is better to transplant 8 hr afterirrigation. Frequent and light irrigation at 8-10 days interval is considered better. Irrigationafter long spell of drought results in splitting, heavy irrigation that too by flooding methodgives poor bulb development and yield. Sprinkler and drip irrigation are consideredbetter. Drip irrigation is, however, best. Sprinkler irrigation at 75 cm CPE at 40 mmdepth and drip irrigation in rabi season at 21 cm water is better. Irrigation should bestopped 10-15 days before harvesting. For drip irrigation, it is necessary to have raisedbeds. Drip irrigation along with mulching of straw has resulted in 40-45 per cent increasein yield in onion seed crop.Weed Management

Weeding is necessary during growth and bulb development stage for good cropssince hand-weeding is costly, it is recommended to apply Pendimethalin weedicide @3.5 kg/ha 3 days after transplanting. One hand-weeding is still necessary 45 days aftertransplanting. Use of Oxylurofen at 0.15-0.25 kg/ha is also recommended. Mulchingwith straw also gives good control of weeds and increases the yield.

Disease and Pest Control

Purple blotch, Stemphylium blight and Colletotrichum blight are the diseases infield which affect the growth and development and finally yield. Purple blotch is moreprevalent at around 21-300C temperature and humidity of 75 per cent and above,whereas Stemphylium blight is prevalent at around 20-250C temperature and 75 percent relative humidity (RH). High rainfall and waterlogging conditions with temperature


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of 23-300C are conducive for development of Colletotrichum blight. Thrips severityincreases at around 25-35 per cent temperature and RH below 75 per cent. The diseaseand pest management measures should, therefore, be adopted when such conditionsare likely to be prevalent.

Mancozeb @ 0.25 per cent or Chlorothalonil @ 0.2 per cent along with stickerTriton should be sprayed at fortnightly interval after one month from transplanting of thecrop against Purple blotch and for Stemphylium blight, Mancozeb @ 0.25 per centalong with Monocrotophos @ 0.18 per cent and sticker Triton should be sprayed atfortnightly intervals. The spray should be started before appearance of the disease.Benlate and Carbendazim both 0.1 per cent, give good control of Colletotrichum blight.Thrip is the common insect which affects the crop adversely. Malathion or Metasystox@ 0.1 per cent or Deltamethrin @ 0.01 per cent or Curacron @ 0.2 per cent arerecommended for the control of insect pests. Mixing of Triton sticker (0.06 per cent) isnecessary.

Harvesting and Post-harvest Management

Harvesting should be done at proper maturity of crop. It takes about 100 daysafter transplanting for maturity of onion crop in kharif varieties and 120-130 days inrabi. Leaves show yellowing from top and bulbs are of 4.5-6.5 cm size at maturity inkharif. Also in kharif, there is no top fall. Any delay in harvesting results in bolting andsplitting. In rabi, crop should be harvested one week after 50 per cent tops have fallenover. After harvesting, onions are windrowed for field curing for 3-5 days. In kharifseason, it takes about 15-20 days for curing in sun. Many times it is not possible to curein sun due to rains. Artificial curing needs to be taken in such cases. The recommendedtemperature is 460C for 16 hr. In rabi season, after field curing, bulbs are cured inshade for 10-12 days. Tops are cut leaving 2.5 neck above the bulbs.

Storage

After curing, sorted and graded onions should be disposed off or stored for sale inlean period. Onions require sufficient ventilation instead of cold storage. Model ventilatedgodowns have been developed and some farmers have already created the facility.Losses in stores particularly due to decay are reduced in such stores significantlycompared to stores without bottom ventilation. Farmers should come forward forconstruction of small stores having ventilation from bottom. If, all practices are followedwith precision as discussed, it is possible to obtain yields up to 25-30 tonnes/ha andalso reduce post-harvest losses significantly. The cost also can be reduced fromRs 300 or Rs 400 to Rs 150 /q or so.

SCOPE OF FERTIGATION IN HI-TECHHORTICULTURE

Ashwani Kumar1 and H.P. Singh2

In India, fertigation is in introductory stage with microirrigation system and itssuccess depends upon how efficiently plants uptake the nutrients. Proper schedulingmust be planned as to provide nutrients at a time when required by plants. In India, fullysoluble fertilizers are limited in availability, however some firms initiated manufacturingwater-soluble fertilizers but it was not price competitive. The Government of India(GOI) has a subsidy structure for the conventional fertilizers of approved grades, butfor fertigation the requirement of water-soluble fertilizer varies with respect to its gradein comparison to conventional fertilizer. The Government should adopt a fertilizer policyin such a way that the manufacturers of fully soluble fertilizer are not in disadvantage ascompared to conventional fertilizer manufacturers. The experiments also show quitesuccessful results in terms of yield advantage, saving of fertilizer and production ofquality of produce.

The efforts were made to introduce microirrigation system at farmers level around1980 in the country. The growth of microirrigation has picked up momentum whichcould be observed that in 1985 it had the area of 1,500 ha against present area of 0.35million ha. To promote the concept, efforts have been made at research level by IndianCouncil of Agricultural Research, State Agricultural Universities, National Committeeon Use of Plastics in Agriculture and Ministry of Water Resources and DripManufacturers Association. Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Water Resources andState Governments undertook the promotional activities. The R&D efforts are requiredto address to high capital cost, the operational problems of microirrigation system,availability of spares, know-how at grassroot level and integration of fertigation/chemigation along with the system.

1Project Coordinator, AICRP on Application of Plastics in Agriculture, Central Institute of Post-HarvestEngineering and Technology, PO. PAU, Ludhiana 141 004.2Horticulture Commissioner, Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture (Department of Agriculture &Cooperation), Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi 110 001.


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FERTIGATION IN HI-TECH HORTICULTURE

Fertigation

All chemicals applied through irrigation system must avoid corrosion, softening ofplastic pipe and tubing, or clogging any component of the system. It must be safe forfield use, must increase or at least not decrease crop yield, must be soluble or emulisifiablein water, and it must not react adversely to salts or other chemicals in the irrigationwater. In addition, the chemicals or fertilizers must be distributed uniformly throughoutthe field. Uniformity of distribution requires efficient mixing, uniform water applicationand knowledge of the flow characteristics of water and fertilizer in the distribution lines.To avoid clogging, chemicals are applied through microirrigation systems to dissolvethe deposits in drip lines. The solubility of some of the fertilizers are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Fertilizer solubilities of conventional fertilizer (at 20°C) Fertilizer Solubility (g-1) Potassium chloride 340 Ammonium sulphate 750 Urea 1,060 Potassium sulphate 110 Potassium nitrate 320 Monoammonium phosphate 370 Magnesium sulphate 250 Equipment and Methods for Fertilizer Injection

Fertilizers can be injected into drip irrigation systems by selecting appropriateequipment from a wide assortment of available pumps, valves, tanks, venturies andaspirators.

Fertigation injection system: Pumping is the most common method of injectingfertilizer into a drip irrigation system. Injector energy is provided from electrical motors,internal combustion engines, water-driven hydraulic motors and pumps, and impellerdriven power units. The positive injection pumps include single or multiple piston,diaphram, gear, and roller pumps. In case of two or more different types of fertilizersmultiple pump units can be used to avoid/reduce precipitation problems. All of theinjection pumps can be regulated to achieve the desired or required rate, usually byadjusting the length of stroke of piston pump or by selecting the appropriate pulley


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diameter. Another means ofadjusting fertilizer application iswith variable-speed motors.Water-driven pumps usually aremore complex, difficult tomaintain and expensive.However, they are useful whereelectricity is unavailable orwhere gasoline-driven units canbe operated for only shortperiods. A typical figure offertigation injection system is shown in Fig. 1.

Pressure differential injection system: Pressure differential (PD) units are anothermethod of injecting fertilizer into dripirrigation system. A schematicdiagram of a PD unit is shown inFig.2. The PD unit takes advantageof the system's pressure-headdifferences. Pressure differences canbe developed by valves, venturi,elbows, or pipe friction. The mainadvantage of the PD applicators isthe absence of moving parts. Theyare simple in operation and requireno electric and gasoline, or water-powered pumps. The primarydisadvantage of the PD units is thatthe rate of application is not constantand changes continuously with time; thus, a uniform concentration of a nutrient cannotbe maintained.

Following equation can be used to know the percentage of material remain in thetank:

n = 100 exp (-xt/100),where n is per cent mixture remaining in the tank, exp is the exponential function, x is theflow rate through the tank, and t is time (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2. Pressure differential injection system

Fig. 1. Fertigation injection system


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Fig. 3. Fertilizer remained in the tank with time in pressure differential system

Fig. 4. Venturi injection system

Venturi injection system: Some venturi injection system allows fertilizer to be addeddirectly into the system form open tanks without being diluted. A portion of the irrigationwater is bypassed through a venturi, which functions as an aspirator to pull the solutioninto the system. Because of high pressure losses, larger venturis may require boosterpumps. Solution injection rates are regulated by flow meters and valves. The Fig. 4shows a typical venturi injection system.


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Application of Fertilizers

Nitrogen: Nitrogen, the plant nutrient most commonly deficient for crop production, isoften applied through microirrigation system. Nitrate nitrogen moves readily in soil withirrigation water and can be applied separately or in mixture with such compound asammonium sulphate, urea, calcium ammonium nitrate and ammonium nitrate. Calciumnitrate can also be used when bicarbonates are low. Anhydrous ammonia, aqua ammoniaand ammonium phosphate in most instances cause clogging problems. Nitrogen sourceselection should be based on its possible reactions with the irrigation water and the soil.Several researches (1,5 and 15) have proposed various reasons for the increasedefficiency of fertigation, i.e. saving in fertilizer as it is applied only in root zone, improvedtiming of fertilization, because the more frequent application make it possible to matchplant requirements of various growth stages and improved distribution of fertilizer withminimum leaching beyond the root zone or run off. Phene et al. (12) found that nitrateconcentrations remained higher in root zone with frequent drip irrigation of sweet cornthan with flood sprinkler irrigation. Rolston and Boradbent (14) found that littledenitrification occurred in a clay loam soil, if the soil tension was higher, than 10 bar.Phene et al. (12) have shown that high frequency of nitrogen application on shallowsandy loam soil with drip irrigation improved the efficiency of nitrogen use by potatomore than double of conventional fertilization method (broadcast plus banded). Milleret al. (8) indicated that nitrogen is used more efficiently when applied through drip intomato.

Phosphorus: Phosphorus has not generally been recommended for application in dripirrigation because of its tendency to cause clogging and its limited movement in soil. If,irrigation water is high in calcium and magnesium precipitate of insoluble calcium andmagnesium phosphate may result from the application of inorganic phosphate.Rauschkolb et al. (13) applied phosphoric acid along with short pulses of sulphuricacid to keep the water pH low in drip irrigation system without precipitation or cloggingproblems. Organic phosphate will not participate unless compound is being hydrolyzedto inorganic phosphate in the water or the water pH is high. O' Neill et al. (10) foundthat phosphorous was delivered to greater soil volume when applied as orthophosphoricacid through a drip system than triple super phosphate applied as a soil amendmentbeneath each emitter. The orthophosphoric acid lowered enough the pH of irrigationwater to minimize clogging problems from phosphate precipitation over 3 and 24 daysof irrigation period.


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Potassium: Common K sources are potassium sulphate, potassium chloride andpotassium nitrate, which are readily soluble in water. These fertilizers move freely in soiland some of the potassium ions are exchanged on the clay complex and are readilyleached away. However, Urei et al. (16) were not able to demonstrate it but there wassome movement after the potassium ions concentrated in soil near the emitter.

Micronutrients: Micronutrients such as iron, zinc, copper and manganese can beapplied as chelates or sulphate salts in drip irrigation system. Normal plant requirementsfor these nutrients are very low and their application through drip irrigation requirescareful and precise metering. McElhoe and Hilton (7) found that zinc EDTA appliedthrough drip irrigation for pecan trees cost less than foliar application but leafconcentration of zinc were generally lower with drip than the foliar applications.

Trials on Fertigation

Generally, crop response to fertilizer applications by drip method been excellentand frequent nutrient application have improved the fertilizer application efficiency.Reductions of 25-50 per cent in total fertilizer application using drip irrigation as comparedwith surface broadcasting have been reported by Phene et al. (12). Bucks andNakayama (3) applied CO2 saturated water through subsurface, drip systems to provideadditional CO2 around plant for improving their photosynthetic efficiency, it showedthat potato yield tended to improve. However, wheat yield increased significantly about20 per cent more with subsurface CO2 concentration and decreased soil pH by 1.5units in wetted zone around the drip tubing, an effect which could improve rootenvironment where alkalinity is problem.

Strawberry : A few strawberry farmers were selected for conducting field trials onfertigation around Pune. The fertilizer doses were given through microirrigation systemon well-drained medium black soil as fertigation and it was compared with conventionalmethod of fertilizer application. The results with respect to number of crowns and yieldwere recorded. It was observed that number of crowns and yield of strawberry wereinfluenced much by use of fertilizers over conventional fertilizer. The average percentageof increase was 74 per cent, indicating efficiency and economy in the use of fertilizers.The fertilizers being acidic in nature, solubilizes native macro and micronutrients resultingits more uptake, which has reflected in getting more number of crowns and yield.Micronutrient deficiencies in plot were less as compared to that in conventional plot.The yields of strawberry increased by 40 per cent (Table 2).


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Pomegranate : The field trials on fertigation were conducted on pomegranate anddata on yield and quality of pomegranate were recorded. The other package of practiceswere adopted as per the recommendations. The yield and quality of pomegranate havebeen influenced in fertigated plots (Table 3). In fertigation plot the fruits setting wasmore in comparison to conventional plot. Uniformity in fruits was also observed infertigation plots. Shining and firmness of fruits were better and its maturity was 6-7days earlier in fertigation plot than conventional ones.

Table 2. Comparative study of fertigation in strawberry

No. of crowns/plant Yield (tonnes/ha) Location Fertigation Conventional

fertilizer Fertigation Conventional

fertilizer

Increase in yield (per

cent)

A 7 4 23.75 14.00 41.00 B 6 5 22.00 13.00 40.90 C 6 3 19.25 10.50 45.50

Table 3. Comparative study of fertigation in pomegranateYield (tonnes/ha) Location

Fertigation Conventional Increase in yield

(per cent) Remarks

A 76.00 46.00 40.00

B 76.30 56.40 26.00

C 73.00 43.80 40.00

D 68.60 41.50 39.50

E 57.00 40.30 29.30

Mean weight of fruit with fertigation was 670 g and with conventional method it was 510 g. The shining, firmness and colour were much better with fertigation. The uniformity in fruit size with fertigation was much better (2 grade) as compared to conventional (4-5 grades).

Grape : The field trails of fertigation on grape crop were conducted keeping otherpackage of practices same as per the recommendations. The yield data along withbiometric observations were recorded. It was observed that crop growth wassatisfactory. Uniform berry size was observed in fertigation plots bunches of grape in allvarieties while berry size were varying in different bunches of conventional plots in allvarieties resulting prinking of small berries was to be carried out. The observationsrecorded at various sites are given in Table 4.


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Broccoli : Sprouting broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica L.) cv. Packman wassown in nursery, transplanted in the field after 5 weeks and harvested after 3 months at30 cm x 60 cm distance. All necessary measures were taken to keep the crop pest-free. The marketable yield of broccoli was taken as the total fresh weight at harvest.Fertigation with different days were applied and the amount of water added through thedrip system was almost identical and frequent, while in the control (basin treatment), itwas relatively higher and applied at less frequent intervals. The soil and water contentprofiles were drawn for all drip irrigation/fertigation treatments and have shown that thesoil moisture status remained at the optimum level (tension 0.1-0.15 bar) through theprofile (0-90cm), indicating higher efficiency of system in maintaining an idealsoil moisture regime for crop growth in addition to savings in water application (Table5).

Table 5. Comparative study of fertigation in broccoli

Table 4. Comparative study of fertigation in grape

Yield (tonnes/ha) Location Variety

Fertigation Conventional

Increase in yield (per cent)

A Thomson Seedless 38.00 29.50 22.40

B Thomson Seedless 36.50 29.00 20.50

C Thomson Seedless 40.00 36.75 8.10

D Thomson Seedless 41.00 37.00 9.80

E Sonaka 25.50 18.00 29.40

F Sonaka 24.25 16.75 30.90

G Sharad Seedless 37.00 28.00 24.30

H Sharad Seedless 38.00 29.75 21.70

Treatment Yield (kg/ha) Nitrogen applied (kg) N-use efficiency (kg/ha/kg N)

Fertigation (40%) T1 4301 100 43.01

Fertigation (50%) T2 3904 80 48.80

Fertigation (30%) T3 2907 60 48.45

Check basin 1997 200 09.98


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Advantages of Fertigation

Uniform application of fertilizer : In fertigation, fertilizer is applied along with irrigationwater, i.e. through dripper. Normally, uniformity in drip irrigation system is above 95per cent and thus fertilizer application also achieves higher uniformity.

Placement in root zone: Fertigation provides the opportunity to apply fertilizers/chemicals in the root zone only as it is possible to have a control through drip irrigationsystem.

Quick and convenient method: The fertigation is quick and convenient as it providesmanagement of time and quality at control unit of drip irrigation.

Saves fertilizer : The nutrients supplied through fertigation increases their availability,limit the wastage of their being leached out below rooting depth and consequentlyimprove fertilizer-use efficiency.

Frequent application is possible : Fertigation provides an opportunity to applyfertilizer more frequently than conventional methods. However, a mechanical spreaderis costly, causes soil compaction, may damage the growing crop and always not accurate.

Possibility of application in different grades to suit the stage of crop : The soiland plant system requires different types of fertilizer material during the crop cycle, canbe supplied through fertigation more effectively compared to conventional methods.

Micronutrients application along with NPK : Fertigation provides an opportunityto mix the required micronutrients along with conventional NPK and can be applied tosoil/plant systems.

Save groundwater pollution : The excessive use of fertilizer through conventionalmethods lead to the leaching of fertilizer material beyond the root zone depth. At anumber of locations it has been observed that it pollutes the groundwater of the area.The fertigation provides an opportunity to prevent these environmental hazards.

Limitation of Fertigation

Contamination of drinking water : Generally irrigation water forms part of thedrinking water network in any farming system. As water-containing fertilizers are toxic,field workers and bypassers must be warned not to inadvertently use the water fordrinking. Warning signs must be prominently displayed and a separate supply of drinkingwater be provided.

Corrosion : The metallic parts of the equipment are highly prone to corrosion. Sensitive


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parts of the equipment must be made of protected or resistant materials and extra careshould be taken, while filling the tanks.

Fertilizer suitability : The method is suitable for soluble fertilizers. However, somefertilizers such as superphosphate and calcium ammonium phosphate are having lowsolubility, hence are not suitable and may clog the pipes.

Availability of material : In India, the required soluble fertilizer and grades are notavailable freely.

CONSTRAINTS OF FERTIGATION

In India, growth of adoption of microirrigation system has taken place during lastdecade and mostly horticultural farmers are adopting this technology to save irrigationwater and enhancing the water-use efficiency. Although, fertigation offers numerousadvantages but it is not being used widely due to the reasons given below:

! There is lack of research and developmental information in respect of its rate ofapplication, amount applied and frequency adopted. However, research effortsare being focussed on this aspect but there is a lack of information in respect ofvaried agroclimatic conditions and crops.

! In India, there is a subsidy policy for normal NPK fertilizers in specified grades.However, for fertigation the requirement of fertilizer is in different grades and itshould be 100 per cent water soluble for its effective application. The fertigationmaterial is either not available in desired form or available at higher price, than theconventional fertilizer.

! Once the fertigation practice is being followed along with drip irrigation systemcauses higher clogging. The farmers must be trained to adopt fertigation along withother chemigation technique.

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES OF FERTIGATION IN HI-TECHHORTICULTURE

The worldwide adoption of microirrigation is linked with horticultural crops, becauseof economic considerations. In India, Government has not given due consideration topromote this sector up to VIII plan period. However, realizing the importance of thissector for national growth, due attention was given from VIII plan period, which hasshown its results well. India has a wide diversity in climatic conditions, provide a betterscope of growing horticultural crops than other countries. Presently, area underhorticultural crops is around 15 million ha. To promote horticulture, aggressive efforts


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are required to bring more area under cultivation through area expansion schemes. Atfirst instance the dryland/rainfed area gets attention, with technological interventionsand adopting microirrigation system at least 20 per cent of this area could be convertedin this sector and in due course of time it will provide a better economy. The other areais the wasteland and up to 3 million ha area from this sector can also be converted forgrowing suitable horticultural crops. Overall promotion of these sectors may involvedevelopment and adoption of microirrigation system. The biggest advantage ofmicroirrigation technology is due to its low rate of water application, i.e. 1-3 lps, besidesother advantage of saving of irrigation water, better quality produce and enhancementof yield.

The additional advantage of microirrigation is that it could be coupled with thefertigation programme and due attention of planners are required to couple this activityfor saving of fertilizer for better quality produce and enhanced yield. In the present eraof globalization and worldwide competitive market these measures are absolutelyessential for economic scale production and to maintain sustainability of production. Topromote fertigation scientific planning is required in terms of selecting a proper grade offertigation material, its concentration, application frequency and coupling it with othermicronutrients to harvest desired quality of produce. A tentative schedule of fertigationhas been drawn for vegetable crops are presented in Table 6. To tap the full potential ofthe system, appropriate policies may be adopted. This calls for an integrated approachand endeavor on the part of both the Central and State Governments, and other agencies.The major steps that may be taken to popularize the microirrigation system are:

OPERATIONAL ASPECT OF MICROIRRIGATION SYSTEM

Since the evolution of microirrigation system, a major problem associated withthe system is the dripper clogging. Discrete particulate matter may produce blockage insystem by chemical precipitation or by microbiological matter either directly or byaggregating inorganic material. If, particulate matter (sand) is the cause of blocking, thesolution is to ensure dust free by improved primary filtration the water pathway in thesystem is larger in bore than the largest particle. However, if chemical precipitation (ormicrobiological aggregation) is the cause of blocking a high velocity of flow to preventsuch precipitation occurring within the system is required. Unfortunately, thesedifferences in needs are still not widely recognized and a tendency has developed toincrease the bore of the water pathway in drip system regardless of the cause of blocking.The need for primary filtration to remove discrete particles is universally accepted andthe maximum permissible particle size ratio of 1 : 10 has been suggested by Peleg (11).

Scope of Fertigation in Hi-tech H

orticulture

209

Table 6. Tentative/suggestive schedule of fertigation for vegetable crops

Note-:- i) The normal grade of fertigation should be 13:13:1312:6:1814:7:145:15:30

ii) The frequency of fertigation should be adopted at least twice a week

Stages of crop

Emerge/transplant to 6 leaf (kg/ha)

Six leaf to fruit set (kg/ha)

Fruit set to fruit size (kg/ha)

Fruit set to end (kg/ha)

Total (kg/ha) Crop

N P2O5 K2O N P2O5 K2O N P2O5 K2O N P2O5 K2O N P2O5 K2O

Potato 44 32 16 26 26 58 130 87 196 - - - 200 145 270

Tomato 55 98 58 35 17 35 30 15 45 30 15 172 150 145 310

Capsicum 55 122 58 35 17 35 30 15 45 30 15 172 150 170 310

Onion 60 107 60 32 33 32 31 15 171 32 32 32 155 185 295

Red cabbage 32 32 32 35 18 35 33 15 173 - - - 100 65 240

Carrot 55 120 58 30 15 171 30 15 171 - - - 115 150 400

Lettuce 55 122 55 35 18 35 - - - - - - 90 140 90

Cucumber 55 121 55 35 17 35 35 17 35 - - - 125 155 125

Watermelon 110 10 20 25 25 25 30 15 75 - - - 165 50 120

Melon 15 15 15 30 15 45 35 18 80 35 17 55 115 65 195


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Mc Elhoe and Hilton (7) found that improving filtration to remove particles greaterthan 25µ rather than 90 µ reduced the level blockages over 80 days operation from92-78 per cent but treatment with intermittent chlorination at 10 ppm for 20 minutesper day on water filtered to 90 µ reduced the level blockage from 92 to10 per cent.Other additives with bactericidal or algicidal properties had similar but less markedeffects. Mc Elhoe and Gibson (6) have confirmed the effect of chlorination but obtainedhigher levels of blockages with chlorinated sand filtered water than with chlorinatedscreen mesh-filtered water.

The clogging problem often discourages the operators and consequently causethe abandoning of the system and return to less efficient method of irrigation. It is thequality of irrigation water, i.e. suspended load, microbial activity and chemicalcomposition, and which, the dripper clogging can be directly related. Fertilizer injectedinto the drip lines may also contribute to clogging. Consistency of water quality must beconsidered and filtration be planned for the average worst condition. Open water suchas lakes, ponds, rivers streams and canals can vary widely in quality and often containsa large amount of organic matter and silt. Warm weather light and slow moving or stillwater favour rapid algal growth. The water may also be chemically unstable and producechemical precipitates in pipes and drippers.

To rectify the problem for system operation for several years without treatment.Morris and Black (9) suggest slug dosing with chlorine at 1000 ppm for 24 hours todestroy organic matter. In places, where bore water is used for microirrigation thechemical composition of water will have an important bearing on the source of cloggingmaterial and specific action to overcome each problem may be required. Peleg (11)suggests that where precipitation of carbonates is a major source of blockages, treatmentwith one per cent hydrochloric acid for about 10 minutes will clear partially blockedsystem. Black (2) suggests this problem can be minimized, if, the reticulation system isburied a few centimetres below the soil surface to reduce the temperature risesresponsible for the precipitation of carbonates from the soluble bicarbonates. Biochemicalprecipitation of iron and sulphur produces blockages from well water in florida (4).Sulphur precipitation can be reduced by reducing the pH of water and iron precipitationmay be reduced by chlorination. Calcium and oxidative iron precipitation have beensuccessfully prevented from causing blockages in Australia (3) by injecting poly-phosphates as chelating material into the irrigation water from 3 to 5 ppm.


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RECOMMENDATIONS TO PROMOTE MICROIRRIGATION ANDFERTIGATION

Microirrigation technology has been recognized as an answer to meet the increasingdemand of water for irrigation, especially for horticultural crops as this method hasabout 95 per cent efficiency. It ensures increase in crop yield, higher quality of crop,less water and energy consumption, less chemicals and fertilizer use, reduced leachingand run-off and lees weeds and soil compaction. There has been significant increase inthe area under microirrigation in the country, brought about mainly due to governmentalintervention. Investments of Rs 4,000 million have been made by the Government forpromoting microirrigation which has resulted in capital formation and creation of assets.

The financial assistance provided by the Government along with infrastructurecreated by drip manufactures and the concerted efforts of farmers have helped to bringsubstantial area under microirrigation in the country. In general, about 22 per cent ofthe area is covered under coconut. Other crops are mango, grape, banana, pomegranate,arecanut etc. About 1.2 lakh ha is supposed to be covered during the ninth plan. Presently,more than 80 per cent of coverage is restricted in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu where water is scarce. Increased yield, reduced harvestingtime and economy in water use have been the factors, which promote the adoption ofthis system particularly in high-value horticultural crops. With the expansion of areamany problems have surfaced which would require to be addressed for larger adoptionof the system. Microirrigation system in India could be promoted effectively if the issueof research, development and promotion could be taken up simultaneously. Some ofthe important issues are :

" The system should be designed to suit the agroclimatic conditions of the area andspecific care should be taken for the existing orchard so as sufficient soul mass isprovided wetting to avoid soil moisture stress.

" The adequate measures are required to prevent clogging of the system.

" Maintenance schedule may be strongly adhered to, so that it provides a desiredlevel of uniformity in the field.

" The adequate infrastructure is required to augment the need of after sales serviceof the system, spares of the system and training to the farmers.

" The appropriate trainers' training programme need to be developed so that itcould meet out the requirement of the entire country.


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" Research experiments could be carried out after following a uniform and effectiveapproach of irrigation scheduling. Microirrigation system could adopt FAO Penman- montieth (FAO Publication No. 56) method for estimating crop waterrequirement. Suitable correction factors for crop coefficient could be developedfor different agroclimatic region.

" The annual covergage of area under microirrigation in the country need to beincreased to at least 50,000-60,000 ha against the current level of 30,000-40,000ha.

" More efficient applications such as subsurface drip irrigation have been developedin other countries, which need to be tested for adoption and application underIndian conditions.

" There is a need to popularize fertigation to economize the use of fertilizers.

CONCLUSION

Fertigation is very important activity to be undertaken with microirrigation systemto harvest quality produce at competitive price, boost up the export and promote hi-tech horticulture. The R&D efforts are required to develop package of practices fordifferent agroclimatic conditions and efforts of Government are required to encouragefertilizer manufacturers to develop desired fertigation material at competitive marketrates. The farmers should be trained to adopt these technologies as per scientificrecommendations to produce quality products. The Government effort in these directionswill help in enhancing the overall GDP of the country and in turns its prosperity.

REFERENCES1. Bester, D. H., Lotter, D. C. and Veldman, G. H. (1974). Drip Irrigation on Citrus. Proc. 2nd Int.

Drip Irrig. Congr., pp. 58-64.

2. Black, J.D F. (1971). Daily flow irrigation (Third issue ). Publ. Dep. Agric. Vict. H191, p. 23.

3. Bucks, D.A. and Nakayama, F.S. (1980). Injection of fertilizer and other chemicals for dripirrigation. Proc. Agri.-Tif Irr. Conf., Houston, Texas, Irrigation Association, Silver Spring,Maryland, pp. 166-80.

4. Ford, H.W. and Tucker, D.P.H. (1974). Clogging of drip systems from metabolic products ofiron and sulfur bacteria. Proc. 2nd Int. Drip Irrig. Congr., pp. 212-14.

5. Marsh, A. W., Branson, R. L., Davbis, S., Gustafson, C. D. and Aljibury, F. K. (1975). Dripirrigation, Univ. Calif., Berkley, Leaflet. 2740, pp. 1-4.

6. Mc Elhoe, B.H. and Gibson, W. (1974). Chemical treatment of filtration drip irrigation. Pap.Annu. Conf. Hawaiian Sugar Tech., 1974.


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7. Mc Elhoe, B.H. and Hilton, H.W.(1974). Chemical treatment of drip irrigation water. Proc. 2ndInt. Drip Irrig. Congr., pp. 215-20.

8. Miller, R. L., Rolston, D. E., Rauschkolb, R. S. and Wolfe, D. W. (1976). Drip application ofnitrogen is efficient. Calif. Agric. 30 : 176-78.

9. Morris, I.R. and Black, J.D.F. (1973). Removing sediments from system irrigation laterals. Vict.Hort. Dig., 17 : 14-16.

10. O' Neill, M. K., Gardner, B. R. and Roth, R. L. (1979). Orthophosphoric acid as a phosphorusin trickle irrigation. Soil Sci. Am. J. 43 : 283-96.

11. Peleg, D. (1974). Formation of blockages in drip irrigation systems: their prevention andremoval. Proc. 2nd Int. Drip Irrig. Congr., pp. 203-08.

12. Phene, C. J., Fouss, J. L. and Sanders, I. C. (1979). Water nutrient herbicides management ofpotatoes with trickle irrigation. Am. Potato. J. 56 : 51-59.

13. Rauschkolb, R. S., Rolston, D. E., Miller, R. J., Carlton, A. B. and Burau, R. G. (1976). Phosphorusfertilization with drip irrigation. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 40 : 68-72.

14. Rolston, D. E. and Boradbent, F.E. (1977). Environ. Prof. Agency Bull. EDA-600/2-77-233.

15. Shani, M. (1974). Trickle irrigation. Proc. 2nd Int. Drip Irrig. Congr.

16. Urei, K., Carison, R. M., Henderson, D. W. (1977). Application of potassium fertilizer toprunes through a drip irrigation system. Proc. 7th Int. Agri. Plast. Congr., pp. 211-14.

AUTOMATION IN HI-TECH HORTICULTURE FOREFFICIENT RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

T.B.S. Rajput1 and Neelam Patel2

Hi-tech horticulture is the deployment of any technology, which is modern, lessenvironment dependent, capital intensive and has the capacity to improve the productivityand quality of horticultural crops. Shortage of manpower, capable of undertakingrepetitive tasks effectively and efficiently are forcing many industries to automate manyof their processes. This paper presents the status and explore the scope for automationand robotics in different segments of horticulture including nursery mechanization, sowingand transplanting of vegetable crops, irrigation, insect pest management, weedmanagement, harvesting and transportation, grading, packaging, post-harvest, coldstorage/ cool chain and precision farming.

AUTOMATION IN HI-TECH HORTICULTURE

Nursery Mechanization

The necessary root media can be pulverized, mixed, pasteurized and filled in potsor trays but required equipment for the purpose needs development. The root mediacan be mixed in batches by modifying the concrete mixer. The pasteurization can bedone by applying steam to rooting media by maintaining the media at 60-82oC forrequired duration. Portable steam generator should be used to generate steam andaerated steam may be passed through perforated pipes buried below the media beds.The potting media may be filled in seedling trays/pots for transplanting, using screwaugur. The seeds can be sown using precision planters, which need development forIndian conditions. A frequency domain sensor with 4 cm long electrodes was calibratedfor measurement of volumetric water content and EC for use in growing media forhorticultural crops. Linear relations between permittivity epsilon (dielectric constant)and bulk electrical conductivity (Ecb) were found in rockwool, allowing to estimate theEC of medium solution (Ecm) up to at least 6 mS/cm after temperature correction (2).

1Principal Scientist and 2Scientist, Water Technology Centre, Indian Agricultural Research Institute,New Delhi 110 012.


Automation in Hi-tech Horticulture for Efficient Resource Management

215

Sowing and Transplanting

Direct sowing of some horticultural and flower crops is inappropriate because ofunreliable germination or high cost of seed. Pricking out and replacing seedlings intrays is expensive in terms of experienced manpower, and the requirement is mainly ina relatively short period in spring and early summer. The development of automation inhorticulture is briefly considered and a computer controlled machine for the automaticplanting of seedlings in boxes was developed by Trentini (8). It lifts the seedlings with aplug of soil from the trays and transplants them at the required spacings.

It is of modular construction and can handle a variety of seedlings at the sametime. It can transplant 2,000 seedlings in a hectare with a single grip, and 5,800 whenthe actuator is fitted with 3 grippers. A worker manually picking and transplantingseedlings can handle 900-1,200 plants over an 8 hour shift. The transplanting of nurseryin field is labour intensive and seedling transplanters for different crops are required.Crops like onion, which need close spacing need bare root transplanter. Widely-spacedcrops like cabbage, cauliflower, brinjal etc. need tray or block type seedlings transplanter.The raising of seedlings in block and transplanting increase the accuracy and efficiencyof transplanting. The necessary systems for transporting the seedlings, filling in thetransplanter and transplanting system needs development.

Soil Moisture Measurement

The continuous and precise measurement of soil water content, is often a key forthe interpretation of results measured in field, laboratory and greenhouse experiments.This is especially true for studies on water consumption by plants and its role in thescheduling of irrigation. Several moisture-measuring devices are available includingresistance block, tensio-meter and neutron moisture probe. The direct measurement ofsoil moisture matrix content is advantageous over other commonly used methods wherethe measured matrix potential is transformed into moisture content by soil moistureretention curve. To monitor soil moisture dynamics during and between irrigation timedomain reflectometry (TDR) method may be used. A sensor which continuously monitorsleaf thickness in field with an accuracy of 1 µ, was developed and field tested over aperiod of six growing seasons. The suitability of three different electrical componentswas investigated as transducers of linear changes in leaf thickness to a measurableelectrical signal. A strain gauge based on a miniature printed circuit of a wheat-stonebridge fastened integrally to the face of a spring steel blade was found to be sufficientlyaccurate, able to withstand all ambient weather phenomena and agro-technical practices,without interrupting normal leaf functions. Concurrent research demonstrated that there


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is a linear and significant correlation between leaf thickness and leaf turgor potential(R2 > 0.9), which in turn has been shown to be an accurate and sensitive measure ofplant-water status as it affects plant metabolism.

Plastic Mulching

Use of dry leaves, straw, hay, stones etc. have been in use as mulch materials tocover the soil around the plants to make conditions more conducive for their growththrough in-situ moisture conservation and weed control. Introduction of plastic film asmulch increases the efficiency by improved moisture conservation, increased soiltemperature and elimination of weed growth and provides for automation. Laying ofmulch is a labour intensive job. A small mulch-laying machine has been developed byPDC, IARI Centre, which may be put to extensive field trials and made commerciallyavailable to farmers.

Irrigation

The increase in understanding of soil-plant relationship has given rise to the conceptthat the best use of available water resources and optimum plant performance can berealized by prevention of moisture stress. Information on soil water potential to be usedto automatically control the operation of a microirrigation system. Granular matrix sensorsmay be used to provide soil-water potential data. A data-logger to be programmed tomaintain soil water potential at constant level by high frequency irrigations (up to 8times/day) using controllers connected to solenoid valves. Soil-water potentialmeasurements would provide the feedback necessary to automatically schedule high-frequency drip irrigation. The feedback allows the maintenance of nearly constant soil-water potential in root zone. Maintenance of constant soil-water potential in root zonecould result in optimum crop growth with a low leaching potential.

Conventional methods of irrigation such as furrow irrigation, border irrigation,basin irrigation and corrugation irrigation cannot effectively control the water applicationrate. This could give rise to over irrigation, under irrigation, build-up of salinity, water-logging etc. Over and above these, appreciable amounts of useful irrigation water couldbe lost due to percolation beyond the root zone. Automated irrigation equipment certainlyappears to be a valid concept, given our shrinking water resources and the surface andgroundwater pollution problems that could occur with excess water application. Farmersneed to apply water only when it is needed and in the required amount. The concept ofapplying irrigation water at various rates in pockets of the field would further improvewater-use efficiencies. Lowlying areas usually do not require as much water as hilltopsbut our present technology applies water uniformly which need to be made site-specific.


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Use of different sensors to collect data on soil parameters, weather, crop andfertilizer concentrations to assist in automation of microirrigation system was advocatedby Ehlert et al. (5). An algorithm for preparing fertilizer solutions based on soilcharacteristics was suggested by Savvas and Adamidis (6). Benami and Offen (3)suggested some basics for possibility of different levels of automation of sprinklerirrigation. Microirrigation systems have potential to register very high irrigation efficiencyup to 97 per cent. To achieve this precision control and automated operation throughuse of computers are required. Progressive Indian farmers would like to go for commercialcultivation of fruit, vegetable, flower and other horticultural crops in open air and undercontrolled environmental conditions, using automated microirrigation systems. Furtheremphasis will be to increase the production by accurate application of nutrients andirrigation water according to physiological growth of crop and prevailing agroclimaticconditions. The know-how of production, operation and maintenance of automatedmicroirrigation systems is almost nil in India. This technology packages are bought atexorbitant costs from countries such as Israel and United States. In all such instances,the technical know-how is not revealed to Indian users. Therefore, efforts need to bemade to develop indigenous automated microirrigation system to supply the irrigationand nutrients on the basis of soil moisture distribution and level of nutrients concentrationin plant root zone on real time basis.

Fertilizer Application

The technology for application of fertilizer is reasonably well-developed, at leastfrom a hardware and software viewpoint. Perhaps the main missing link, at this time, isto develop the process for making a fertilizer recommendation based on each soil andcrop type. Application of fertilizers through drip irrigation requires special fertilizerapplicators so as to maintain specific concentration and application rates with respectto irrigation water and crop needs. Though venturi of ¾ inch size and fertilizer tanks areavailable in the country but there is a strong need to have more precise fertigationpumps for efficiently applying the fertilizers along with irrigation water. Appropriateconcentration of nutrients may be mentioned in the root zone soil by way of applicationof required amount of nutrients through irrigation water. The Handion provides a quickinsight into the ion concentration of drain and irrigation water, on the spot and offers aworthwhile addition to your routine laboratory analyses. The Handion enables you totest concentrations of major ions (sodium, potassium, calcium and nitrates) as frequentlyas you like.

Insect Pest Management

Mostly spraying on fruit, vegetable and floricultural crops is being done by manual


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sprayers. These operations are labour intensive and can be mechanized by using power-operated sprayers. The efficient orchard sprayers need development. Tall tree sprayersare also required for old plantations of mango and other plantation crops like coconut.The detection and identification of insect pests is often carried out manually using trappingmethods. However, recent advances in signal processing and computer technologyhave introduced the possibility of automatic identification species by several meansincluding image analysis and acoustics. Insects can generate sound either deliberatelyas a means of communication or as a byproduct of eating, flight or other movement,which may be employed for detection and identification. Scientists at Hull University,Hull, UK, are investigating techniques for automatically identifying Orthoptera(grasshoppers and crickets) with time domain signal processing and artificial neuralnetworks. Twenty-five species of British Orthoptera have been selected as a test set.The preliminary results indicate very high classification rate approaching 100 withextremely low misclassification rates. The technique is widely applicable to many insectpests and other phyla such as birds (4).

Insect infestations in stored agricultural commodities result in annual losses of croresof rupees. Traditional practices for detecting and quantifying infestations in stored grainsinvolve the labour intensive steps of obtaining and visually inspecting grain samples.The electronic grain probe insect counter (EGPIC) system was developed to provideautomated real-time monitoring of insects in stored products. Insect counts from anarray of electronic grain probes distributed throughout a storage volume are transmittedto a central computer for display and temporal analysis. Thus, by providing earlydetection of emerging infestations, EGPIC system can allow managers to initiate targetedcontrol measures on need basis but before substantial losses occur (7).

Weed Control

Environmental as well as economic factors are pushing forward the developmentof sensors and technologies for precision farming practice. Selective application ofherbicide requires information on location of weeds in field. In this work, a sensor forautomatic detection of weeds in field was developed and tested. Visual detection ofweed requires discrimination between soil and plants, as well as discrimination betweencrop and weeds. Weed detection was based on spectral reflectance properties of theirleaves (1). The intra-row weed patented control device, based on DSP-implementedFast Fourier Transform of Light Interruption by Plants in a row and rotating hoe actuatorhas been developed by Van Willegenburg.


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HARVESTING AND POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT

Grading

The better quality and grade of fruits or vegetables get a premium price in themarket. For export of fruits there are different grades based on weight of individualfruits. The export houses require electronic fruit grader. The size grader for sapota,orange, mango, pineapple etc. is required for local markets.

Packaging

Around 30 per cent of the produce gets spoiled during the marketing chain fromfarm to retailer under Indian conditions. The proper packaging of fruits, flowers andvegetables for internal trade and export needs development.

Transporting

Fruits and vegetables need very careful harvesting and transporting. The highcapacity harvesters for mango, guava, sapota, orange, pineapple, etc. need development.Advances have been made in the development of a fruit picking robot. Together withVan-Hentten (IMAG) path planning algorithms, which include collision avoidance, arebeing developed for the (IMAG) fruit picking robot, design for cucumber harvesting.The harvesters for reduction of labour for onion, cabbage, cauliflower, tomato etc. arerequired.

Indian fruits and vegetables sector is the largest in the world, accounting for over9 per cent of total world output. It will continue to expand rapidly, its growth beingdriven by raising income and increasing demand from current low levels of per capitaconsumption. Today, the sector is dominated by fresh market. However, there is alsoan opportunity for players in the processed food sector to improve the quality and priceperformance of their products. Despite, low per capita availability, India is already thelargest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world.

Cold Storage/Cool Chain

The application of refrigeration techniques in preservation and storage of perishablesis important in the present context. The bumper production and limited seasons ofharvesting of fruits and vegetables have established the impressiveness of refrigeratedstorage. Cold storages are important vital organs of an efficient marketing system.

Indian agriculture is characterized by small-scale and labour-intensive operations.The small farms farmers should concentrate their activities on field based on empiricalknowledge. For the management of a farm of several hectare it becomes difficult for the


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farmers to evaluate the variability within each cultivated field. Positioning by using GPStechnique, automatically sensing systems etc. may enable to generate field maps toanalyse the spatial and temporal variability. Sensors based variable control machinecan be used for managing such large-scale farms because of the requirement of highspeed operations (Table 1).

Management scale (ha)

Positioning for operations

Soil and yield mapping in a field

Variable rate control

0 –1 Empirical determination and intuition

Average for each field Manual control with a monitor

1-10 Automatic field based survey or machine positioning

Variability within a field determined by yield monitor

Operator’s skill with monitoring and automated machinery

10 GPS-oriented + field-based machine positioning

Variability within a field determined by GPS-based sensors + remote sensing

Sensor-based variable rate control with GPS/GIS

Table 1. Scale dependent technology requirement for horticulture

Varying the rates of crop inputs to meet site-specific needs makes economic andenvironmental sense. Candidates for variable application include major plant nutrients(P, K and N), lime, seed rate, pesticides, manure, soil amendments, water and tillage.However for each input, a clear strategy must be developed to accurately guide thatvariable application.

With variable-rate input controllers, growers can spontaneously respond to sitevariation they observe, while traversing a field. An example is the planter tractor operatorwho manually varies seeding rates in a field based on changes in soil tilth, cloddiness,quantity of crop residue, or landscape position. Unfortunately, varying input ratesmanually can be very subjective and adversely affected by operator fatigue. Typically,varying crop inputs will be based on some pre-planned strategy that is related to fieldcharacteristics. The aim of any variable-rate input strategy is the development of anaccurate application map. This is the blueprint that determines the level and location ofinputs applied to the field. Grid soil sampling has improved the accuracy of fertilizerapplication in several ways. First, it represents a large increase in spatial informationcompared to whole-field composite sampling, or no sampling at all. Second, it hasoften exposed spatial features previously unknown about a field.

Grid soil sampling also has several technical limitations. First, unguided grid soil


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sampling pattern ignore what growers already know about their fields through directexperience or from soil survey maps. Secondly, only the simplest geostatistical methodsare considered appropriate for fields containing fewer than 100 geo-referenced samples.Increasingly, agronomists are moving to a 'management zone' concept as the basis forvarying crop inputs across variable fields.

In this context, a precision farming management zone is defined as 'a portion of afield that expresses a homogeneous combination of yield-limiting factors for which asingle rate of a specific crop input is appropriate'. Thus, delineation of managementzones is simply a way of classifying the spatial variability within a field. To be successful,the delineation strategy must be based on true cause and effect relationships betweensite characteristics and crop yield (Table 2).

PRECISION FARMING

There are two methodologies for implementing precision or site-specific farming.Each method has unique benefits and can even be used in a complementary or combinedfashion.

Map-based Technologies

Currently, majority of available technologies and applications in site-specific farmingutilize the map-based method of pre-sampling, map generation and variable-rateapplication. This method is most popular due to lack of sufficient sensors for monitoring

Table 2. Types of site characteristics on which precision farming managementzones could be based

Type of site characteristic Examples

Quantitative, stable Elevation/topography, soil organic matter, pH, CaCO3, soil electrical conductivity (EC), high-intensity soil survey maps, surface curvature and hydrological properties

Quantitative, dynamic Yield monitor data, weed density and distribution, crop canopy appearance, temperature, soil moisture and salinity, soil and plant nitrogen status

Qualitative, stable Soil colour, first order NRCS soil survey maps (1:15,800 scale), immobile nutrients (P and K), soil pathogen and pest patterns, depth to subsoil, soil aeration/drainage status

Intuitive/historical Grower knowledge of field characteristics, overall yield patterns and historical practices, soil tilth and quality, past crop rotations, old field boundaries, land leveling and drainage patterns, subsoil characteristics


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soil conditions. Also, laboratory analysis is still the trusted and reliable method fordetermining most soil properties. However, cost of soil testing limits the number ofsamples that a farmer can afford to test.

Detailed mapping of fields is easily performed using a computer programmesometimes a GIS (geographical information system). Some programme can even usealgorithms for 'smoothing' or interpolating the data between sampling points. Othersuse a constant value for the measured property over the entire area. In either case, themapping facilitates long-term planning and analysis. It provides an opportunity to makedecisions regarding the selection and purchase of seed and chemicals well in advanceof their time of use. Maps are especially good for collecting data for variables, whichdo not fluctuate from season to season. Variables such as organic matter, soil textureand possibly yield potential change slowly, if at all. Soil fertility with regard to particularnutrients such as phosphorous, and potassium may change from year to year but onecan probably obtain benefits from sampling only every 2-3 years. Other nutrients suchas nitrogen, may vary considerably even during the growing season and requiremeasurements and mapping every year.

In order to use these computer's generated maps they must be converted to aform, which can be used by the variable-rate applicator. The applicator's controllerthen calculated the desired amount of chemical to apply at each moment in time. Again,a DGPS system must be used to continuously correlate the location in the field with acoordinate on the map and the desired application rate for that coordinate. Mostvariable-rate controllers actually attempt to synchronize the application rate with theposition in the field by 'looking ahead' on the map for the next change in rate. This takesinto account the time required to change the rate coming out of the applicator and theground speed of the tractor. One system that utilizes this pre-sampling and map-controlledapplication is called Soilectiontm and is currently prompted by Soil Teq, Inc., Minnetonka,MN. Variable rates of up to 5 liquid chemicals, may be applied by this system based onthe computerized map. One benefit of the map-based method is the a prior knowledgeof the needed amounts of chemicals, or inputs, for the operations for example a farmerknows exactly how much fertilizer, he will need before he even enters the field (similarto when constant rate application is used).

Sensor-based Technologies

Some technology is becoming available utilizing the method, which can be describedas real-time sensing and variable rate control. One such system is marketed by CropTechnology, Inc., Houston, Texas, USA. Their system the Soil Doctor R, claims to


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'examine soil type, organic matter, cation exchange capacity, soil moisture and nitratenitrogen levels' using a 'rolling electrode'. By sensing these properties on the go theneed for a positioning system is eliminated and the data processing is greatly reducedbecause no maps are required. However, if, the operator desires to record the sensoroutputs and use this information for other operations, the system is capable of interfacingwith a GPS and generating site-specific maps. This type of system also has a problemwith synchronizing the sensor measurements with the desired application rate for thesame site. In some instances, the sensor may have to be mounted on the front of thetractor or spreader truck to give the variable-rate applicator's controller enough time toadjust the rate accordingly before it passes the sensed location. In order to effectivelyaccomplish this real time control, the sensors must respond almost instantaneously tochanges in the soil. For example, a bulk fertilizer spreader truck may operate at fieldspeeds of 40 km/hr. This means that 11 m will have passed beneath the truck, if, the lagtime of the system is one second. Other researchers are also actively developing sensorsfor real-time measurements of nitrate nitrogen, soil pH, potassium and phosphorousand soil texture. If, these efforts succeed, site-specific farming will become even moreeconomical possibly even automatic. Sensing the future significant current researchactivities focus on developing more sensors for precision farming. In the future, we mayhave electronic sensors that detect soil qualities on-the-fly, making it unnecessary topull soil samples, analyse them, create maps, and then return to the field to distribute thefertilizer.

Farming Equipments

Controllers

Soilection System/Ag-Chem Soil-Teq : The Soilection System components includeFalcon controller (with keypad, computer and monitor) and software, product meteringcontrols, ground speed sensor, navigation system, and feedback sensors and the systemis used on air spreaders or sprayers.

Sprayer Plus (BEE Ag-Electronics) : The Sprayer Plus can be used with mosttypes of sprayer. The system can automatically adjusts the sprayer for changes in speed,flow or pressure.

Precision Control System (DICKEY-john) : The PCS is a controller system forapplication of liquid or granular fertilizer, herbicides, pesticides, and anhydrous ammonia.

Mechanical Rate Adjustors

Kinze Mfg, Inc. Rate Reducing Clutch : The Two Speed Point Row Clutch is for


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planters, and allows change from full rate to a reduced rate using an in cab switch. Bychanging sprockets, the operator can control planting rates in increments of 5 per cent.

Air Delivery System (Progressive Farm Products Inc.) : An additional option isthe dry fertilizer air delivery system has quick sprockets for rate changes from 75 lbs/acre to 1,000 lbs/acre. The delivery system is used with the SPRA-KADDY.

Sprayers

Ag-Chem Liquid Systems : Ag-Chem sprayers feature independent, retractable boomoperation, pressure throttling, stainless steel tanks with baffles and an injection systemis optional.

Automatic Equipment Mfg Co. : Automatic MB and MC series sprayers can beused in a wide variety situations, row crops, vegetables, orchards and range, applyingboth pesticides and fertilizers.

Air Spreaders

Ag-Chem Air Spreaders : The Terra-Gator air spreaders may be used independentlyof the Soilection System. The equipment includes a radar system with a Raven SCS700 monitor/controller for travel and application readings, with in cab on the go rateadjustments possible.

Concord Air System 2400 : The Air system 2400 is a tow between spreader thatuses a ground-driven metering cup with spiral fluting. The system also features a loadingand unloading auger, electric clutch and a remote on/off switch.

Lor-Al Air Max V : The Air-Max spreader is a dry application machine that usesDICKEY-john CMS/CCS 100 for electronic control of rates. The system features'Quad-Lap' coverage, delivering a four time multiple product overlap for a uniformpattern, potatoes and seed.

Application of Remote Sensing and GIS techniques is done to assess the land andwater resources and to identify areas suitable for growing different horticultural crops.The advent of remote sensing and space technology has added a new dimension toagriculture. Remotely sensed data have the capability to provide cost-effective andtimely synoptic observations with high observational density over relatively large areas.Now through remote sensing it is possible to have real time reporting and repetitivemonitoring of temporal and spatial changes in the earth surface characteristics. GISprovides a digital representation of land characteristics used and performs the complexmap overlays and spatial analysis to develop input data for the hydrologic and water


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quality models. Remote sensing integrated with GIS has been used effectively by manyresearchers worldwide in crop assessment, agricultural water management, hydrologicalstudies, sediment yield modeling, watershed management and environmental studies.

Temporal variation in land use and land cover (LU/LC) study area is a most desirableinformation for crop growth, biomass assessment and crop disease identification.Conventional methods for LU/LC classification are accurate but expensive, timeconsuming and difficult for updating and repetition. Remote sensing and GIS have givenus the opportunity to merge data sets and to update the LU/LC information by a lowcost operation. By analysis of land use and land cover, soil topography, water resourcesand other ancillary derived information from satellite images, now it is possible torecommend the farmers about suitable areas for the horticultural crops.

REFERENCES1. Alchanatis,V., Hetzroni, A., Edan, Y., Shmulevich, I., Galili, I., Seginer, J., Bailey, B. and Gieling,

T. (2001). Multispectral imaging sensor for site specific application of chemicals. Proceedingsof the Third International Symposium on Sensors in Horticulture, Haifa. Israel, ActaHorticulturae No.562 : 119-25.

2. Baas, R., Straver, N.A., Shmulevich, I., Galili, I., Seginer, J., Bailey, B. and Gieling, T. (2001). In-situ monitoring water content and electrical conductivity in soilless media using a frequency-domain sensor. Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Sensors inHorticulture, Haifa. Israel. Acta-Horticulturae No.562 : 295-303.

3. Benami, A, and Offen, A. (1995). Irrigation Engineering. Published by AGRIPRO- AgriculturalProject (AGP), Kfar Galim, 30865, Israel, 257pp.

4. Chesmore, E.D., Nellenbach, C., Shmulevich, I., Galili, I. and Seginer, J. and Bailey, B. andGieling, T. (2001). Acoustic methods for the automated detection and identification of insects.Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Sensors in Horticulture, Haifa, Israel.Acta Horticulturae No.562 : 223-31.

5. Ehlert, D., Kloepfer, F. and Frisch, J. (2000). The use of sensors to collect soil parameters,plant parameters and yield data. April 2000 in Veitshochheim. KTBL-Schrift. 2000, No. 390,59-66.

6. Savvas, D. and Adamidis, K. (1999). Automated management of nutrient solutions based ontarget electrical conductivity, pH, and nutrient concentration ratios. J. Pl. Nutrition 22 :1415-32.

7. Shuman, D., Arbogast, R.T., Weaver, D., Shmulevich, I., Galili, I., Seginer, J., Bailey, B. andGieling, T. (2001). A computer-based insect monitoring system for stored-products usinginfrared sensors. Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Sensors inHorticulture, Haifa. Israel, 17-21 August, 1997. Acta Horticulturae No. 562: 243-55.

8. Trentini, L. (1996). An Italian machine for filling seed trays with horticultural and flowerseedlings. Informatore-Agrario-Supplemento 52 : 29, 65-67.

HI-TECH NURSERY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCETO FRUIT CROPS

Gorakh Singh1 and Anju Bajpai2

Over the years, productivity and quality of several horticultural crops have continuedto remain much below the potential, as demonstrated in research trials. There are variousfactors, which contribute towards this low productivity. One of the factors is poorquality seed and planting material. Although a large number of nurseries have beenestablished and many seed companies are operative, there is an acute shortage ofquality seed and planting material. Mechanism for assessing quality of seeds and plantsis weak and farmers are also unaware about the risk in use of poor quality plants.Unlike field crops, a large number of horticultural crops are propagated throughvegetative methods. Although vegetative methods of propagation help in multiplyingtrue-to-type plants, there is high risk of transmission of viral diseases from one generationto other. Sometimes unscrupulous nurserymen even sell seedling plants in place of graftwhen demand is high. Similarly, quality seeds are also in short supply and often do notmeet the growing requirements. With the opening of world trade by virtue of WTO, thescene has been changed drastically. The scene of complacency has to be replaced byour endeavour to produce hi- quality products for fulfilling domestic and globalcommitments. Therefore, in such a scenario, the advent of concept of hi-tech nurserygains momentum and wide acceptability. The need for improved quality produce coupledwith high productivity is one such issue, which has to be tackled with priority. A cursorylook at the past interventions demonstrates aptly, the enormous dividents horticulturesector has paid to the GDP. Accordingly, as per the rough estimates 7 per cent annualgrowth has been fixed for the next plan project for the horticulture. This is achievable,if, the potential is tapped and harnessed in a systematic and sustainable manner. Theemerging challenges of the WTO and increased consumer awareness make the qualitycontrol of the produce absolutely necessary. In such a scenario, where domestic andexport markets are highly competitive, hi-tech interventions are emerging trends tomeet the challenges.

1 Sr. Scientist (Hort.), 2 Scientist SS (Cytogenetics), Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture, Lucknow 227 107


Hi-tech Nursery with Special Reference to Fruit Crops

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HI-TECH HORTICULTURE AND PRECISION FARMING

The promising gains of horticulture will have to be sustained in coming years tomeet the aspirations of growing population. This would be feasible only throughdeployment of modern hi-tech application and precision farming methods. Hi-techhorticulture has been defined as the interventions in horticulture which deploy moderntechnologies, viz. microirrigation, fertigation, protected cultivation, micropropagationetc. These technologies may be capital intensive but are less environment dependentand have the capacity to improve the productivity and quality of horticultural produce.The technology is best option for improving land productivity and is beyond doubt thebest source for employment generation in rural areas which in turn will improve theeconomic condition of farmers.

Hi-tech Nursery

Hi-tech nursery is a place where plants are raised from seeds/other vegetativemethods for production of new plants under protected and controlled conditions. Allthe operations starting from soil preparation to seedling packing are done with the useof technical knowledge and thus they are expected to deliver good success. Since thepropagules get appropriate conditions for growth and development and the practicalskill of the grower is assured, hence seedlings/plantlets perform well in the field.Therefore, there is an urgent need for strengthening the concept of hi-tech nursery,where propagation is done under protected condition. Protected cultivation is intendedto mean some level of control over plant microclimate to alleviate one or more ofabiotic stresses for optimum plant growth (3). The microclimatic parameters aretemperature, light, air composition and nature of root medium. Success in multiplicationunder protected conditions increase even in unfavourable agroclimatic conditions thanopen field conditions. Indeed, plant multiplication particularly in greenhouse started inIndian only during the recent past. Therefore, a vast untapped potential exists to derivebenefits on a large scale. Government of India continues to support protected cultivationefforts in the country.

There is a large potential for indigenous technology upgradation and appropriatehuman resource development. Recently, concern about suitable disposal of plasticmaterials used in protected cultivation has also been expressed (3). There is lack ofindigenous information base on relevant technologies for use by the prospective usersand entrepreneurs. Due to control over environmental and other factors, it is expectedthat the clonal propagation would be more successful and profitable. At Samstipur,seeds of papaya Pusa Dwarf sown in a bamboo fram naturally ventilated greenhouse


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enhanced seed germination rate (14 days verses 21 days) and higher germinationpercentage (31-55-70.55 per cent) as compared to open field condition (Table 1).Similarly at Bhubaneswar, the grafting period was extended to whole year instead ofonly monsoon under field conditions. Due to availability of required environment ingreenhouse, i.e. with partial shade and misting facilities, good graft union was recorded(8 and 9).

High Quality Planting Material

Improvement of technology base and other strategies being recommended willnot have the desired impact unless high quality of planting material is not made available.By and large in most of the cases the quality of planting material now being supplied ispoor both in respect of genetic values and health standards. There are a large numberof variations within the cultivar. There is also a degeneration of varieties in certaincases. Variations are also observed in productivity and quality amongst the trees ofvariety. The plants supplied by nurseryman do not turn out to be true-to-variety, whatto talk the best within a variety. It is therefore necessary that the best tree or tree ofoutstanding merit (TOM) within each variety be selected, earmarked and used as mothertree for future multiplication. Competitions to be organized at village, block and statelevels to select the best trees in each commercial variety and developed as mothertrees. The growers will get incentive for their maintenance and the Government willhave right to purchase bud wood. Each state should establish a varietal foundation forstocking the parent material. The varietal foundation will serve as mother tree resourcecentre for the supply of limited quantity of scion wood to government and privatenurseries for mass multiplication, facilities for which to be created in both public andprivate sector.

Table 1. Enhanced seed germination of papaya under bamboo polyhouse

Germination (per cent) Greenhouse Open field

Observation 2000-01 2001-02 Mean 2000-01 2001-02 Mean

No. of days for germination 12 16 14 14 28 21 Germination (per cent) 78.4 62.7 70.55 48.7 14.6 31.65

Days taken to attain optimum height

48 63 55.5 61 83 72

Healthy seedlings before transplanting (per cent))

90 74 82 71 32 51.5

Source: Mishra (9)


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Selection of Mother PlantSelection of mother plant is to be given top priority as it decides the success of

propagation including production and productivity. The performance will depend onthe source of scion material which should be taken from the tree fulfilling all the scientificcriteria for best performance. These are:! The parent plant must have been tested for its performance over a number of

years.! It must be free from transmittable diseases and in a healthy condition.! The fruit shape, size and quality must conform to the typical specification of the

variety.Quality Control of Planting Material

The average productivity of most horticultural crops in India is low. A wide gapexists between obtained and potential yields with improved varieties and technologies.The following strategies are suggested for quality control.! Production of disease-free and quality planting material of only released and

recommended varieties/ hybrids both in public and private sectors.! There should be strict quality control in the production of planting material.! Registration act should be enforced in all the states.

! Nursery production and maintenance should be modernized.

Promotion of Hi-tech Nursery in India

Considering the immense scope and potential of hi-tech production of plantingmaterial, a new scheme on hi-tech horticulture and precision farming has been includedduring the X plan. A step towards promoting precision farming was taken by redesigningthe Plasticulture Development Centre (PDC) as Precision Farming Development Centre(PFDC) with a view to introduce the concept of hi-tech horticulture. Monitoring andimplementation of the scheme would be through the National Committee on PlasticultureApplication in Horticulture (NCPAH), which is proposed to be renamed as NationalCouncil for Precision Farming (NCPF). Presently, NCPAH has set up 18 PFDCs invarious State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) and ICAR Research Institutes. Of whichone centre is at Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture (CISH), Lucknow. Theresearch and developmental work carried out at CISH, Lucknow, included productionof quality horticultural produce, also in getting higher extent of success in the productionof quality planting material and that too almost throughout the year.


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Of late, National Horticulture Board, Gurgaon, has launched a set of innovative-and entrepreneur-driven schemes during 2002 for boosting horticulture sector in thecountry. The main emphasis has been given for production of seed and quality plantingmaterial. Similarly, NABARD has also played a very important role to make the creditavailable for hi-tech horticulture. Several steps are taken by NABARD to boost theproduction and productivity level of horticultural crops. These are :

! The State Horticulture Departments are being advised to supply adequate qualityplanting material so as to improve the productivity. They are being advised toopen more nurseries in potential areas and also increase the production of plantingmaterial of existing nurseries.

! The above issues are being taken up regularly with the State Governments incollaboration with NABARD.

! To increase the production and productivity level of horticultural crops, NABARDhas identified some thrust areas for production of genuine quality planting material,mass production of quality planting material by tissue culture, support transfer oftechnology and its adoption, identifying crop/ activity-specific thrust areas andworking on them to achieve desired targets, and plasticulture.

Mechanization of Hi-tech Nursery

Hi-tech needs mechanization in nurseries, their optional use and efficiency. Thereis a need for developing equipments, which can pulverize, mix and sterilize root mediain pot or tray. Screw august need to be developed for filling seedling trays or pots fortransplanting. Seed sowing can be assisted by precision planters and drippers/microsprinklers are needed for irrigation. Therefore, initial support for establishing suchnurseries which are equipped with modern facilities for microirrigation, greenhouses,plant health clinics etc. are needed, in both public and private sectors.

Plastics in Nursery Management

With changing scenario in India, horticulture after liberalization is totallyrevolutionalized. With this the demand of genuine planting/seed material has increasedtremendously. Presently, plant material is being supplied to farmers by private nurserymenand government agencies. The signing of WTO by the Government of India, theimportance of planting material would be more pronounced. The most important segmentof horticulture that has largely been benefited by use of plastics in nursery managementis starting from the use of polybags for raising seedlings/rootstocks, a plastics strip to tiethe graft union, a plastic cap for covering the mass multiplication of grafts and mist


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chamber for rooting of cuttings tohardening of tissue-cultured plants(Fig. 1). Greenhouse hasrevolutionized the nursery sectorin different PFDCs. It has becomean integral part of nurseryactivities, grafts, rooting of cuttingsof fruit, vegetable, ornamental,medicinal and aromatic plants.With all these advantages theefficiency of nursery has beenimproved tremendously. The limitation of seasons has been overcome and enabledmass mutiplication of plants almost throughout the year. In order to take benefits ofnew opportunities that are emerging in horticultural scenario, comprehensive information

about various facets ofgreenhouse technology especiallywith regard to their designing,layout and construction as perspecification using standardmaterials and management oftemperature/ light/ humidity/dripirrigation (Fig. 2) and nutrition forproduction and multiplication ofvarious crops, obtained byconducting location-specificresearch was found to be veryessential.

Plant Multiplication Under Greenhouse Conditions

Horticultural crop propagation is hampered by weather variations and occasionalvagaries like storm, drought, floods etc. These tend to have adverse effect on yield andproduction of the crop. Greenhouse provides protection to the crop from these exigentsituations and gives additional benefit for growing off-season crops. The technologyenables growing of crop at a particular location irrespective of prevalent agroclimaticconditions at the time. However, cost of cultivation is proportional to the differencebetween ambient climatic conditions and crop microclimatic conditions (2). Generally,for commercial propagation only adequate control over plant environmental conditions

Fig. 1. Cleft grafting of mango under greenhouse coveredwith polytube

Fig. 2. Use of drip irrigation system for production ofquality planting material (before and after multiplicationunder greenhouse)


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is attempted for maximizing theprofits. In other words,greenhouse technology is mostmodern and intensive form ofmass multiplication of qualityplanting material (Fig. 3). Thegreenhouse technology is widelyadopted in western countries. Inour country ample scope exists forprotected multiplication ofhorticultural crops in variedclimatic regions due to followingadvantages.

Round the year propagation can be practised for deriving higher financial benefits.At IARI, New Delhi, round the year propagation of fruit tree nurseries was attemptedin a greenhouse. During April-June and July-August, kinnow, aonla, ber and lime cuttingswere prepared, while during September-November seeds of papaya, mango andjackfruit were germinated. Again in February-March papaya cv. Coorg Honey Dewwas germinated fairly well. The germination was 55.5-61.5 per cent in papaya, 65.5per cent in mango and 68.7 per cent in jackfruit (4). The results of various researchstudies undertaken at different PFDCs for the last few years is described in Tables 1, 2and 3. Besides, some results are :! Successful crop propagation is possible even in extremely adverse and harsh

climatic conditions such as cold arid zone of Leh- Laddakh, arid Rajasthan, highrainfall areas like North-East region of the country etc.

! Higher return per unit area is expected than open field conditions due to increasedsurvival and less mortality.

! Hardening and acclimatization of tissue-cultured plants is done in greenhouse beforetransfer to field.

! The better quality produce would definitely increase the export and foreign currencygeneration.

! Finally protected/greenhouse cultivation opens up employment avenues for ruralyouth.

! Thus the problem of rural migration to cities could be checked to some extent.

The enterprise is attracting many entrepreneurs because of the advantages in terms

Fig. 3. Mass multiplication of mango plants under green-house


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of money and other aspects. However, one of the crucial factors is the ability of producerto harness maximum benefit.

Conventional vs Greenhouse Propagation

The different methods of vegetative propagation need a fair amount of controlover irrigation, humidity and temperature, so that physiological and physical activities ofpropagules is accelerated (11). In case of softwood hardwood cuttings, aftercare is themost critical factor for generation of planting material. Under open field conditions,desiccation and death due to water loss are major causes of mortality before initiationof root formation. Provision of intermittent mist in protected cultivation would preventdesiccation and keep the temperature under control (5 and 13). Under protectedconditions at Solan (H.P.), good germination percentage and seedling vigour wererecorded in apple as compared to open conditions. The GA3 requirements were alsolowered from 50 to 25 ppm (14 and 10).

Table 2. Relative performance of mango grafting under greenhouse incomparison to open field condition at various PFDCs.

Success percentage at various places Uttaranchal (Pantnagar) Orissa (Bhubneswar) Andhra Pradesh

(Hyderabad) Months of grafting aoperation

Green -house condition

Open field condition

Greenhouse condition


Green- house

condition


Apr, 2001 - - 60 30 - - May, 2001 46.67 24.47 50 35 - - Jun, 2001 64.47 33.33 60 50 - - Jul, 2001 100.00 100.00 100 100 - - Aug, 2001 97.80 93.33 100 100 - - Sep, 2001 93.33 51.13 90 80 100 80 Oct, 2001 60.00 53.33 80 70 100 80 Nov, 2001 44.70 31.13 75 50 100 80 Dec, 2001 51.30 8.87 60 30 80 70 Jan, 2002 60.00 8.87 60 30 80 60 Feb, 2002 77.80 17.80 75 45 60 40 Mar, 2002 75.53 28.87 75 40 40 10 Apr, 2002 80.00 84.47 - - - - Source : Shukla, (12); Mishra (9); Shankar (10)


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Table 3. Comparison of propagation of cashewnut, guava and pomegranateunder greenhouse and open field conditions att Bhubneswar andHyderabad.

Crop-year of grafting operations/sources precentage

*Cashewnut *Guava **Pomegranate April 2001 – March 2002 September 2000-

March 2001 June 2000 – March 2001

Month of grafting operation

Green- house

Open field Green- house

Open field Green- house

Open field

Apr 60 35 - - - - May 50 35 - - - - Jun 65 55 - - 90 85 July 90 90 - - 100 80 Aug 90 90 - - 100 80 Sep 70 70 100 85 80 60 Oct 80 60 90 85 70 50 Nov 70 40 80 80 65 50 Dec 60 30 70 70 60 45 Jan (02) 50 25 70 70 50 40 Feb 70 50 65 65 40 20 Mar 70 50 60 60 30 20 Source: *Mahapatra (8); *Mishra (9)

ADVANTAGES

Uniformity and Purity of Propagated Plants

The government interventions of the past decade have generated a paradigamshift in farmers' approach from mere production to productivity (quantity/unit area) torecently profitability (productivity/time/man). The solution to address farmers’ need, asfar as horticultural crops are concerned, lies in developing and propagating superiorand uniform varieties. The horticultural crops like mango, guava, litchi, papaya etc. areheterozygous and outcrossing. Due to this, conventional seed propagation methodologyresult in multiplication of a large population of plants which lack the desirable attributes.Ironically the perennial nature and long gestation period of these trees make initialscreening difficult and often they become a liability to farmers. Similarly, due to strictcontrol over edaphic and environmental conditions, layering and grafting of plantletsare more successful and losses due to mortality of seedlings can be avoided. The controlover temperature of rooting medium and air temperature allows high rate of adventitiousroot formation thereby increasing number of propagated plantlets. Very high temperaturesare detrimental as they tend to indispose the plantlet towards pathogenic invasion and


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increased respiration rate (7). High air temperature stimulates shoot development, ahead of root formation, thus bringing about water loss and desiccation (6). The movementof cell sap accelerates the callus formation which after fusion forms cambium andintermingling of two cell lines (scion and rootstock). Accelerated vascular connectionresults in faster growth and bud emergence. Strict control over sanitary conditionsallows for good growth of propagules, which are not infested with disease and insects.

Genuineness of Planting Material

The genuine planting material can be best supplied by the grower himself. Hence,adoption of hi-tech nursery for production of genuine planting material is gaining groundswith passing time. The potential benefits of the planting material tapped in genetic make-up of the mother plant is known by the grower. Therefore, he may use only superiormother plants for production of nursery. Strict supervision and control can be wellexercised in the greenhouse structures, which is otherwise not possible in the field.

Acclimatization of Micropropagated Plantlets

The transfer of micropropagated plants from culture vessel to soil requires a step-wise hardening procedure which requires protected or greenhouse facilities. Due to thecontrol over microclimate, uniformity of planting material is brought about. The plantsare protected from unpredictable weather conditions and they are more vigorous thanplants grown under open field conditions. Quite understandably, the performance ofplants raised in such hi-tech environments is superior throughout their life-cycle (1).

Economy

The growing commercialization and consumerialistic tendency of society inglobalized economy has made impact in traditional areas of nursery and plantpropagation. The profitability of technology needs to be demonstrated. In case of hi-tech nursery high input cost is easily overcome by huge productivity due to minimalmortality. The bulk production also minimizes the provisions for manuring, soil, irrigationetc. At Pantnager, it was found that cleft grafting percentage was higher in polyhousecondition throughout the year in comparison to open field. During normal grafting period,the success was at par in winter months, whereas it was significantly more underpolyhouse (51.13-77.8 per cent) as compared to open field (8.87-17.8 per cent). Theeconomic evaluation of plastic house for the year round grafting revealed that a netreturn of Rs 39,295 from 75 m2 low-cost polyhouse is obtained in four months (12).

As far as the grower is concerned large-scale production of crop requires abundantplanting material. The loss during transportation and carriage can be avoided by having


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a nearby hi-tech nursery. The timely availability of plantlets also circumvents problemsarising out of erratic weather condition as witnessed in recent times.

Disease and Insect-free Planting Material

Under protected cultivation the plants are raised under strict supervision and timelytreatments to check the disease and insect infestation. Careful nurturing of plants sincevery beginning is responsible for availability of vigorous and healthy plants in abundantquantity.

CONSTRAINTS

Inadequate supply of quality planting material at reasonable rate is a major constraint.Most of the nurseries in private and public sectors do not produce standard plantmaterial, which ultimately affect not only the production potential but also the yield ofquality fruits. These nurseries lack of infrastructural facilities such as greenhouse,mistpropagation units, cold storage, modern irrigation systems, and efficient nurserytools, implements and machinery. Therefore, hi-tech nursery needs to be establishedfor the production of quality planting material. The utility of hi-tech nursery under protectedconditions has been well established. However, major constraints in a large-scaleadoption of greenhouses are involvement of high investments and lack of cost-effectivetechnology for most of the crops for different agroclimatic regions of the country. Asthe technology is in infancy package of practices is yet to be standardized in most of thecases.

The perfection of agro-technology is yet to be studied for hi-tech nursery raising.Thus, there is an urgent need to address the problem of cost-effectiveness and effectivecontrol system, so that hi-tech nursery raising has enhanced efficiency. The Governmentof India has made some interventions during the last 5-year plans. During VIII plan anoutlay of Rs 22 crores was earmarked for promoting protected cultivation andgreenhouse construction. National Horticulture Board, Gurgaon, has also providedassistance in form of soft loans subject to 40 per cent of term loan with maximum ceilingof Rs 100 lakhs to various cooperative societies, NGOs, corporations and privatecompanies for setting up integrated projects. Subsequently in IX plan it came down to20 per cent of loans in the form of capital subsidy scheme of grant-in-aid, upper ceilingbeing 25 lakhs per project. Due to suitability of naturally ventilated greenhouses, assistancewas extended up to 40 per cent of total cost of Rs 200/m2 for maximum of 500 m2 perproject. All these efforts have created an environment for use of protected cultivation.Due to new concept of nursery raising under protected cultivation the benefits are likelyto accrue to entrepreneurs in this area also.


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CONCLUSION

Improving the availability of hybrid seed and healthy planting material of improved/recommended varieties, supported by a network of regional nurseries equipped withdistribution outfits will go a long way for scientific horticulture. The infusion of latesttechnologies has become essential for increased productivity. The demand forhorticultural produce is accelerating with passing time. Unless uniform planting materialof desired type is available, increased productivity levels cannot be achieved. Hence,adoption of frontier technologies like hi-tech nursery for raising plantlets has to beencouraged. The responsibility of providing food and nutritional security to aspiringpopulace, coupled with projected growth rate of 7 per cent can be met by various hi-tech inventions of which hi-tech nursery is the stepping stone. Educational and trainingprogrammes need to be to strengthened for the development of human resource andsustainable progress.

REFERENCES1. Bajpai, A., Chandra, R. and Singh, G. (2002). Strategic use of acclimatization in

micropropagation. In : Souvenir, National Seminar-cum-Workship on Hi-tech Horticultureand Precision Farming, July 26-28, 2002.

2. Chandra, P. (2002). Design and development of greenhouses in India. In : Souvenir, NationalSeminar-cum-Workshop on Hi-tech Horticulture and Precision Farming, July 26-28, 2002.

3. Chandra, P., Shrivastava, R., Dogra, A.K. and Gupta, M.J. (2001). Strategies for developmentof protected cultivation in India. In : Approaches for Sustainable Development of Horticulture.Singh, H.P., Negi, J.P. and Sumuel, J.C. (Eds). DAC, MOA, pp. 92-96.

4. Chandra, P. (20001-2002). Annual Progress Report, Precision Farming Development, Divisionof Agricultural Engineering, IARI, New Delhi.

5. Gardener, E.J. (1941). Propagation under mist. American Nurseryman : 5-7.

6. Hartmann, H.T., Kester, D.E. and Davies, L.T. Jr. (1990). Plant Propagation : Principal andPractices, 5th edn. Prentice Halti Engliwood clffs.

7. Hess, C.E. and Sunder, W.E. (1955). A physiological comparison of the use of mist with otherpropogation procedures used in rooted cuttings. Rep. 14th Int. Hort. Cong.: 1133-39.

8. Mahapatra, L.N. (2001-2002). Annual Progress Report, Precision Farming Development Centre.Deptt. Hort., OUA&T, Bhubaneswar.

9. Mishra, A.P. (2001-2002). Annual Progress Report, Precision Farming Development Centre,RAU, Pusa, Samastipur.

10. Shankar, S. (2001-2002). Annual Progress Report, Precision Farming Development Centre,Deptt. Agric. Eng., A.N.G., Ranga Agric. Univ., Rajendranagar, Hydrabad.


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11. Sharma, V.K. (1991). Raising of nursery plants. In : Encyclopedia of Practical Horticulture.I. Fruits. Deep & Deep Publ. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

12. Shukla, K.N. (2001-2002). Annual Progress Report, Precision Farming Development Centre,Directorate of Experiment Station, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,Pantnagar.

13. Stoutmayer, V.T. and O. Romke, F.L. (1943). Spray humidification and the rooting of greenwood.American Nurseyman 77 : 5-6, 24-25.

14. Thakur, B.C. (2001-2002). Annual Progress Report, Precision Farming Development Centre,Department of Soil Science and Water Management, Dr Y.S. Parmar University of Horticultureand Forestry, Nauni, Solan.

GENETIC ENGINEERING: A STRATEGIC APPROACHFOR HI-TECH HORTICULTURE

Jasdeep Chatrath Padaria1 and Ramesh Chandra2

Horticultural crops constitute a significant component of total agricultural producein India. Since centuries horticultural crops have played a key role in providing nutritional,economic and environmental security and generating employments to the human society.With the advent of new technologies in various fields of biology, new shape, colour, sizeand flavour have been obtained by this domain of agriculture. Immense progress hasbeen made in horticulture sector especially since independence with the release of newvarieties, intensive use of plant protectants, growth stimulants and improved cultivationpractices. The application of new and improved technologies of post-harvest handlingof products and jet age transportation have made horticultural crops an internationaltradable commodity.

With increasing population, urbanization and continuous depletion of naturalresources there has to be a paradigm shift in farmers perception from production toproductivity to profitability. In spite of its prominent position in socio-economic,ecological and nutritional scene of the nation, the progress of horticulture sector is notcommensurate with the actual available potential. In fact, India’s horticultural progressis yet to come of its full bloom. To meet this challenge, it becomes imperative to developimproved cultivars having superior genetic make-up with in-built ability to fight abioticand biotic stresses. Improvement in productivity would mainly rely on advanced culturalpractices with gradual replacement with genetically superior material.

Plant breeding for crop improvement was mainly by trial and error until thediscoveries of Darwin and Mendel. It then became apparent that (i) combinations ofgenetic traits are favoured among individuals within populations through natural selectionand (ii) individual traits (now referred as genes) segregate and individually assort in apredictable manner in offspring of cross bred parents. An understanding of Mendeliangenetics at the individual plant level revolutionized plant breeding and resulted in the

1Scientist, SS(Biotech.) 2Principal Scientist (Econ. Bot.), Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture,Lucknow 227 107, India


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advances of green revolution. It also marked the introduction of applied genetics toagriculture.

Classical plant breeding with desirable traits has been attempted for centuries andhave led to the development of high-yielding varieties for improved production of mostof the horticultural crops. It generally remains a “hit or miss” technique as it lacksprecision. Moreover, classical plant breeding is also constrained by the limits of specificgene pool. It involves the recombining of entire genome of parent plants and therebyneeds several cycles of back crossing and selection to eliminate undesirable traits.

Genetic manipulation of plants at the cellular level has achieved a great degree ofprecision only during the last three decades, due to development of recombinant DNAtechniques. With the development of recombinant DNA technology, plant breedershave access to a large number of genes that can be integrated into the plant genome.Genetic engineering techniques (GET) compliment plant breeding efforts by increasingthe diversity of genes and germplasms available for incorporation into crops and byshortening the time required for the production of new varieties and hybrids. This newbranch of biotechnology that makes use of recombinant DNA technology to direct invitro transfer DNA genes between or within taxononically unrelated species fordeveloping varieties of plant species with novel, useful, agronomic and value-addedtraits is commonly known as genetic engineering. The term transgenic or geneticallymodified organisms (GMO) is used to describe new strains of organisms in whichDNA has been modified through in vitro insertion of genetic material from foreignorganism.

Genetic engineering studies are now being conducted in many countries of theworld and many genetically engineered plants are already in the farmers field and market.Many more are on trail for large scale transfer to field. Remarkable examples of usefulplant biotechnological work already exists and there is no doubt about tremendouspotential of genetic engineering (GE). Though, the first transgenic was generated in1983, while it was only in 1990’s that it went in for commercial use.

In 1994, commercial cultivation of genetically modified Flavr Saver Tomato fromCalgene Inc. company having a delayed ripening gene was allowed in USA. More than5,600 trials have been conducted in USA alone since 1987. Eighty per cent of allincreases in food output in the developing world is due to genetically improved crops,while only 20 per cent is the result of more land being brought under cultivation. Geneticengineering and other agricultural biotechnology are among the most promisingdevelopments in modern science. In 1995, 1.5 million ha were under transgenic crops

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in USA. The area under transgenic crops is steadily increasing all over the world. Today12 countries have over 40 million ha under transgenic plants in various stages of testingand releasing and China alone has one million ha under transgenic rice. Some examplesof GM crops are discussed below and summarized in Table 1.

Genetically modified (GM) crops are superior as they can be tailored to have highproductivity, resistance to pests, tolerance to drought and other biotic and abioticstresses, better nutritional qualities, delayed ripening and thus better keeping quality.Genetically modified (GM) varieties are being deployed in a number of fruit and vegetablecrops. Transgenics or genetically engineered plants can be broadly classified underthree categories :

! Crops with resistance to insect, pests and diseases, tolerance to herbicides andother biotic and abiotic stresses.

! Crop with nutritional and post-harvest taits.

! Crops for production of human therapeutics like vaccines.

GENETIC ENGINEERING : MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TISSUECULTURE STUDIES COME TOGETHER

The genetic engineering revolution owes a great deal to many discoveries made in

Table 1. Traits used in genetic transformation of horticultural crops

Trait Crop

Herbicide resistance Strawberry and sugarbeet

Delayed ripening Tomato

Insect resistance Potato, tomato, cabbage, brinjal, coffee, sweetpotato, strawberry

Virus resistance Squash, papaya, potato, sugarbeet, cassava,sweet potato, tomato, melon, sweet pepper,chilli

Resistance to bacteria Apricot, plum, potato, tomato

Extended vase-life Carnation

Flower colour Petunia and chrysanthemum

Freeze tolerance Potato

Fungal resistance Cucumber, squash, tomato, lettuce, potato.


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the field of molecular biology. In fact, early practitioners of molecular biology weremicrobilogists or biochemists who worked largely with bacteria or animals. However,plant molecular biology started from late sixties. The discovery and description ofgenetic material, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), was the major breakthrough in ourunderstanding of the plant genome at molecular level. Now we know that, gene is apiece of DNA carrying a specific function. The second major step towards geneticengineering was the discovery of bacterial DNA in the form of free floating rings calledplasmids which are exchanged by bacteria. Plasmids are ideal for carrying new genes.The third major building block in the recombinant DNA technology was the discoveryof special enzymes, i.e. restriction endonuclease and ligase. Restriction endonucleasecuts DNA molecule at specific sites and ligase seals the cut ends of DNA molecule.

It is important to recognise that the present revolution in plant biotechnology owesa great deal to contributions of people like James Bonner, who at Caltech pioneeredresearch on plant genes and their expression (1) and Lawrence Bogorad, of Harvard,who first coned and sequenced chloroplast gene (19). Their efforts as well as of manyother investigators in Europe, led to the training of first generation of plant molecularbiologists. Thus modern biotechnology or genetic engineering is a fusion of tissue cultureand molecular biology techniques. Of course, availability of restriction endonucleasesand ligases was crucial for the success obtained by these workers (17 and 24).

The discovery of Agrobacterium tumefaciens was very important as with it adelivery system of transfer of gene to plants could be achieved. In 1950, Braun (2) atthe Rockefeller Institute (now Rockefeller University) first gave the idea of existence ofa tumor inducing principle in Agrobacterium tumefaciens which we know is a segmentof DNA. It was long suspected that some kind of genetic engineering, involving DNA,is going on in the plants even before the modern gene cloning revolution began. But itis the work of Robert Schilperoort, Jeff Schell, Marc Van Montagu, Eugene Nester,Milton Gordon, Mary Dell Chilton and their colleagues in Europe and America whichunravelled the role of Ti plasmid in transformation of host plant cells (7,30,34 and 31).Their contributions are now already part of the classic history of genetic engineering.Once the close relationship between Agrobacterium strains containing plasmids andtumors was shown, it was natural to look for the presence of T-DNA in host genome.Using the southern hybridization technique it was shown that a segment of DNA fromthe Ti plasmid did covalently integrate into the host genome (33). This was followed bystrategies for using Ti plasmid as a vector to deliver foreign DNA (8,14,9,11,35 and 3).Because Ti plasmids are large and difficult to manipulate, a way was sought of employingthe E. coli plasmids for genetic engineering. The work led to development of special


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pBR322 derived plasmids which, can be later inserted in Agrobacterium so thattransformation by co-cultivation of protoplast desired cells on leaf discs etc. (13).Meanwhile, direct gene transfer methods where Agrobacterium is are also being useddispensed with completely. Thus genetic engineering could be said to have come of agewhere Timonthy Hall and Coworkers in USA accomplished the remarkable feat oftransferring the phascolin gene form beans to cell of the sunflower (1983) (21).

APPLICATION OF PLANT GENETIC ENGINEERINGResistance to Herbicides

Transgenic plants resistant to herbicide glyphosate, bromoxonil, bialaphos andparquet have been produced. Glyphosate is a potent broad spectrum, non-selectiveherbicide which inhibits EPSP enzyme (5-enolpyruvl-shikimic acid-3-phosphatesynthase) involved in aromatic amino acids. Overproduction of glyphosate tolerant 5-ESPS into various plants makes them tolerant to herbicide glyphosate.

The gene overproducing EPSP synthase has been cloned from a strain of Petuniaand introduced into potato. Transgenic potato over-expressing the enzyme to the extentof 40-fold of that of normal plants was demonstrated to be resistant to glyphosate (29).Comai and coworkers (6) too transferred a mutant Salmonella tyhimurium gene frombacterium conferring tolerance to glyphosate. Similarly, resistance to various otherherbicides has been introduced in different horticultural crops, e.g. resistance tophosphonithricin in potato, resistance to glyphosate in sugarbeet and strawberry. Fieldtrials with these crops are under evaluation in various countries. However, herbicidesresistant commercial cultivars of cotton, soybean and maize have been developed inUSA .

Resistance to Viral Diseases

Viruses are serious problem in production of horticultural crops like banana, papaya,citrus etc. They completely devastate the crops and as a result the farmer is left withnothing in hand. The most popular transgenic strategy to control virus is through coatprotein (CP) mediated resistance. The coat protein when expressed constituently in atransgenic plant interferes with the virion disassembly, multiplication, expression andspread of freshly infected virus. Moreover, the range of coat protein mediated resistancespecificity is broad and one gene can provide protection against other related viruseshaving more than 60 per cent homology in their CP gene sequences. A number ofhorticultural crops with virus resistance trait have been developed, e.g. papaya (CPgene of PRSVHA-51 from Hawaii) developed by Cornell University USA in 1997,


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bord potato plants resistant to leaf roll virus-PLRV, squash variety Freedom IITM, avariety of squash resistant to watermelon mosaic virus 2 and Zucchini yellow mosaicvirus (4,25 and 28).

Besides the coat protein gene, virus resistance is introduced into plants bytransformation with a gene for a defective movement protein (MP) gene. A defectivemovement protein blocks all the sites of the viral genome, minimizing binding of functionalMP effectively. As a result, intra and inter cellular movement of virus will be curtailed.This technique is successfully employed in transgenic potato to confer resistance toPVX, PVY and PLRV. Similarly a defective MP helps in conferring resistance to virusesin case of cassava (20).

Apart from the CP and MP genes, the technology of antisense RNA is immenselyuseful in making transgenic plants virus resistant. This technology has been successfullyemployed in many horticultural crops as tomato (tomato golden mosaic bigemnivirus),tobacco and cassava (5).

Resistance to Fungal/Bacterial Diseases

Upon fungal infection in response to pathogen attack, plants also accumulate aclass of novel proteins known as pathogenesis related proteins or PR proteins. The PRproteins are generally chitinases or glucanases which hydrolyse the fungal cell wallretarding fungal growth and thus provide self defence to plants. In case of Phytophthora,the causal agent of devastating disease, late blight of potato, the cell wall is made up ofcellulose, which unfortunately is not hydrolysed by PR proteins. Therefore, to containthis pathogen, the transgenic strategy was utilized wherein a glucose oxidase gene fromAspergillus niger was transferred to potato. This gene in transgenic potato convertsglucose to gluconic acid and H2O2. Enhanced H2O2 synthesis confers resistance againstPhytophthora (32). Similarly, osmotic gene encoding a class of PR protein has alsobeen transferred in to commercial cultivars of potato. With the help of recombinantDNA technology, the chitinase gene of Serratia marcescens has been introduced intotobacco, potato. Engineered plants synthesise chitinase which breaksdown the fungalcell wall and thus kills the soil borne phytopathogenic fungi, Rhizoctonia solani (27and 18).

Along the same lines, transgenic plants have been developed which confer resistancetowards bacterial diseases. Genes have been isolated and transferred conferringresistance to different diseases as bacterial soft rot in potato but this work is yet to goat a commercial level (32).


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Resistance to Insect Pests

Genetic engineers have two major strategies to impart resistance to insect pest.The most widely practised strategy involves the use of insecticidal protein of Bacillusthuringiensis (BT) and the use of protease inhibitors. The use of cry genes of Bt hasbeen extensively done to obtain transgenics resistant to pest. A transgenic potato resistantto colorado potato beetle has already been made commercially available. In USA,similarly insect resistant cultivars have been developed by recombinant technology incotton and maize at commercial level. Work is also progressing at an immense pacealong these lines in case of cabbage, brinjal, coffee, sweet potato, strawberry, potatoetc. A different approach involved introducing the gene for trypsin-inhibiting proteinisolated form cowpea and thus incapicitating insect proteases and protecting transgenictobacco plants (15 and 22).

Tolerance to Abiotic Stresses

Plants are repeatedly exposed to various abiotic stresses such as water deficiencyeither due to drought or salinity or freezing etc. In nature, many plants counteract thesestresses by an array of changes in their cellular processes. Research studies are beingcarried out to isolate the genes tolerant to abiotic stress and transferring them to plantsystem where they do not exist naturally. Working along these lines, transgenic tobaccocarrying bacterial mtl D gene that encodes an enzyme for mannitol synthesis showingresistance to high salinity was developed. Similarly better drought tolerance in tobaccowas achieved by introduction of a gene that helps in fructans synthesis (26). Transgenicpotato synthesising fuctans have been produced but their poor agronomic performancehas restricted further work.

Quality Improvement

Genetic engineering also holds great promise in improving the quality of horticulturalcrops. The release of transgenic tomato with delayed ripening trait for commercialcultivation is proof of success of this technology. Delayed ripening and keeping qualityof fruits and vegetables can be improved substantially by manipulating ethylenebiosynthesis pathway. In May 1994, Calgene Inc., USA, commercially releasedtransgenic tomato which was transformed with delayed ripening genes-polygalacturonase gene sequence reversed to minimize its expression by anti-sensetechnology. Later, two more cultivars with delayed ripening traits were developed byDNA Plant Tech and Monsanto Co. by transferring amino cyclopropane carboxylicand deaminase gene from Pseudomonas chloraphis 6G5 strain. Tomatoes with traitsof thick skin and altered pectin content for paste consistency were developed by


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transferring a fragment of polygalacturonase gene. Similar approach is being used toproduce other fruits like mango etc. with increased shelf-life.

Genetic engineering approach has also been successful in floriculture where colourvariegation was obtained in petunia, chrysanthemum, gerbera and rose by introducingsense and antisense chalcone synthase gene (16). Attempts were also made to createflowers with more petals and indeterminate type of inflorescence by manipulation ofhomeotic genes. Transgenic carnation with longer shelf-life have been produced byintroducing an anti - sense construct of aco gene. Efforts are underway in a great wayto get GM plants for improved nutritional qualities, e.g. modified potatoes to produceultra low fat chips.

Production of Human Therapeutics

Using genetic engineering , it has been possible to selectively modify the metabolicpathway of plant to produce compounds of value as human therapeutics. This field ofscience has moved from being an experimental system with significant potential to acommercial viable process ready to place useful products in animal and human clinicaltrials and viable and widespread use. Innovative efforts for putting gene of choleraresistance in banana and a gene for resistance to rabies in muskmelon are also underway.

Thus, in roads has been made not only in more traditional areas of therapeuticdevelopment but also in relatively uncharted area such as the production of bioactivepesticides and proteins for therapy, antibody production for passive immunization therapyand edible oral vaccines.

APPREHENSIONS ABOUT GM CROPS

Despite all the promises that the transgenic technologies hold, a coalition group ofenvironmentalists, dissenting specialists and ordinary consumers are becoming vociferousin its warning of possible dangers from GM crops and the need for caution at least intheir introduction. The criticism ranges from challenges to scientific assumptions oftechnologies through question about the motivation of the biotechnology industry toargument that such meddling with the genetic make-up of plants is immoral or sacrilegious.The anti-biotechnologist group feel that genetic engineers will not be able to deal withtheir promises because genetic structure of plant is so complicated that scientist cannotyet fully understand and modify it. The critics also feel that GM technologist are tofocus on the specific crops they are developing and do not pay sufficient attention towiden environmental context in which the crops will be grown. There are chances ofgenes of GM being transferred to other weeds via pollen which might make the weeds


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resistant to insects/ pests/ pathogens etc. Another area of concern is likely increasedloss of biodiversity as a result of introduction of GM crops. As replacing the success oflocal varieties with vast “monocultures” of single GM variety would leave the cropvulnerable to attack by pests/diseases. The opponents also fear that GM crops maypose risk to human health. Fears focus on two main issues, i.e. the risk of transplantedgenes producing proteins in the plants which may cause allergic reaction in peopleeating the food and use of genes which could produce resistance to antibiotics. Antibioticresistance genes are used as marker genes with the desirable trait gene to be transferred.In fact genetic engineers have recognized this danger and the use of antibiotic resistantmarkers may be phased out. Last but not the least the critics feel that genetic engineeringis being developed and promoted primarily by private corporation and that with recentconsolidations in the life industry sector, only a few giant corporations will have controlover a large proportion of the germplam, agricultural process and distribution systemneeded to feed the world.

The arguments of anti-GM groups are not fully justified. With traditional productionsystem it will be a difficult task to meet food requirement of the world population, whichis now, almost 6 billion. For most of the crops, the yield potential has attained a plateauand the over use of fertilizers and chemicals for pest and weed control have only resultedin destroying frail agro-ecological systems. For sustainable farm productivity it is importantthat efficiency of per unit land, water and capital should be enhanced without ecologicalharm. Genetic engineering has immense potential for improving productivity, profitability,stability and sustainability of our agriculture /horticulture system. The multiple benefitsof transgenic crops include flexibility in terms of efficient, crop management, decreaseddependency on conventional insecticides and herbicides, higher yields, cleaner andhigher quality grain or end product and eco-friendliness.

Transgenic crops ensures higher economic returns along with better consumeracceptability. The benefits to mankind are manifold, e.g. the new ‘golden rice’ whichhas â carotene gene could cure 2 million children from the deadly malaise of blindness.Transgenic bananas containing hepatitis-B vaccine would be of immense help in theimmunization programmes for eradicating hepatitis. Nutritionally improved potatoescontaining amaranthus albumin gene (AmA 1) which is non-allergenic and rich in allessential amino acid would be a great boon for developing countries in allieviating themalnutrition problem. In fact for hundreds of years virtually all foods have been improvedgenetically by plant breeders. Genetically altered antibiotics, vaccines and vitamins haveimproved our health, while enzyme containing detergents and oil eating bacteria havehelped to protect the environment.


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GM crops will transform horticulture with enhanced yield potential, wideradaptability, in-built resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and thereby reducing theover reliance on chemicals.

IPR ISSUES IN GENETIC ENGINEERINGBiotechnology is a fast emerging technology of the millennium and it is difficult to

keep pace with the developments taking place in the field. However, patent laws do notrefer to biotechnology per se. The European Patent Convention refers to microbiologicalinventions. Most of the biotechnological inventions fall within the following broadcategories:! Preparation of chemical substances utilizing microorganisms. The substances may

be new or known but can be prepared by the use of microorganisms.! The process techniques employed for the production of genetically engineered

organisms, probes, vectors, and so on, which fall in the areas of genetic engineering,hybridoma technology and cell fusion tissue culture, gene therapy and fermentationtechnology.

! Basic studies dealing with various biochemical and physiological processes in livingcells to understand the signals for expression.

! Studies on the role and structure of molecules such as chromosomes, DNA, RNAcytoplasm, specific hormones and their inter and intra-relationships. However, it isnot easy to get patents in biotechnology as the distinction between invention anddiscovery is very thin. The question as to the extent to which different products ofbiotechnology may be considered as products of nature, and thus falling within theambient of discovery, is difficult to determine and must be, therefore, decided ona case-to-case basis.According to TRIPS agreement, naturally occurring microorganisms, genes, gene

sequences, cell lines, sub-cellular material howsoever derived or trivially modified, areexcluded from patentability. But genetically modified microorganisms (GMOs) areallowed to be patented, if human intervention and value addition creation is substantialand GMOs involve a novel genetic make up. The prominent view is that the GMOs arepatentable, because they are creations of humans and they cannot be regarded as ‘pre-existing’ matter. Judicial rulings and patent practices in the US and EU are not on allfours in the field of biotech inventions. In December 1992 report, the British MedicalAssociation has expressed the view that living organisms should not be patented (includingthe results of the Human Genome Project) and EU should not go as far as the US in thematter of patenting such inventions.


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Biotechnology is the technology of future. It will have a pervasive role in agriculture,industry, food, medicine, environment and ecology, human and animal cloning. It is aknowledge-based industry and intellectual, rather than financial capital. India has thetalent to develop a strong biotech base in our country and our approach to the questionof intellectual property protection in the area should be positive, rather than defensive,taking a long-term view of our strength and the contribution, biotechnology can maketo our economic development. However, in view of the complexities involved in patentingbiotechnological inventions, we need to build up our knowledge and expertise in thisarea and evolve our own IPR system over a period of time in the light of experience andafter the amendment of Patents Act 1970, and passing of Biodiversity Bill 1999 andProtection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights Bill 1999 which are being consideredby the 30-member joint parliament committee for recommendations.

Our approach to patenting of microorganisms should be as follows: Firstly, naturallyoccurring microorganisms, including genes, gene sequences, cell lines, sub-cellularmaterial, etc. however, derived or trivially modified should be excluded from patentability.Secondly, only genetically modified microorganisms (GMOs) should be allowed to bepatented, if human intervention and value-addition in their creation is substantial and theGMOs involve a genetic make-up. Thirdly, the GMOs should be allowed to be patented,only, if, we accept the particular claim of trait or use, with the product in which theGMO is incorporated being also allowed patent or plant breeders’ rights as per therules applicable to it. This approach is unlikely to violate the provisions of the TRIPSagreement. We need to enact our law in this respect. However, our position in patentingof microorganisms, recombinant DNA products, gene patenting, transgenic plants andanimals needs to be clearly defined through appropriate policies and legislation.

CONCLUSIONThe development of new cultivars in most of the perennial fruit crops through

gene transfer has remained more of an academic exercise with very little success at thefield level. A major hurdle in genetic engineering being successful in fruit trees is lack ofefficient in vitro regeneration system. Scientist all over the world are facing problems instandardizing an in vitro regeneration protocol for important perennial fruit crops asmango, jamun, aonla, sapota, ber etc. which restricts its application for large-scaleproduction of superior cultivars. In fruits crops such as Malus and Pyrus simplifiedtechniques of micropropagation are standardized yet its commercial application in thedeveloped world remains restricted due to high production cost. Therefore, it is mostimportant and need of the day to develop in vitro regeneration protocols for important


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horticultural fruit crops so as to fully exploit the benefits of genetic engineering. Anotherhurdle in transgenic not being successful in fruit trees is due to the long life span of fruitcrops. Generally perennials take 5-6 years to fruit; therefore even, if, the gene istransferred, genetically modified trees would have to go for extensive field trials foryears, at least till it fruits to ensure that only the trait of interest is changed and it is notgoing to affect any other trait.

In spite of many hurdles, a number of important genes have been transferred intoperennial horticultural crops, such as introduction of toxic protein gene of Bacillusthuringiensis against “codling moth” in walnut (Juglans regia) and apple (10), AttacinE gene confirming resistance to Erwinia amylovora in apple rootstock (23) and coatprotein gene for resistance to tristeza virus in lime, (Citrus aurantifolia) (12). Thecommercial potential of genetic engineering is being exploited through patenting ofimproved varieties by transformation techniques.

In fact, genetic engineering can help in resolving problems like mango malformationand spongy tissue in mango, virus problems associated with many fruit crops, citrusdecline and wilt in guava. Genetic engineering for fruit crops of improved quality, nutritionand regulating fruit development and ripening also needs immediate attention. GM cropswith superior traits will be asset for input-efficient, cost-effective and eco-friendlyproduction systems under hi-tech horticulture.

REFERENCES1. Bonner, J., Huang, R.C. and Maheshwari, N. (1960). Enzymatic synthesis of RNA. Biochem.

Biophys. Res. Commun. 3 : 689-94.

2. Braun, A.C. (1950). Thermal inactivation studies on the tumor inducing principle in crowngall. Phytopathology 40 : 3.

3. Bevan, M. (1984). Binary Agrobacteirum vector for plant transformation. Nucl. Acid. Res.12 : 8711-21.

4. Brown, C.R., Smith, O., Damsfegt, V.D., Yang, C.P., Fox, L. and Thomas, P.E. (1995). Suppressionof PLRV titer in transgenic Russet Burbank and Ranger Rusert. American Potato Journal72 : 589-97.

5. Bejarano, E.R. and Lichtenstein, C.P. (1994). Expression of TGMV antisense RNA in transgenictobacco inhibits replication of BCTV but not ACMV geminivirus. Plant Molecular Biology24 : 241-98.

6. Comai, L., Facciotti, D., Hiatt, W.R., Thompson, G., Rose, R.E. and Stalker, D.M. (1985).Expression in plants of a mutant aro A gene from Salmonella typhimurium confers toleranceto glyphosate. Nature 317 : 741-44.

7. Chilton, M.D., Farrand, S.K., Eden, F.C., Currier, T.C., Bendich, A.J., Gordon, M.P. and Nester,


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E.W. (1974). Is there foreign DNA in crown gall tumor DNA? In: Modification of the InformaitonContent of Plant Cells, 247 pp. Markham, R., Davies, D.R., Hopwood, D and Horne, R.W.(Eds). Elsevier, New York.

8. Chilton, M.D. (1983). A vector for introducing new genes into plants. Sci. Amer. 248 : 36-45.

9. de Framond, A.J., Barton, K.A. and Chilton, M.D. (1983). Mini-Ti: a new vector strategy forplant genetic engineering. Bio/Technology 1 : 262-69.

10. Dandekar, A.M., Mcgranahan, G.H., Vail, P.V., Uratsu, S.L., Leslie, C., and Tebbets, J.S. (1994).Expression of Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki Cry A (c) sequence in transgenic somaticwalnut embryos. J. Cell. Biochem. 18/A:86.

11. Fraley, R., Rogers, S., Horsch, R., Flick, J., Adams, S., Bittner, M., Brand, L., Fink, C., Fry, J.,Galluppi, G. Goldtrag, S; Hoffman, N. and Woo, S. (1983). Expression of a bacterial gene inplant cells. Proceedings of National Academy of Science, USA. 50 : 4803-07.

12. Gutierrez, M.A., Luth, E.D. and Moor, G.A. (1997). Factors affecting Agrobacteirum mediatedtransformation in citrus and production of sour orang (Citrus aurantium) plants expressingthe coat protein genes of citurs tristera virus. Plant Cell Reports 16 : 748-53.

13. Horsch, R.B., Fry, J.E., Hoffmann, N.L., Eichholtz, D., Rogers, S.G. and Fraley, R.T. (1985). Asimple and general method for transferring genes into plants. Science 227 : 1129-31.

14. Hockema, A., Hirsch, P.R., Hooykaas, P.J.J. and Schilperoort, R.A. (1983). A binary plantvector strategy based on separatiion of vir-and T-region of the Agrobacteirum tumefaciensTi plasmid. Nature 303 : 179-80.

15. Jansens, S., Cornelissen, M., Clercq, R., Reynaerts, A., Peferoen, M. (1995). Pthorimaeaoperculella (Lepidoptera : Gelechiidae) resistance in potato by expression of the Bacillusthuringeinsis Cry IA (b) insecticidal crystal protein. Journal of Economic Entomology 88 :1469-76.

16. Jorgensen, R.A. (1995). Cosuppression, flower colour patterns, and metastable gene expressionstates. Science 268 : 686-91.

17. Kelly, T.J. and Smith, H.O. (1970). A restriction enzyme from Hemophilus influenzae. II. Basesequence of the recognition site. J. Mol. Biol. 51 : 393-09.

18. Liu, D, Raghothama, K.G, Hasegawa, P.M. and Bressan, R.A. (1994). Osmotin overexpressionin potato delay development of disease symptoms. Plant Biology 91 : 1888-92.

19. McIntosh, L., Paulsen, C. and Bogorad, L. (1980). Chloroplast gene sequence for the largesubmit of ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase of maize. Nature 288 : 556-60.

20. Malyshenko, S.I., Kondakova, O.A., Nazarova, J.V., Kaplan, I.B., Talinasky, N.E., Atabekov,J.G. (1993). Reduction of tobacco mosaic virus accumulation in transgenic plants producingnonfunctional viral transport proteins. J. Gen. Virol. 74 : 1149-56.

21. Murai, N., Sutton, D., Murray, M., Slightom, J., Merlo, D., Reichert, N., Sengupta-Gopalan, C.,Stock,C., Barker, R., Kemp, J. and Hall, T. (1983). Phaseloin gene from bean is expressed aftertransfer to sunflower via tumor inducing plasmid vectors. Science 222 : 476-81.


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22. Newel, C, Lowe, J., Meryweather, A., Rook, L. and Hamilton, W.H.C. (1995). Transformationof sweet potato (Ipomoea batatus (L.) Lam) with Agrobacterium tumefaciens and regenerationof plants expressing cowpea trypsin inhibition and snowdrop lectin. Plant Science 107 : 2.

23. Norelli, J.L., Aldwinkle, H.S., Destefano Beltvan, L. and Jaynes. J.M. (1994). TransgenicMalling “26” apple expressing the attacin E gene has increased reistance to Erewiniaamylovara. In: Progress in Temperate Fruit Breeding, pp. 333-38. Schmidt, H. and Kellenhals,M. (Eds). Kluwer Academic.

24. Olivera, B.M., Hall, Z.W. and Lehman, I.R. (1968). Enzymatic joining of polynucleotides. V.ADNA adenylate intermediate in poly nucleotide joining reaction. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., USA.61 : 237-44.

25. Presting, G.G., Smith, O.P. and Brown, C.R. (1995). Resistance to potato leaf roll virus inpotato plants transformed with the coat proteingene or with vector control constructsPhytopathology 85 : 436-42.

26. Rober, M, Geider, K, Mullen-Robber, B. and Wirlmitzer, L. (1996). Synthesis of fructans intubers of transgenic starch - deficient potato plants does not result in an increased allocationof carbohydrates. Planta 1999 : 528-36.

27. Schell, J. and Vasil, J.K. (1989). Cell Culture and Somatic Cell Genetics of Plants. AcademicPress, New York.

28. Stanley, J and Gay, M. R. (1983). Nucleotide sequence of Cassava latent virus DNA. Nature301 : 260-62.

29. Shah, D., Horsch, R.B., Klu, H.J., Kishori, G.M., Winter, J.A., Tumor, N.E., Hironaka, C.M.,Sanders, P.R., Gasser, C.S., Aykent, S., Siegel, N.R., Rogers, S.G. and Fraley, R.T. (1986).Engineering herbicide tolerance in transgenic plants. Science 233 : 478-81.

30. Van Larebeke, N., Engler, G., Holsterns, M., Van den Elracker, S., Zaenen, I., Schilperoot, R.A.and Schell, J. (1974). Large plasmid in Agrobacterium tumefaciens essential for crown gallinducing ability. Nature 252 : 169-70.

31. Waston, B., Currier, T.G., Gordon, M.P., Chilton, M.D. and Nester, E.W. (1975). Plasmidrequired for virulence of Agrobacterium tumefaciens. J. Bacteriol. 123 : 255-64.

32. Wu, G., Shortt, B.J., Lawrence, E.B., Levine, E.B., Fitzsimmons, K.C. and Shah, D.M. (1995).Disease resistance conferred by expression of a gene encoding H2O2 - generating glucoseoxidase in transgenic potato plants. The Plant Cell 7 : 1357-68.

33. Yadav, N.S., Postle, K., Saiki, R.K., Thomashow, M.F. and Chilton, M.D. (1980). T-DNA of acrown gall teratoma is covalently joined to host plant DNA. Nature 287 : 458-61.

34. Zaenen, I., Van Larebeke, N., Teuchy, H., Van Montagu, M. and Schell, J. (1974). Supercoiledcircular DNA in crown gall inducing Agrobacterium strains. J. Mol. Biol. 86 : 109-27.

35. Zambryski, P., Joos, H., Genetello, C., Leemans, J., Van montagu, M. and Schell, J. (1983). Tiplasmid vector for the introduction of DNA into plant cells without alteration of their normalregeneration capacity. EMBO J. 2 : 2143-50.

MICROPROPAGATION FOR PRODUCTION OFDISEASE-FREE PLANTING MATERIAL

Ramesh Chandra1 and Maneesh Mishra2

Micropropagation is a proven means of producing millions of identical plants undercontrolled and aseptic condition independent of seasonal constraint. It does not onlyprovide economy, time and space but also gives greater output and augmentation ofelite, disease-free propagules. It facilitates safer quarantined movement of germplasmacross the nation. Micropropagation plays a significant role in production of virus-freeplants of horticultural crops. Most of the horticultural crops are multiplied asexually andtherefore once the plant is infected with viruses, the disease is transmitted from onevegetative generation to other. Probably most of the asexually multiplied crops areinfected with one or more viruses, particularly with latent viruses, which are hardlydetectable by their symptoms. Viruses are nucleoprotein, living entities, having noindependent metabolism but depend on the host for survival and reproduction. Thisclose association of virus and host makes control of virus diseases difficult to achieve.Many methods are being used to recover virus-free plants, viz. meristem tip culture,nucellar embryogenesis, micrografting and even chemo and thermotherapy.

MICROPROPAGATIONMeristem Tip Culture

Morel and Martin (6) gave a hypothesis that it might be possible to isolate theapical meristem of a systemically infected plant in vitro in order to obtain virus-freeplants, genetically identical to mother plant. They succeeded in confirming this hypothesisby freeing the dahlia from viruses. Ever since, the technique is being used to cure virus-infected plants in an array of horticultural crops including banana, papaya, strawberry,potato, dahlia, carnation and orchid. The meristem is a dome of about 0.1 mm in diameterand 0.25 mm long and protected by developing leaves and scales. The defoliated stemsegments are first surface sterilized using good sterilant, e.g. ethanol, sodium hypochlorite.

1Principal Scientist (Economic Botany), 2Scientist (SS) (Hort.), Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture,Lucknow 227 107, India.



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The meristem dome is then dissected under a microscope inside laminar airflow. Theexposed meristem tip, which appears as shiny dome, is then severed with the blade andtransferred to liquid or solid medium. Murashige and Skoog (8) is most commonlyused medium for meristem culture of important horticultural crops due to highconcentrations of potassium and ammonium ions and meso-inositol.

It has been reported that some viruses are more easily eliminated than others.Potato plants obtained from meristem and one leaf primordium were found free frompotato leaf-roll virus, X, Y and A ( Figs 1 and 2). Virus S is difficult to eradicate (11).Similarly it was observed that carnation mottle virus was less readily eradicated thanringspot, carnation vein mottle and latent viruses (Table 1). The pH of the media maybe a limiting factor for growth of meristem. The pH should range between 5.5 and 5.8.In most plants, in addition to terminal bud, lateral axillary buds are available which mayalso be used for meristem culture. The apical meristem of chrysanthemum gives bettersurvival (4). The size of explant does play a major role in success of meristem tipculture. Stone (12) found that carnation tips smaller than 0.2 mm unlikely to root. Tipsbetween 0.2 and 0.5 mm had the best chances of producing virus-free plants. The

Fig.1. A procedure for obtaining virus-free plants using meristem tip culture in potato

Selected parent clones

Thermotherapy

Meristem-tip excision

ChemotherapySuitable culture media

Plant regenerated

Plant in pots (isolation room)

Virus indexingVirus-free plants

Virus indexingQuarantine inspection

Virus free plants in vitro

MicropropagationDistribution

Micropropagation for Production of Disease-free Planting Material

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Table 1. Influence of source of meristem tip callus in obtaining virus-free plantsin potato

Source of callus Regeneration (%) Virus eliminated References

Roots 03 PVX Bajaj and Dionne (1966)

Meristem tip 46 PVX Wang and Huang (1975)

Shoot tips 40 PVX Wang (1979)

Source: Khurana,S. M .P.,Chandra, R. and Upadhyay, M. D.(1998). Comprehensive Potato Biotechnology, Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi

Fig. 2. General procedure for clean up of potatoSource: Khurana,S. M .P.,Chandra, R. and Upadhyay, M. D.(1998).Comprehensive Potato Biotechnology, Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi


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technique of meristem culture has successfully been used to obtain virus-free plants ofa number of horticultural crops. However, this technique is not successful in most of thewoody perennial fruit crops.

Nucellar embryogenesisNucellar embryogenesis is another technique for mass production of virus-free

plantlets in crops like citrus and mango, which are highly polyembryonic in nature. Theonly problem with plants developed through nucellar embryogenesis is that they possesjuvenile character which is not desirable. In citrus embryos arise from nucellus orintegument adventively which is taken advantage for producing true-to-type plants. Incitrus there are some species, which are highly polyembryonic and certain species aremonoembryonic.

It was found that nucellus taken from fertilized ovules of all monoembryonic cultivarswould not develop. Pollination and fertilization are essential for the induction of nucellarembryogenesis even though there are reports of success in induction of embryogenesisusing unfertilized ovules. Reports are available on mechanism and formation of nucellarembryo and development of ovule in polyembryonic C. sinensis and monoembryonicIyo. It was found that nucellar cells containing dense cytoplasm and one large nucleoluswere found in ovules of mature flowers of polyembryonic Trovita. These cells began todivide soon after the first division of fertilized egg and develop into nucellar embryo,which was termed primordium cell of nucellar embryo. The primordium cell of nucellarembryo was not observed in the monoembryonic Iyo ovule. Nucellar embryoids wereformed only in polyembryonic Trovita ovule in culture. About 8-10 weeks old ovule ofCitrus reticulata have been found as best explant for initiating nucellar embryogenesisunder in-vitro condition (Fig.3). MS medium fortified with malt extract and/orpaclobutrazol was found to be bestfor induction of nucellarembryogenesis in citrus. Theinorganic salts such as ammoniumnitrate, calcium chloride, potassiumphosphate and potassium iodideshowed significant association withembryogenesis

Thermotherapy

Thermotherapy is especiallyuseful in treating viral and Fig. 3. Nucellar embryogenesis in citrus


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mycoplasmal infection in fruit trees. This has been found to be extremely useful in caseof fruit trees where meristem culture is difficult. The technique involves exposer of abranch to constant or alternating temperature of 37-38 ºC for 20-40 days. The potentialvirus-free bud is then excised and grafted on virus-free rootstock. Thermotherapy alongwith meristem culture is being practised in strawberry at commercial scale. The exactmechanism of virus-free plant production through thermotherapy is not known. However,it has been postulated that heat inactivates the virus present in the system, blocks theviral RNA synthesis and reduces translocation of viruses.

Micrografting

Meristem tip culture has been employed to eradicate plant viruses in manyherbaceous plant species. However, this technique has not shown promise in woodyfruit trees (8). Thermotherapy is ineffective to eliminate heat-resistant viruses.Micrografting or in vitro shoot tip grafting is another technique, which is being utilizedto eradicate viruses from important woody perennial fruit trees. For the first time it wasattempted in citrus. Navarro et al. (9) modified the technique which involves graftingof meristemetic dome from elite mother plant on to in vitro grown, etiolated rootstocksof choice. The micro scions are normally excised from healthy bearing trees. They arethen processed in the laboratory using different sterilants. The meristem tip is then excisedaseptically. The size of meristem tip should be of 0.2-0.5 mm. The rootstocks aregrown under in vitro condition using seed explant. The etiolated and two-week-oldrootstocks have been found ideal for micrografting of oranges. The grafting procedureis performed aseptically. The rootstocks are decapitated. The root is cut and thecotyledons and axillary buds removed. Normally inverted T incision is made. The cutsare done through cortex to cambium and the tops of the incision were slightly lifted toexpose the cortex. The shoot tips is placed inside the incision of the rootstocks with itscut surface in contact with the cortex exposed by horizontal cut of the incision at top ofthe decapitated seedling incontact with the vascular ring.Grafted plants are cultured inliquid MS medium using apaper bridge (Fig. 4). In citrusSTG has been effective torecover plants free fromexocartis, cahexia, tristeza,seedling yellow tristeza,infectious variegation, vein Fig. 4. Micrografting in citrus


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enation, yellow vein, psorosis A, psorosis B, concave gum stubborn and greening (9).In Spain, over 16 millions of healthy plants of citrus originally recovered by STG havealready planted in the field. The technique for micrografting have been developed inpeaches, plum, cherries, apricot, grape, apple, mandarin orange, cashew, tea etc. (2,9, 13, 14 and 16).

Diagnosis of Viral Diseases: A New Paradigm

Biotechnology is proving to be cutting edge technology for detection of viruses.The three most commonly used methods are bioassay, electron microscopy and serology.Bioassay is probably the most widely used approach. Electron microscopy is requiredfor detection of a number of viruses but it is expensive. Serological techniques haveproved to be valuable diagnostic tool, their use in detecting a broad spectrum of virusesis limited by the availability of antisera. In recent years, cytological techniques havebeen developed for detection of virus-induced inclusions. These intracellular structuresare characteristic of the virus inducing them and have proved to be valuable agents inthe diagnosis of plant virus diseases (1). Nucleic acid hybridization method is anotheruseful tool for diagnosis of plant viruses, when virus coat protein is not produced andsuch infections cannot be identified by serological techniques (3). Tissue printhybridization is a simple and rapid technique for detection of localization of plant viruses.Unlike ELISA, minimal steps are involved and no expensive equipment is needed.PCR technology has revolutionized the field of virus diagnostics. It is an in vitro methodin which DNA sequences or transcripts are amplified rapidly with very high specificityand fidelity using oligonucleotide primers and Taq DNA polymerase in a simpleautomated reaction (7). Another important diagnostic tool is ELISA. There has been asubstantial impact of ELISA in the large-scale diagnosis of diseases. ELISA hasrevolutionized the diagnosis for assessing disease for certification purposes and forcontrol through quarantine or eradication procedures. Tissue blot immunoassay is alsovery specific and reliable technique for detection of virus infection.

CONCLUSION

Viruses are nucleo-protein, living entities, having no independent metabolism butdepend on the host for survival and reproduction. This close association of virus andhost makes control of viral diseases difficult to achieve. Meristem-tip culture has beenfound effective in eradicating viruses in a number of herbaceous species. However, thistechnique is not successful in woody tree species. Thermotherapy is ineffective toeradicate heat resistant viruses. Nucellar embryogenesis is a good technique foreradication of viruses. However, plant developed through this technique possess juvenile


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characters. Micrografting has been successfully employed to eradicate viruses from alarge number of fruit crops including citrus, peach, plum, apricot, apple, cherry etc.There is an urgent need to develop virus resistant transgenic crops in order to combatthis menace.

REFERENCES1. Christie, R.G.., Edwardson, J.R. and Simone, G.W. 1995. Diagnosing plant virus diseases by

light microscopy. In : Molecular Methods in Plant Pathology. Singh, R.P. and Singh, U.S.(Eds ), pp. 31-51.

2. Harrison,B.D. and Robinson, D.J. 1982. Genome reconstitution and nucleic acid hybridizationas method of identifying particle-deficient isolates of tobacco rattle virus in potato plantswith stem mottle disease. J.Virol.Methods 5 : 255.

3. Hollings, M. and Stone, O. M. 1968. Techniques and problems in the production of virustested planting material. Sci.Hort. 20 : 57-72.

4. Khurana, S.M.P. 1998. Apical meristem culture — a tool for virus eradication. In:Comperehensive Potato Biotechnology, pp. 207-32. Khurana,S.M.P., Chandra, R. andUpadhyay, M.D., (Eds). Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.

5. Morel, G. and Martin, C. 1952. Guerison de dahlias attains d'une maladie a virus. Compt.Rend.235 : 1324-25.

6. Mullis, K.B. (1990). The unusual origin of polymerase chain reaction. Scientific American 4: 5-6.

7. Murashig, T. and Skoog, F. 1962. A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassay withtobacco tissue culture. Physiol. Plant. 15 : 473-97.

8. Navarro, L., Roistacher, C.N. and Murashige, T. 1975. Improvement of shoot tip grafting invitro for virus free citrus. J.Am.Soc.Hort.Sci. 100 : 471-79.

9. Navarro, L. 1988. Application of shoot tip grafting in vitro to woody species. Acta Hort.227 : 43-56.

10. Ouak, F. 1976. Meristem culture and virus free plant. In: Applied and Fundamental Aspect ofPlant Cell. Tissue and Organ Culture, pp. 598-600. Reinert, J. and Bajaj,Y.P.S. (Eds). Springerand Verlag, Berlin.

11. Quak, F. 1977. Meristem culture and virus free plant. In : Plant Cell Tissue and OrganCulture, pp. 597-615. Reinert, J. and Bajaj, YPS. (Eds) Springer Verlag, Berlin.

12. Stone, O.M. 1963. Factors affecting the growth of carnation plants from shoot apices.Ann.Appl.Biol. 52 : 199-209.

13. Deogratias, J.M., Lutz, A.,and Dosba, F. 1968. In vitro shoot tip micrografting from juvenileand adult Prunus avium L. and Prunus persica L. to produce virus free plants. Acta Hort.193 : 139-45.


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14. Parthasarathy, V.A., Nagaraju, V. and Rahman, S.A.S. 1997. In vitro grafting of Citrus reticulatablanco. Folia Hort. 9 : 87-90

15. Thimmappaiah, Purtha, G.T. and Anil, S.R. (2002). In vitro grafting of cashew. Sci. Hort. 92 :177-82.

16. Prakash, O., Sood, A., Sharma, M. and Ahuja, P.S. 1999. Grafting micropropagated tea shootson tea seedlings-a new approach to tea propagation. Plant Cell Rep. 18 : 883-88.

ACCLIMATIZATION OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS :CONCEPT AND APPROACHES

Anju Bajpai1, Gorakh Singh2 and Ramesh Chandra3

The agroclimatic conditions prevailing in India are conducive to grow numeroushorticultural crops. Despite enormous opportunities for profitable and sustainablehorticultural production, especially for fruit crops, development in this sector has notbeen up to the mark. One of the major limitations, in matching the productivity level ofthe developed countries is the dearth of cost effective, uniform and quality plantingmaterial. The application of tissue-cultured techniques for commercial production ofplanting material and subsequent huge profitability (25-30 per cent return on investment)has been well documented. Currently, this rather sophisticated technique for rapid cloningof selected elite genotypes (1 and 21) has become popular among commercialnurserymen the world over. However, in India the overall scenario, is not as rosy as itappears. Two major factors important for success of micropropagation are the input ofskilled personnel engaged in micropropagation work and the investment in terms oflaboratory facilities. As far as scientific talent and operational skills are concerned,undoubtedly we are at par with others. Additionally, a large number of well-equippedlaboratories at various research centres and Government institutions are engaged intissue culture work. The major obstacle in commercialisation of technology is thehardening and acclimatization of in-vitro raised plantlets for successful field transfer.Ironically, acclimatization of in-vitro plants is one of the least explored avenues.

ACCLIMATIZATION OF HORTICULTURAL CROPSAcclimatization has been defined as a process of adaptation of an organism to an

environmental change (3). This differs from frequently used term "Acclimation" whichdenotes the adaptation of an organism on its own to an environmental change (8),whereas acclimatization implies the human interception in this adjustmental process.This is supported by the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language whichdescribes acclimation as "the adaptation of an organism on its own to its natural climatic

1Scientist SS (Cytogenetics), 2Senior Scientist (Hort.), 3Principal Scientist, (Eco. Bot.), Central Institute forSubtropical Horticulture, Lucknow 227 107, India



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environment" and acclimatization as "the climatic adaptation of an organism, especiallya plant, that has been moved to new environment. The first published review mentioningacclimatization was by Conklin (7), who recorded superior quality of foliage plants,which were placed in heavily shaded greenhouses prior to being placed at on interiorenvironment. This was followed by many other reports, which suggested reduced lightto be key factor for success of acclimatization.

The process of acclimatization is not unique to micropropagation as clonallypropagated cuttings also are often acclimatized prior to field transfer. The most commonmethod is to gradually reduce relative humidity (27) and light intensity to 50 per centbefore field transfer (48). Thus, studies on acclimatization are required on plantpropagation systems, plant physiology, plant development and production, necessitatingthe control over environment. However, in case of in-vitro raised plantlets, it becomesobligatory because they are not adapted for harsh in-vivo conditions. Generally, in-vitro conditions which promote rapid growth, shoot proliferation and plantletdevelopment, result in certain abnormal plant characteristics. In fact, ultimate successof micropropagation technology, either for research experiments or for commercialscale, depends largely upon the successful control over transplanting with high survivalrate. It may again be emphasised that, little attention has been given to standardize theprocess of acclimatization (or hardening) of micropropagated plantlets. Quiteunderstandably process of acclimatisation (or hardening) continues to be a majorbottlenecks in successful field transfer.

The transfer of plants from culture vessel to soil requires a careful step-wiseacclimatization procedure. In most cases, in-vitro plantlets require greenhouse facilitiesto provide an environment between laboratory and field to ensure high survival rate.Thus, development of this technology necessitates evolution of greenhouse environmentalcontrol systems, suitable for specific crops grown in different agro-ecological zones ofthe country. Studies on acclimatization are also required on plant propagation systems,plant physiology, plant development and production, where controlled and replicableenvironments are needed. Technology and factors involved in acclimatization arediscussed below:

Greenhouse Technology

The importance of greenhouse for acclimatizing the plants was realized when Gentry(20) provided the description of specialized greenhouse. Here, main emphasis was ongradual lowering of light intensity, from 50 to 75 microeinstein and were accompainedby lower water and fertilizer levels. However in India, commercial greenhouse technology

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is still in its infancy. The impetus forgreenhouse expansion came in the mid-eighties. In 1982, greenhouse-utilizingpolythene as glazing material was constructedfor vegetable production and subsequentlysteel framed greenhouses were developedwith UV stabilized LDPE film. Now theadvantages of greenhouse production arewell appreciated and suitable structures arebeing made for different agroclimatic regionsof the country. Indeed, the most importantapplication for which greenhouses have beeninstalled is nursery raising, hardening andacclimatization (Fig. 1).

As far as micropropagated plantlets are concerned, several, intermediateenvironments exist between growth room and field. The plantlets have an obligaterequirement of light levels well below the maximum level in the field, low temperatureand high humidity. Therefore, in greenhouse systems several levels of controlled shading,misting/fogging, photoperiod control, supplemental lighting, carbon dioxide enrichmentand microprocessor based control system are needed. These facilities are must in northernsubtropics, where extreme climates in summers and winters are witnessed. There exists,ample scope of substantially increasing plant productivity per unit water consumption ingreenhouse/ polyhouse, in places where good quality water is in short supply.

Greenhouse technology has direct relevance to horticultural production in thecountry. With our improved knowledge base added with favourable climatic conditions,greenhouse technology has potential for a large-scale adoption. Due to control overmicroclimate, the uniformity of planting material is brought about. Additionally, protectionof plants from unpredictable weather conditions and acclimatization of micropropagatedplants is an essential attribute of the technology. Some important factors for effectivefunctioning of greenhouse are:

! Cooling is needed in all greenhouses, even in coldest climates during the noon.However, in majority of Indian conditions temperature control coupled with adequateair flow is required throughout the year. Generally, polyethylene and glasshousesare ventilated with fan systems and other popular methods for achieving morecooling is evaporative cooling. But, more emphasis is warranted in reducing plant

Fig. 1. Hardening of tissue-cultured raisedbanana plantlets in greenhouse.


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stress other than ambient temperature such as direct radiant heat load on plant,water uptake capacity and water vapour deficit in the air. In such cases, controlledshading systems and fog cooling are especially important.

! Photoperiod control has long being practised to control day length to regulateplant development. The role of supplemental photosynthetic lighting to enhanceplant growth is another aspect of great importance.

! Plant growth can be substantially enhanced by enriching the atmosphere withCO2 level above the ambient. The technology has particular importance in difficultto harden species like mango where CO2 enrichment gives better plant recoveryin pots.

In-vitro Culture vis-a-vis Control Over AcclimatizationAcclimatization of in-vitro raised plantlets is necessary because they are not adapted

for this type of conditions. Generally, in-vitro conditions which promote rapid growth,shoot proliferation and plantlet developed, result in certain abnormal characteristicssuch as altered leaf morphology and mesophyll structure, poor photosynthesis, sunkenand malfunctioning stomata(51). Other inadequacies which have been reported includeinoperative stomata and improper waxy cuticle on leaves. This coupled with heterotrophicmode of nutrition and inadequate control over water loss result in making the tissue-cultured raised plantlets quite vulnerable to transplanting shocks. In fact, ultimate successof micropropagation technology, either for research experiments or for commercialscale, depends largely upon the successful control over transplanting with high survivalrates. It may again be emphasised that , less attention has been given to standardize theprocess of acclimatization (hardening) of micropropagated plantlets. Quiteunderstandably process of acclimatization (hardening) continues to be a major bottleneckin successful field transfer.Biological Principles Involved in Acclimatization Process

Morphology: The leaves of plants grown under high light are reportedly smaller andthicker than shade grown ones (16). The acclimatized indoor plant (Ficus benjamina)had more open appearance than sun grown ones, with leaves space in such a way thatthe available limited light was intercepted.

Cuticle: The cuticle is a membrane composed of cutin matrix with embedded waxesthat forms covering of above ground parts of plant tissues and its primary role is tocheck water loss. Scanty or lack of cuticular wax on the leaf surface has been found tobe regular feature of tissue culture raised plantlets. This is the main factor leading toexcessive water loss and poor survival rates upon transplantation. The cuticular andepicuticular waxes are the primary centers for controlling water permeability (35). The


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epicuticular wax of micropropagated cauliflower, carnation, cabbage etc. differed fromtypical crystalline structure from that of greenhouse or field grown ones (23, 44 and45). In general the epidermal surface of in-vitro derived seedlings appeared smooth intexture under the scanning electron microscope. Additionally the amount of waxdeposition on in-vitro grown cabbage and cauliflower was only 25 per cent of that ingreenhouse grown ones. However, relationship between the waxes formed underglasshouse and test tube was not consistent in foliage plants with naturally glossy surfaces(43).

Similarly chemical nature of wax was also found to vary in the two cases. Themicropropagated plantlets had greater proportion of ester and polar compounds andsignificantly less long chain hydrocarbons and offer greater water permeability due toless hydrophobic nature of the polar compounds. Quite understandably the transpirationrates in the cultured plants was higher due to less wax deposition. This was confirmedby removal of epicuticular wax by chloroform (45). Based on the data Grout andAston (24) hypothesized that lack of epicuticular wax was due to high humidity whichwas further supported by report that lowering the humidity with use of desiccant reducedRH up to 35 per cent and produced glaucous leaves with structured wax. Wardle et al.(46) and Ziv et al. (51) reported positive role of high sucrose and agar concentrations,whereas other environmental factors like light and temperature were also responsiblefor wax deposition.

Stomata: One of the most important factors which has been implicated in water balanceis stomatal structure and functioning. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) studieshave indicated that the stomata had raised, rounded guard cells in micropropagatedplantlets as compared to normal elliptical and sunken stomata (2,6,12,33 and 50) innon-micropropagated plants. This could be amended by changing the light intensityfrom 25-80 µmol/m2/second and decreasing relative humidity from 100-75 per cent(6). The characteristic inability of raised stomata to close upon removal, could be correctedby acclimatization (4) and the reversion of stomata to functional state was achievedafter removal from culture (34). Thus hypothesis put up by Sutter (43) suggests thatsevere conditions causing extreme, rapid dessication cause collapse of the epidermalcells adjacent to stomatal guard cells. This results in lack of turgor, necessary to maintainclosure and ultimately physiological degradation of stomata.

Histological configuration and chlorophyll content: The histological analysis ofleaf sections revealed the poorly developed palisade layer in micropropagated plantlets(25 and 49). The number of palisade layers was generally reduced, lacked elongatdappearance, had greater mesophyll air space and fewer filiform trichomes (5 and 12).


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Generally, the vascular tissue was reduced in midribs and petioles and lacked collenchyma(13 and 42). The ultrastructural studies have indicated that the micropropagated plantletshad lower cytoplasmic content, chloroplasts with flattened and disorganized grana andlacked starch granules. This could be altered to some extent by raising the light level.The acclimatization of in-vitro raised plantlets led to development of new leaves whichhad multiple palisade layers and with increased time, resulted in development of newleaves which resembled greenhouse/ field growth plants. Similarly, the stems wereslender, lacked collenchyma and sclerenchyma. Roots were also slender had root hairsand less peridenrm, the xylem regeneration in case of cauliflower plantlets was incompletebetween, root and shoots probably accounting for poor transplanting success (24).

Physiological changes in micropropagated plantlets: Photosynthesis andtranspiration are two major physiological processes influenced by altered leaf structures.The exogenous sucrose supply leads to inadequate photosynthetic apparatusdevelopment. Similarly, tissue-cultured plantlets are poor in chlorophyll a and b, enzymesinvolved in photosynthesis, poor chloroplast development and low net CO2 uptake.The high transpiration rate and low stomatal closure have been reported. All these leadto enhanced plantlet desiccation (4 and 46).

Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis becomes paramount important for survival of in-vitro derived plantlets when they are shifted from heterotrophic to autotrophic mode.Initial reports in cauliflower and strawberry indicated lack of development ofphotosynthetic competency. This was markedly improved by acclimatizing to greenhouse,but the persistent leaves lacked this efficiency (25 and 26). However, some speciesshowed higher photosynthetic rates when cultured under higher light irradiance level.Thus the inherent species specific response is well documented. The low photosynthesisrates have been attributed to low Rub Pcase activity (23), low light and inadequategaseous exchange (30, 31, 18 and 11). Remarked improvement was evidenced duringacclimatization by increasing CO2 concentration and maintaining low light level (32).Kozai et al. (31) have postulated that increasing the light irradiance resulted in increasedCO2 uptake and subsequently sucrose supplementation was used to compensate theCO2 net negative balance. Thus the increase in light was found to be the critical factorfor CO2 uptake efficiency by different groups.

Respiration and other physiological changes: Several researchers have reportedthat plants grown in shade have lower respiration rates than open (sun) grown ones.McCree and Troughton (37) postulated that during acclimatization, dark respirationwas decreased. Fails et al. (16) found that carbohydrate reserves were important, butfactors such as reduced light compensation points and dark respiration, combined with


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morphological modification were of greater importance. Conver and Poole (8) reportedthat Dracaena plants shifted from sun grown shade net area to interiors, increased inchlorophyll content in 40 per cent shade and decreased in 80 per cent. Similarly,chlorophyll content increase was greater in 63 per cent shade net area grown plants(39). The chlorophyll content of shade grown plants has been found 4-5 times higherthan sun-grown ones and this increase in chlorophyll content during acclimatization wasreportedly due to increase in chlorophyll b (36).Cultural and Environmental Factors Affecting Acclimatization

Acclimatization and successful field transfer of micropropagated fruit trees fromin-vitro to in-vivo condition requires a sound knowledge of plant physiology andsilvicultural practices adopted in the nursery. Though simple in principle, the factors ofsuccess are choice of substrate, humidity, temperature, light requirements, fertigationetc.

Light: The major factor considered by growers to influence acclimatization is lightintensity. Normally in-vitro raised plantlets have thin leaves and resemble shade plantsand shifting to high light levels, causes scorching and burning of plantlets (22). Thus,Welch (48) advocated initial shifting to 50 per cent shade for "cool off" for bettersurvival. Gammel (19) recommendedacclimatization for 2-8 weeks under 50 or 87.5per cent shade. Longer acclimatization periodswere needed for plants, which were to be placedunder low light intensity like indoor foliage plants.The control of light is determined by the speciescultivated for an initial period of two weeks whenthe plantlets require partial shade (50 per cent).Though several methods have been adopted, onemost inexpensive and easy system is to cover theplantlets with clear transparent polyethylene bags(Fig. 2). This allows control over humidity too.Generally, a continuous illumination is provided withlamps having similar spectrum to the solar system.Often, sodium vapour lamps (400 W) whichprovide minimum illumination of 2,000 lux areused.

Substrate and containers: The growing medium and containers in which in-vitrorooted plants are transplanted are very important for good survival. Dramatic shifts in

Fig. 2. Acclimatization of asepticallycultured mango plants to low relativehumidity and light.


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pH of medium adversely affect root growth (29). Therefore, most suitable mediumshould be well buffered, reproducible and sufficiently porous to allow adequate drainageand aeration (15 and 29). Transplantation of an in-vitro rooted plantlet is generallydone by removing from culture vessels and transferring to potting mixture. Ideally, anysubstrate used in conventional propagation, viz. peat based substrate (two-thirds peatand one-third sand/perlite), vermiculite, soil, sand, coco-pit, rock - wool (or any otherinert substance) can be suitable. The prerequisite for the substrate is that it should havephysical qualities of water and air retention and hygienic qualities (absence of pathogens)for, e.g. in grape, the substrate frequently used is peat pellets in an enclosed glass tanks,in apple sterilized soil, sand and compost mixture and in plum sterile vermiculite. AtCISH, Lucknow, good results were recorded in cocopit in many crops such as mango,papaya, guava and bael.

Relative humidity: Relative humidity is one of the important factors for success, whena micropropagated plantlet is shifted from a strictly controlled microclimate to climateof greenhouse polyhouse. Plantlet must be placed immediately in an environment ofhigh relative humidity (80-90 per cent). Thus, use of greenhouse as an intermediarystep between culture vessel and field transfer has become most essential for success ofa commercial venture into micropropagation. Maintaining high relative humidity for firstfew days following transplantation are critical for survival and fogging is preferred overmisting because it avoid problems of over humidity (22).

Temperature: In greenhouse for conventional practices, temperature regimes aremaintained as per the species cultivated. However, ambient temperature of around 20-250C is maintained. Temperature of root zone (250C) is important to encourage rootgrowth (15).

Diseases: An in-vitro plantlet is placed in an environment devoid of pathogeniccontaminants, new substrates, containers, disinfected culture supports, washing rootsin water containing fungicide and preventive phytosanitary treatments are applied.Sanitation and disease prevention is key to the success of transplantation. Bactericidesand fungicides are used as prophylactic measures for overcoming the microbes formedin congenial atmosphere of greenhouse (38) but with mixed results (40 and 47).

Fertigation: Mostly plant species show vigorous growth when they are fertigatedregularly (10). Fertilizers, macromicro nutrients are frequently used in differentlaboratories for enhancing the growth of plants.

Watering: It is generally done by sprinklers and for small pots manually. Mist or fog


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system techniques are frequently used in some cases. In rose and gerbera which areacclimatized in rock wool, fertigation utilizing same nutrient solution used in culture arepractised.

Anti-transpirants: The use of anti-transpirants has been used for reducing the stomataltranspirationIn-vitro Acclimatization

Acclimatization process can be started, while plantlets are still in-vitro. This stageis known as preplanting acclimatization / prehardening stage/ acclimatization in-vitro.The main purpose is to prepare plantlets for transplanting from artificial heterotrophicenvironment to a free living existence in soil (greenhouse) and ultimately to field. Someof the examples of pre-hardening treatments are:! In-vitro hardening is achieved by removing closures of culture vessels and leaving

plantlets on nutrient medium for additional week or two. The critical factor forsuccess in such case is the prevalent sanitary conditions of culture room andcontrol of contamination. For example in Dianthus plants the cuticular waxdeposition rose to over 12 times when relative humidity was reduced to 50 percent by loosening of culture vessels (51). Similarly in plum plantlets, acclimatizationwas done by reducing relative humidity which induced wax formation on abaxialleaf surface and reduced water loss(17), whereas in apple stomatal functioningwas improved by lowering relative humidity.

! Exposure of cabbage plants to CaCl2 increased wax deposition (45), whereas inchrysanthemum relative humidity was lowered to 25-30 per cent by placing layerof lanolin over the medium. The increase in lignification and woodiness in plantletswas encouraged by elevated sucrose levels and subsequent higher fieldacclimatization (14).

! Tree growth retardants (paclobutrazol, 1 mg/litre) are known to reduce wilting inplantlets due to increased cuticular wax depositions, stomatal closure in responseto stress and root thickening(41). Polyethylene glycol (PEG) @ 2 per cent inducedwater stress in grape shoots which had better survival upon transplanting.

! Preplanting acclimatization treatment was given in plum rootstock by moving therooted plantlets to greenhouse under normal light for one week, prior to transplantingin potting mixture (28).

CONCLUSIONThe transfer of plantlets from in-vitro to field remains problematic in horticultural

crops. Since inception of the concepts of acclimatization, to the present time when


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most of the micropropagated plantlets are acclimatized and a lot of progress has beenmade on understanding of the process. Although the basic biological principles underlyingsome aspects acclimatization are well understood, specific factors such as lightcompensation points carbohydrate and respiration need further investigation. Therelationship between carbohydrate level on movement to reduced light and its use duringacclimatization remain inconclusive. Acclimatization procedures have been attemptedto increase ex-vitro survival of plantlets upon transplanting (9) (Fig. 3).The realisticapproach would be to optimize the shoot multiplication and proliferation condition

Fig. 3. Generalized scheme for rooting and acclimatization of micro propagated fruit crops

Growing Cultures (under in-vitro conditions)

In-vitro Rooting Ex-vitro rooting Treatment with

Rooting compound fro 3-7 days in darkness

Wait till sufficient Rhizogenesis is there Quick dip in liquid

or powdered form of rooting compound

Remove from culture/ wash and treatment with fungicide

Place in suitable rooting medium in greenhouse

Acclimatization (high relative humidity, shade, bottom heat)

With new growth (1) Gradual reduction of bottom heat

(2) Gradual reduction of RH to that of green-house

Gradually reduce shade and place under normal greenhouse conditions

Transfer to filed


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coupled with treatments for acclimatization in-vitro. This would help in modifying theresponse of the cultured plantlets to the stress imposed by the ambient environmentduring transplanting. This simplification would help in increasing the survival and recoveryof micropropagated plantlets. However, feasibility of tissue culture as a propagationsystem can be evaluated by weighing the expenses incurred against the derived benefits.The homogeneity and true-to-type character of micropropagated plantlets is an essentialprerequisite for the success of the technology. An extensive field evaluation/ verificationis necessary before proceeding to a large-scale production and planting. Thus,augmentation of this technology would help India to enter in international trade ofhorticultural crops in a big way.REFERENCES1. Bandarkar, G. and Kalyani, K.N. (1992). Seeds, genes and riches. Business Today, Oct. 7: 80-

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48. Welch, H.J. (1970). Mist Propagation and Automatic Watering. Faber and Faber, London.

49. Wetzstein, H.Y. and Sommer, H.E. (1982). Leaf anatomy of tissue-cultured Liquidambar(Hamamelidaceae) during acclimatization. Amer. J. Bot. 69 : 1579-86.

50. Wetzstein, H.Y. and Sommer, H.E. (1983). Scanning electron microscopy of in-vitro-culturedLiquidambar styraciflua (Hamamelidaceae) during acclimatization. Amer. J. Bot. 69 : 475-80.

51. Ziv, M. (1986). In-vitro hardening and acclimatization of tissue culture plants. In: PlantTissue Culture and its Agricultural Applications, pp. 187-96. Withers, L.A. and Alderson,P.G. (Eds) Butterworths, London.

APPROACHES FOR GREEN FOOD PRODUCTIONIN HORTICULTURE

R. K. PATHAK1 and R. A. RAM2

Green food production refers to organically grown crops which are not exposedto any chemicals starting from the stage of seed multiplication/propagation, treatment tothe final post-harvest handling and processing. It is based on recycling of natural organicmatter and crop rotation. These methods sustain the balance of the living organism(bacteria and earthworms) in soil. Green foods are not only free from harmful chemicalsbut are also safer, healthier and tastier. It is a holistic production management system,which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health including biodiversity, biologicalcycles and soil biological activities. In fact Indian farmers had been adopting the practiceof green good production over ages. It is in last 4-5 decades; the track has been lostand chemical dependant practices created a number of problems such as:

! Compaction of soil structure.

! Low organic matter content in soil.

! Poor water-holding capacity of soil.

! Increase in salinity, sodicity and land submergence.

! Adverse effect on flora and fauna.

! Deterioration in quality of produce.

! Problem associated with residual toxicity.

! Increased hazards and outbreak of pests and diseases including weeds.

! Deterioration in productivity.

! Varying degree of displacement of human settlement.

This has led Government of India (GOI) to consider seriously regarding future ofIndian agriculture and a Task Force to suggest alternative of Modern Agriculture was

1Director and 2Senior Scientist (Hort.), Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture, Lucknow 227 107,India



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constituted under chairmanship of Dr. Kunwarji Bhai Jadav of Rajkot and CommissionerAgriculture, GoI as member-secretary. The Task Force came out with followingobservations:

! The 'Organic farming' is being practised by thousand of farmers and institutions inthe country but mostly in unorganized way.

! The success stories indicate the benefits of organic farming.

! There is no awareness among people, in general, about the benefits of organicfarming, as there is no State or Central Government support.

! No markets have been developed in the country for the sale/promotion of organicproduce.

! The system of export of organic produce is also presently at a limited level andexact data are not available.

! Huge subsidy is given for per tonne of production of chemical fertilizers, no subsidyor incentive is given for use of organic manures.

! The ministry of Commerce in the Government of India have set up standards fororganic farming and defined the system of Certification and Accreditation only inApril, 2002, which may facilitate further growth of organic farming in the country.

Most of the fruits and vegetables are eaten fresh, hence any contamination (chemicalresidue) may lead to various kind of health hazards. Therefore, green/ organic foodproduction offers a better possibility in horticultural crops rather than in field crops (2).

In green food production, organic/ biodynamic system has immense possibility,which need to be encouraged for horticultural commodities. In order to popularizegreen food production, following steps need to be looked in:

! Genetic make-up of a variety

! Balanced nutrition

! Proper management

! Effective check on pests, diseases and weeds at various stages.

GREEN FOOD PRODUCTION

Genetic Make-Up of a Variety

Invariably local stains are more tolerant to most of the hazards than hybrid varieties.

Approaches for Green Food Production in Horticulture

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Earlier emphasis was given to develop varieties with high yield potential in horticulturalcommodities. Nowadays, efforts have been diverted to incorporate abiotic/ bioticstresses along with high yield potential. In vegetables, a number of varieties resistant toseveral fungal, bacterial and viral diseases have been developed and are available fortheir commercial exploitation. Such long-term efforts are also required in major fruitcrops in the country. The use of transgenic, i.e. genetically-modified varieties/organismsand their products are prohibited in green food production.

Besides fruit crop, a few problems related with soil (root/collar saline/sodic soil)can be taken care with use of suitable rootstock. Sincere efforts are required in thisdirection.

Balanced Nutrition

Crops require CHO, major, secondary and micronutrients for healthy growth,flowering and quality production. Besides, optimum organic matter content in soil isessential for maintenance of soil biological properties. Green revolution was started ona soil rich in organic carbon and the responses to applied fertilizers were spectacular.With passage of time, green revolution is showing symptoms of fatigue and responsesto applied fertilizers have started dwindling. Decline in food production, degenerationin native soil fertility and deterioration in environmental quality are three gigantic problemsin the present scenario of agriculture. Excessive use of plant-protection chemicals andimbalanced use of fertilizers have further resulted in escalation of the above problemsincluding exorbitant cost on cultivation.

Integrated Plant Nutrient Management (IPNM) was considered as a remedy toabove problems and to ameliorate the Indian soils from multinutrient deficiencies. Thusthe combined and cogent use of organic has become essential part of agriculture.Unfortunately, limited availability of biomass and cattle dung and farmers apathy forpreparation and use of organic manure, IPNM practices are not being adopted as perexpectations. Biodynamic agriculture, under the present scenario appears to be a soundalternative. Nowadays, biodynamic farming is becoming popular in several countriessuch as Germany, Australia, New Zealand, USA etc.

Proper Management

This includes sowing and transplanting time (agriculture calendar), with appropriatespacing for annual and biennial crops. In case of perennial fruit trees, crop modeling,through training/pruning, crop combination and maintenance of optimum moisture levelsare essential components of green food production.


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Pest ManagementIt is matter of common experience that, if, soil is fertile and crops are healthy, there

is least possibility of pest and disease infection. All precautions need to be taken care,i.e. cultural, varietal, mechanical, and biological to keep the pest/disease infestationbelow the threshold level.

Besides, two sprays of cow horn silica (BD-501) and biodynamic pesticidesprepared through fermentation of cowdung, cow urine, neem, Pongamia, Caliotropisor castor leaves along with biodynamic sets (BD 502-507) have showed very effectivefor the control of most of the pests and diseases.

BIODYNAMIC AGRICULTURE

Pfeffer (3) has defined "Biodynamic Farming" refers to working with energies,which create and maintain life. The term derives from Greek Words “Bios (life) and“dynamics” (energy). The use of world “method” indicates that one is not dealing merelywith the production of another fertilizer, organic though it is, but rather that certainprinciple are involved which in the practical application secure a healthy soil and plantswhich in turn produce healthful food for man and healthy feed for animal (3). Biodynamicagriculture works on the following principles.

! To restore to the soil, the organic matter in the form of humus, which holds itsfertility

! To establish, maintain and increase soil living system

! Organic matter as the basic factor for the soil life

! Biodynamic method is not only the fertilizing the soil but skillful application of thefactors contributing to soil life and health

! Establish a system that brings into balance all factors which maintain life

! In biodynamic way of treating manure and composts, the knowledge of enzymatic,hormone and other factors are also included

! The biodynamic method puts special emphasis on the importance of crop rotation,green manuring and cover crops

! The soil is not only a chemical, mineral or organic system, but it also has a physicalstructure. Maintenance of a crumbly, friable, deep, well-aerated structure is essentialfeature of fertile soil.

Efforts are being made to elaborate the concept and brief account of preparations


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used in biodynamic agriculture with a few explanations and experiences with thecultivation practices.

COSMIC INTEGRATION

Zodiac Principles

The ultimate fine tunning of biodynamic principles lies in harnessing cosmic influencesfor cultivation. Only at particular times of month or year, the cosmic influences are mostsupportive to growth of a particular part of a plant (4).

The cosmic factor that determines a month is the Moon. The movement of theMoon in relation to the Zodiac is more interesting. These Zodiac symbols are Greek inorigin. The system has 12 constellations though represented by different archetypefigures and animals. Within these 12 signs, there are four groups of these constellations,each of which have same qualities. They are related to basic four elements, i.e. earth,water, fire and air. These four elements can be placed in relation to influencing the fourparts of the plant, the root, leaf, flower, and fruit as summarized below:

" Root is associated with the earth. There is no root growth without earth,

" Leaf is associated with water because it contains more than 80 per cent water,

" Flower corresponds to air and light. There is no light without air (no light on theMoon) because there is no atmosphere,

" Fruit and seed associated with fire, there is no fruit seed maturity without warmth.

Performing farm operations on specific days means harnessing these cosmicinfluences for development of a particular plant part.

The earth is emerged in the planetary spheres of solar system and these forcesstamp themselves for example, morphology of the plants. The earthly forces of Moon,Mercury and Venus soak into the earth from the air above and the cosmic forces ofMars, Jupiter and Saturn moves upward from the rocks below. They interact in theregion of clay so that the plants grow out of it. The light of the Sun, Moon, Planets andstars reaches to the plants in regular rhythms. Each contributes to the life, growth andform of the plant. Planets impress effect on metals, rocks, plants, animals and man, socalled "astral influences" coined from Greek where astar means, "star". Just as sunshinecontributes to the growth of plants and moon affect water content of all organisms, theplanet also influences the earth and all who dowell on her. Since olden time, they havebeen divided as inner planet (Moon, Mercury and Venus between earth and Sun) andouter planets (Mars, Jupiter and Saturn). The inner planets work directly through


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Table 1. Showing interaction of element and constellation on plant parts.

Element Plant part Constellation Earth Root Virgo, Capricorn, Taurus Air Flower Gemini, Libra, Aquarius Water Leaf Cancer, Scorpio, Pisces Fire Fruit Aries, Leo, Sagittarius

atmosphere are indirectly via water, humus or calcium (limestone, potassium and sodium)on growth of plants.

The influences of Mars, Jupiter and Saturn are channeled through warmth andsilica (quartz, feldspar and mica), they stream in through silica contents of soil and onplants being expressed in colours of flower and in fruit and seed production.

By understanding the gesture and effect of each rhythm, agricultural activities likesoil preparation, sowing, intercultural operations and harvesting need to be programmedaccordingly.

Biodynamic Calendar

Biodynamic farmers use the knowledge practically by choosing time to show onplant, to use various plant husbandry techniques. Agricultural practices, i.e. fieldpreparation, sowing, manuring, harvesting etc. performed as per constellation are moreeffective and beneficial. Every constellation has dominant elemental influence and affectsfour specific parts of the plants as enumerated below in Table 1.

Agricultural practices for better root activity (manuring and rooting), flowering,growth and fruiting/seed is to be done as per constellation.

Ascending period of moon: During this period, cosmic forces are active above theearth/ ground. Any agricultural practice (spray, propagation etc.) performed during theperiod show beneficial effect.

Descending period of moon: During this period, cosmic forces are active below theearth. Therefore, agricultural practices (field preparation, sowing, manuring andharvesting of root crops) performed during the period shows better success.

Agricultural Operation as per Movement of Moon: The moon moves regularlyaround earth and it travels monthly through each of the 12 signs of the Zodiac, stayingapproximately two-and-a-half days in each sign (Fig. 1). As it does so, it forms an


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angular relationship with the sun that is known as a Phase of the Moon, which meansthe angle between moon, earth and sun. Moon orbits the earth and the earth orbits thesun. It is the earths orbit that defines the 'ecliptic', which is divided symbolically into thezodiac (Table 2).

Table 2. Showing position of earth and moon for harnessing cosmic forces.

Ascending moon Descending moon

The earth is breathing out - the development occurs in upper parts of the plant

The earth is breathing in- the development of the plant occurs parts below the ground, eg. root

Cosmic energy works above the rhizosphere Cosmic energy works below the rhizosphere

Spring and summer season Autumn and winter season

Suitable for

• Foliar applications

• Propagation activities

• Harvesting

• Sowing

Suitable for

• Root development

• Transplanting

• Manure application

• Harvesting of tuber crops

Fig. 1. Showing movement of earth and moon

4 lacs 0.40 lac Km

Earth

KmApogeeAscendingPeriod

New Moon(Full Moon)

Poornima

PerigeeDescendingPeriod

Phases occur in two stages - waxing and waning.

The moon is "waxing" (ascending period)-growing during these phases stages are:

New moon, crescent moon, first quarter moon, gibbous moon.

The moon is waning (descending period) - shrinking - during these phasesFull moon disseminating second quarter balsamicAs a general thumb rule, when moon is waxing plants develop leaves above the

ground systems and when moon is waning, plants develop their root system.


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Fig. 2. Showing sun, moon path and node.

Node Node Moon path

Sun path

Planting leafy crops that grow above ground are best sown at waxing moon andthose that will require strong root system or grow below ground should be sown afterfull moon, in the waning phase.

Perigee (Poornima: full moon) when the moon is nearest to the earth, this occursafter every 29 and half day. In 48 hours, preceeding to full moon, there appears to bedistinct increase in the moisture content of the earth and in the atmonsphere. Growthpromoting activities of the plants seems to be enhanced and plants are more susceptibleto fungal attack because of relatively higher moisture content in the rhizosphere andatmosphere.

Apogee (new moon) — when the moon is farthest from the earth. This occursevery 27th and 1/2 days. Owing to moisture deficiency, harvesting and seed storagepractices show better response.

Moon opposite to Saturn — this is favourable period, agricultural operationperformed during this period show better response. Lunar Node

Imaginary point when moon crosses path of sun. It occurs twice in 27.2 days of amonth and known as Rahu and Ketu (Fig. 2).

Rahu - Lunar node in ascending period of moon not suitable for agricultural activities.

Ketu - Lunar node in descending period, not suitable for agricultural activities.

BIODYNAMIC PREPARATIONSBasically there are two types of biodynamic preparations:! Biodynamic field sprays (BD- 500-501)! Biodynamic compost preparations (BD- 502-507).


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Biodynamic Field Sprays (BD 500-501)

Cow horn manure (BD-500): This is fundamental biodynamic field spray preparation.The cow is an earthy creature with a very strong digestive system. The cow horn hasthe ability to absorb life energies during decomposition of the dung being incubated inwinter months.Steps in preparation! Cow horns are cleaned properly with

water. While collecting the horn itshould be ascertained that only cowhorn to the picked which is solid fromproximal end and their rings are at distalend (Fig. 3).

! Cleaned cow horns are filled with freshcowdung (especially from lactating andindigenous one) and buried at 30 cmdepth in the soil in root free zone indescending period of moon during October-November.

! After 6 months of incubation, horns are taken out in descending period of moonduring March-April.

! If decomposition of dung is not proper, cow horns should not be taken out andshould be left for some more period and again is to be taken out during descendingperiod of moon.

! Properly decomposed compost is to be stored at cool and dry place in earthenpot.

Specially prepared manure is made into a spray to vitalize the soil, enhance seedgermination, root formation and primary root development. For spraying, 25g of BD-500 is dissolved in 13.5 litres of water in wooden/plastic bucket by making vortex inclock and anti-clockwise for one hour in the evening and the solution is spread eitherwith the help of natural brush or with a tree twig. Spraying of BD-500 is done at thetime of field preparation in descending period of the moon. Stirring small quantities ofmaterial in large amount of water is called Dynamization. This process transfers theforces and energy from the preparation to the water.

Thimmaiah (6) observed the microbial activity of BD-500 during stirring and veryinteresting response has been obtained (Table 3).

Fig. 3. Cow-horn manure (BD 501)


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Stirring interval (minutes)

Bacteria (cfu/g) Actinomycetes (cfu/g) Fungi (cfu/g)

15 26 x 103 22 x 103 10 x 103

30 35 x 103 35 x 103 14 x 103

45 58 x 103 60 x 103 12 x 103

60 66 x 103 88 x 103 35 x 103

Table 3. Microbial analysis of BD 500

(Source, Thimmaiah, (6)

Fig. 4 Cow horn slice (BD 501)

It is interesting to observe that during stirring period, there was a correspondingincrease in number of cfu's of bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi during one hour ofstirring. The CISH, Lucknow, has also identified the following microorganisms (fungi)from BD-500 preparation.! Fusarium semitatum! F. sporotrichiodes! Syncephalastrum racemosum

Cow horn silica (BD-501): In this, ground mountain quartz (silica) after properincubation is made in to spray on plants. It helps them to achieve optimum developmentand maturity and particularly affects taste, colour and aroma.Steps in preparation! After taking out of cow horn manure (BD-500), cow horns are thoroughly cleaned

with water.

! Cow horns are filled with silicawith powder paste, and buriedin same pit where cow hornswere buried for the preparationof BD-500 during ascendingperiod of moon in March-April.

! After 6 months of incubation,horns are taken out in October-November during the ascendingperiod of moon (Fig. 4).


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! Light yellowish silica powder is taken out from the horn and stored in light near thehouse window in glass jars.

BD 501 works on photosynthetic process in the leaf. Its action is to strenthen theeffect of light and warmth on the plant and promotes healthy growth. It strengthens thequality of plant and the plant product and encourages the development of fruit andseeds. For maximum effect, the BD 501 should be applied once at the beginning of aplant's life, at the four-leaf stage and again at the flowering or fruit maturation stage. BD501 should be applied on the leaves in the form of 'mist ' in the morning at the sunriseand the best constellation is moon in opposite to Saturn.

Following fungi are isolated from BD-501 at this Institute:

! Fusarium monliformae

! Penicillium chrysogenum

! Syncephalastrum racemosum

Biodynamic Field Sprays

Biodynamic sets (BD 502-507) are prepared from six herbal plants, which havehealing properties and influence the fermentation processes in the compost, liquid manureand Cow Pat Pit. These are also associated with particular constellation as summarizedin Table 4. All these preparations are made in descending period of the moon, exceptBD-507, which is best prepared in air/light day. The BD sets are used in the Cow PatPit (CPP), BD- compost, Biodynamic liquid manure and Biodynamic liquid pesticides.

Preparation Constellation Substances from which preparation is prepared

Role

BD-502 Venus Fermented flower heads of Yarrow (Achillea millefolium)

Rich in S, K and N

BD-503 Mars Fermented Chamomile (Matricaria recutita) blossom

Rich in S, K and N

BD-504 Mercury Whole shoot of Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica) with flower, fermented in the soil

Rich in Fe

BD-505 Moon Fermented oak (Ouercus robur) bark Rich in Ca BD-506 Jupiter Fermented flower heads of Rich in K and Si Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) BD-507 Saturn Valerian (Valeriana officinalis) flower

extract Rich in P

Table 4. Basic BD sets used in CPP, BD compost, liquid manures and pesticides


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Fig. 5 Cow Pat Pit prepration

Cowdung and urine are important components of Cow Pat Pit (CPP), BD liquidmanure and BD pesticides. Their brief account are summarized below:

Cow Pat Pit (CPP) or Barrel Manure

It is a biodynamic field preparation also called as soil shampoo. Cow Pat Pit(CPP) is a strong soil conditioner. It enhances seed germination, promotes rooting incutting and grafting, improvement in soil texture, provides resistance powers to theplants against pests and diseases, replenishes and rectifies the trace element deficiency.CPP is increasingly used for improving soil biological activities in the seed treatmentand foliar applications. The CPP may be prepared throughout the year.

Steps in preparation! Preparation of a pit of 60 cm x 90 cm x 45 cm size in shade and root-free zone.

Precaution is to be taken that pit should be 15cm higher than plane surface.

! Pasting of inner wall of the pit with fresh cowdung paste.

! Dung of lactating cow (60 kg) mixedthoroughly with 250g each ofbentonite and egg shell powder andfilled in the pit (Fig. 5).

! Compost gets ready in 75-90 daysdepending upon the temperature.One kg CPP dissolved in 40-45 litres

of water overnight and sprinkled in the nextmorning as field sprays on the plants. Thisshould be applied at the time of field

Table 5. Showing number of sets used for specific preparation

Specific preparation No. of sets used

Cow Pat Pit (CPP) 2 sets per 60 kg of cow dung

Liquid manure 2 sets per 200 litres

Biodynamic compost 1 set per 5 m3

These work to regulate the composting process and enable the different elements(calcium, nitrogen and phosphorus) needed for healthy plant growth to be present in aliving way. The specifications of BD sets used in these preparations are described in theTable 5.


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preparation and on plants. CPP can also be applied in BD compost and with FYM forimproving their nutritive value. The preparation is ready for use when it is dark brown,friable and has lost the smell of cowdung.Biodynamic Compost Heap

Biodynamic compost is an effective soil conditioner and is an immediate source ofnutrient for a crop. Biodynamic Compost Heap can be prepared by using green leaves(nitrogenous material) and dry leaves (carbonaceous material) in 8-12 weeks. Integratingwith cowdung slurry is always good in the decomposition process. The composition ofair, moisture and warmth is very important in the breakdown and decomposition ofmaterial. The enrich compost is ready in 75-100 days depending upon the prevailingtemperature.Steps in preparation! Five-meter long thick wood is placed on higher elevation where waterlogging

does not occur during rainy season.! Thick layer (20 cm) of dry grasses is spread on the area of 5 m x 2.5 m on the

ground.! Water (100-150 litres) mixed with dung sprinkled on the grasses.! Again 20 cm thick layer of green grasses are sprayed equally on the heap and 100

to 150 litres of water mixed with dung sprinkled on the heaps.! Above process (putting 20 cm thick layers of dry and green grasses alternatively)

is repeated to the height of 1.5 m.! For enriching the compost with different nutrients as per the need, rock phosphate

(P), slacked lime (Ca) wood ash (K) etc. can also be used in between the layersof dry/green grasses.

! Two B.D sets (502-507) are incorporated and the heap is plastered with mixturesof dung and clay. The BD compost is said to be more fertile with a stronger ability to improve soil

than the conventional compost. When the specially prepared CPP and BD composthave been applied to the soil, the plants become more sensitive to their environmentand responsive to the rhythms of the day, seasons and planets.

Vermicompost

Vermiculture technology is an aspect involving the use of earthworms as versatile


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Fig. 6 Biodynamic compost prepration

natural bioreactors for effective recycling of non-toxic organic wastes to the soil. Theyeffectively harness the beneficial soil microflora, destroy soil pathogens, and convertorganic wastes into valuable products such as biofertilizers, biopesticides, vitamins,enzymes, antibiotics, growth hormones and proteinous biomass (5).

Earthworms participate in soil farming system in following ways:! Through their influence on soil pH! As agents of physical decomposition of organic wastes! Promoting humus formation! Improving soil structure! Enriching soil and water-holding capacity.Steps in compostingVermicomposting on plane surface! Partially decomposed organic wastes

are piled up on 2 m x 1 x 0.5 m areasat cool and elevated place (Fig. 6).

! Two to five thousand red worms(Eisenia foetida) are released in themiddle of bed by putting 2-4 kg oneweek-old dung.

! Water (2-5 litres) is sprayed everydayto keep the earthworms active. Toprotect earthworms from theexcessive heat and rain, shade should be provided.

! Depending upon the weather conditions complete heap of the organic waste getconverted in to fine compost within 75-120 days.

! Ready compost is sieved to separate the earthworms.! Separated worms are released in another heap of partially decomposed organic

waste.! As the time passes population of worms and vermicompost production increases

very fast.Vermicomposting in pit! Brick structure (3 cm x1.5 cm x 5 cm) is prepared in shade.

! One brick wall made of cement is preferred.


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! After putting 5 cm thick layer of concrete and sand, each 40 cm thick layer ofpartially decomposed or soften organic waste is spread equally above the sand.

! One-week-old cowdung (1-2 kg) is kept at 6-8 places on the organic waste and50-100 earthworms are released in each heap of cowdung.

! Water (2-5 litres) is sprayed in the bed and covered with 5 cm thick layer oforganic waste .

! The bed is covered with thatch to protect earthworms from excessive heat, rainand cold.

! To keep the worms active, light spray of water is essential everyday.

! Worms convert all the organic waste into compost. Again 30 - 40 cm thick layerof partially decomposed organic waste is spread equally in the bed and moistenedand it takes another 30-45 days for full conversion of organic waste into compostwithin 45-60 days.

! Prepared compost is taken out and sieved to separate earthworms from thecompost.

! Pit is again filled up with organic waste and earthworms are released as discrichedearlier.

! As earthworm's population increases very fast, a few more pits are to be requiredto increase the vermicompost production.

Vermiwash

Vermiwash is prepared from the heavy population of earthworms reared in earthenpots or plastic drums. The extract contains major, micronutrients, vitamins (such asB12) and hormones (gibberellins) secreted by the earthworms. Earthworms producebacteriostatic substances and it was found the vermiwash can protect the bacterialinfections. Vermiwash can be sprayed on crops and trees for better growth, yield andquality.

Steps in preparation! Big earthen pot/ plastic drum with capacity of 200 litres (provided with tap in the

bottom) is placed in shade.

! Five cm each of concrete and coarse red sand (Morang) is laid in the bottom ofthe pot for effective drainage.


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Fig. 7. Nadep Compost

! Layer of soften kitchen waste or one-week-old dung (30-40 cm) is filled in thepot.

! Red worms (200-300) are released in the waste/dung.

! An earthen pot with minute hole in the bottom from where water comes out in theform of drops is hanged over the pot/drum after 30 days of worms inoculation.

! After 2-3 days, extract collected in earthen pots from the tap provided in thebottom of pot/drum which is called 'Vermiwash'.

! Extract diluted in the water (1: 5 ratio) can be used as a foliar spray.

Precaution: Continuous pouring of water in the pot/drum having hole in the bottomand the organic waste in the pot/drum should be changed regularly, after its full conversioninto the compost.

Nadep Compost

A farmer at Indore developed this method of aerobic composting. Because ofaerobic respiration, composting is very fast and nutritional status of the compost isbetter than the ordinary compost. In this method of composting, farm wastes (cow-dung, green/dry grasses, wheat/paddy straw and weeds and garden soil) are used andthe technique has been summarized below. The compost can be enriched throughincorporation of rock posphate, wood ash, slacked lime, Azotobacter and Rhizobium.Incorporation of two BD sets (BD 502-507) further improves the nutritive status ofNADEP compost, Thimmaiah (7) named it as hybrid compost.

Methods of composting! Brick aerobic structure (2 m x 3.30 m x 1 m) is constructed at elevated place in

farm area. First and the last two rows are provided without any gap to strengthenthe structure (Fig. 7).

! Length of the structure can be alteredas per the requirement.

! Thick layers (18-20 cm) of organicwastes are piled and water 100-150litres mixed with cowdung isdrenched on the waste.

! Again 18-20 cm thick layer oforganic waste pile, covered with


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thick layer (2-3 cm) of garden soil is sprayed and sprinkled with water (100-150litres).

! The above processes are repeated till the piling goes 30-45 cm higher than thestructure. Total heap is plastered with mixture of dung and mud.

! After 10-15 days heap gets settled leaving 15-30 cm gaps from the top.

! Process of filling and plastering are again repeated.

Incorporation of any of these preparation and the following other associated activitieswill suffice the nutritive requirement for production of horticultural crops, which can besummarized as below:

In green food production nutritional requirement can be taken care through:

! Regular incorporation of organic waste through NADEP, Vermi, BiodynamicCompost (BD) or Microbe Mediated Compost (MM compost).

! Use of cakes (neem, mahuwa, Pongamia, castor, groundnut etc.) as per availabilityneed to be promoted.

! Promotion of green manuring and legumes as inter and cover crops whenever andwherever possible.

! Promotion of mulching with organic wastes which can be further promoted byspread of 5 - 20 kg vermi / BD compost or 100 g CPP and incorporation of 50-100 earthworms.

! In order to encourage soil biological properties, regular use of Cow Pat Pit (CPP),Cow Horn Manure (BD-500) are also helpful.

Need-based use of liquid manure prepared from cowdung, cow urine, leguminousleaves or vermiwash are also effective in promotion of growth and fruiting.

Wide variations in nutrient status of composts and CPP have been observed asevident from Table 6. This can be further enriched through incorporation of rockphosphate, bone-meal, slacked lime, blood and fish meal. Various combination of greenvs dry leguminous non-leguminous may be helpful. These need to be worked out formeeting the nutritional requirement of various horticultural commodities.

Biodynamic Tree Paste

In a biodynamic process for the management of orchards and gardens, the"biodynamic tree paste" is prepared by mixing of cowdung, bentonite (clay), BD 500


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Fig. 8 Tree paste on mango tree

Preparation N (%) P (%) K (%)

General compost 0.3 - 0.5 0.20 - 0.35 0.50 - 1.50

Vermi compost 1.12 - 1.75 0.214 - 0.285 0.506 - 1.72

Cow Pat Pit 0.70 - 2.24 0.214 - 0.428 0.718 - 0.925

Nadep compost 1.33 - 2.03 0.202 - 0.389 0.775 - 2.35

Table 6. Nutrient status of composts and CPP

and sand. The tree paste is polished on the tree trunksand cut surfaces (Fig. 8).

The important properties of biodynamic tree pasteare :

! It nourishes, strengthens and protects the bark andcambium of tree to make it healthy.

! Seals and heals wounds.

! Helpful in prevention and control of disease.

! On application after pruning, stimulates tree growth.

In rejuvenation of mango orchard, copperoxychloride pasting (CoC) is very expensive. Pastingwith the above paste on tree trunk and cut surfaces,alone has shown better response compared with CoCpasting. Similar to tree paste, cowdung has been found to be rich in actinomycetes.Cowdung paste and actinomycetes isolated from cow dung paste has also shown positiveresponse in control of dieback, stem end rot and anthracnose in mango and guava.Similarly, BD pesticides have shown effective control of bacterial fruit canker and tentcaterpillar in mango. These need to be validated for control of pest and diseases ofhorticultural crops.

Steps of green fruit production has been summarized in Fig. 9.

Biodynamic system is almost new, but the preliminary observation over 4 years bythe authors and overview of world literature including personel communications haveshown very encouraging response with number of horticultural and field crops andfollowing interferences can be drawn at this juncture.

! If appears to be sustainable, economic and eco-friendly

! There is minimum risk of residual toxicity


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! There has been continuous improvement in soil fertility and produce quality includingself-life. Considering these experiences, following strategies are proposed to beinitiated.

STRATEGIES FOR GREEN FOOD PRODUCTION

! Various aspects of green food production particularly for horticultural commoditiesneed to be standardized.

! Promotion of establishment of demonstrations for preparation of biodynamiccompost, cow horn manure (BD-500), horn silica (BD-501), Cow Pat Pit (CPP),liquid manures and liquid biodynamic pesticides.

! Promotion for field demonstrations for organic biodynamic system of cultivation.

! Organizing intensive training to farmers, NGO representatives, entrepreneurs, andextension personnel of Department of Horticulture for biodynamic preparationsand their applications.

! Scientific explanation for responses of the above materials with reference to soilphysical and microbiological properties and their impact.

! Helping State Agriculture Universities (SAUs) to initiate a few courses on Organic/Biodynamic Agriculture.

Fig. 9. Schematic presentation of green food production

Nadep compost / vermi -compost or BD -compost / MM compost (10 -12.5 tonnes/ha) 5-20kg/tree

CPP 1.5 -2kg/ha

BD-500 62.50g/ha

Farm activities as per calender

Bumper and quality

crop production

Green Food Field preparation as per constellation

Farm activities as per calendar

Need-based spraying of liquid manuers and liquid BD-pesticides

Cowdung paste/tree paste (need- based)

Mulching/ green/ manuring/ Intercrops

BD-501 2.5g/ha at 2 -4 leaf stage and at fruit set


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! Facilitation for certification/demeter for organic/biodynamic production.

! Establish national standards for covering marketing of certain agricultural productsas green produced products.

! Assure consumers that these meet a consistent standard.

! Market promotion for 'Green Food' and their processed products.

! Regular monitoring of nutrients status of the soil.

! Study on various combination of locally available waste recycling for meeting thenutrient requirement and techniques of compost enrichment.

! Impact of organic/biodynamic farming on flora and fauna of the area.

! Impact analysis of organic/biodynamic farming on agro-ecosystem of the regionover the years.

REFERENCES1. Pathak, R.K. and Ram, R.A. (2002). Approaches for green food production. In : Souvenir,

National Seminar-cum-Workshop on Hi-Tech Horticulture and Precision Farming, held atTaj Residency, Lucknow, pp. 33-35.

2. Pathak, R.K. and Ram, R.A. (2001). Approaches for biodynamic farming. Approaches forSustainable Development of Horticulture. Singh, H.P., Negi, J.P. and Samuel, J.C. (Eds),NHB, Gurgaon, pp. 113-19.

3. Pfeffer, E. (1984). Using the bio-dynamic compost preparations and sprays in garden, orchardand farm. Biodynamic Farming and Gardening Association, Inc, Kimberton, PA, 64 pp.

4. Schilthuis, W. (2000). Biodynamic Agriculture, S&H Home Ag. Library Biodynamic Agriculture.

5. Sharma, A.K. (2001). A Hand Book of Organic Farming. Agrobios, India, Jodhpur, pp. 193-215.

6. Thimmaiah, A. (2001). Studies on biodynamic system and vermitechnology for sustainableAgriculture. Ph.D thesis, IIT, New Delhi.

DIVERSIFIED AGRICULTURE SUPPORT PROJECTAPPROACHES IN PROMOTING HI-TECH

HORTICULTUREMahendra Singh1 and Ajit Kumar2

A World Bank aided Diversified Agriculture Support Project (DASP) was launchedin September 1998 with the Mission "Farmers Empowerment by Intensification andDiversification of Agriculture Activities" through farmers’ participation and self-reliant,sustainable process and structures. The main objectives of the project are:

! To increase the production and productivity through diversification andintensification of agricultural activities.

! To increase the role of privatization.

! To develop rural infrastructure.

PROJECT COMPONENTS

The project has five main components, which are Technology Development,Technology Dissemination, Increased Private Sector Participation and Public PrivatePartnership, Development of Rural Infrastructure and Economic Policy and AnalysisActivities.

Technology Development

Enhancing research coordination: The UP Council of Agricultural Research(UPCAR) is being strengthened to provide policy, guidance and developed a long-term strategies for agricultural research and an agricultural information system for thestate.

Competitive agricultural research programme: Project is financing 44 projectsand 2 mega projects under CARP for taking up the problem-oriented programmes.Multidisciplinary research programme especially aimed at addressing key production

1Technical Coordinator and 2Senior Technical Expert (Hort.), Diversified Agriculture Support Project, U.P.



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and processing constraints. Research fund would be available through open competition.Strengthening of research support technology dissemination activities! Improving research extension farmers linkages including validation and

demonstration activities at KVK.! Enhancing availability of improved genetic stock for higher productivity.! Facilities are being developed for elite genetic stock of breeds/crops.Technology Dissemination

Under the system support would be provided to Department of Agriculture,Horticulture, Animal Husbandry, Dairy and Directorate of Agriculture Marketing andMandi Parishad to carry out the new responsibilities through a strengthened technicaland management system.Private Sector Development

It is aimed to encourage greater private sector participation in input arrangementand post-harvest activities through establishment of Project Development Facility (PDF)and privatization of services which includes promotion of private nurseries, para workersetc.Rural Infrastructure

To provide increased mobility of perishable commodities of rural areas and accessto markets rural roads are being constructed under the project. In addition village market(Haat Painths) are being constructed under the project for providing the marketingfacility nearby the production areas.Economic Policy Analysis

It has been established to enhance state's capacity to analyse the impact ofagricultural policies on rural development.Monitoring and Evaluation

Agriculture Management Centre has been established at Indian Institute ofManagement, Lucknow, for independent monitoring and evaluation of the project.Implementation Strategies

Diversification and intensification: Diversification into high-value crops/commodities, hi-tech agriculture and non-farms sector activities.

Holistic vs piecemeal approach: Issues related to productivity, marketing, post-

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harvest, agro-processing, credit, rural infrastructure, research and technologydissemination are being addressed.

Bottom up vs top down approach: Planning from bottom to top by beneficiaries andfor beneficiaries.

Demand driven vs supply driven: Inputs/services/production/output as per demand.

Group vs individual approach: Implementation through farmers groups.

Participatory planning, management and monitoring: Participation of farmers inidentifying needs, planning, implementation and monitoring.

Cost sharing/recovery basis: Phased full cost recovery for goods and services.

Shift from input delivery to extension services: Thrust is not limited to delivery ofgoods but towards new methods of technology development and the dissemination.

Broad based extension and farming system approach: Sharing of commonresources and introducing farming system approach vs individual departmental approach.

Policy reforms and institutional restructuring: Necessary changes in policy forachievement of DASP objectives are concurrently addressed.

Privatization and commercialization: Privatization of input supply and othersservices.

Capacity building and enabling environment: Capacity building of officials andfarmers through training and exposure visits etc.

Sustainable development: Creation of self-reliant mechanism and efficient and effectivenatural resource management.

The identified activities are being implemented through Departments of Agriculture,Horticulture, Animal Husbandry, Dairy, Sericulture, Panchyati Raj, Public Works andDirectorate of Agriculture Marketing and Mandi Parishad.

HORTICULTURE COMPONENT

The main objective of the Horticulture component are:

! To disseminate improved horticultural technology/varieties.

! To increase the availability of improved seed and elite planting material.


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! To enhance and strengthen the technology base.! To strengthen the infrastructural facilities.

! To upgrade the departmental nurseries.

Under the Horticulture component major programmes being executed are:

Demonstration

Varietal/technological demonstration: Demonstration of improved varieties ofvarious horticultural crops (fruits, vegetables, spices, ornamental, and medicinal andaromatic plants) are being conducted at farmers’ fields. The field days are being organizedon these fields for observing the results of improved varieties and technologies.

The introduction of onion sowing in kharif season has been done successfullythrough demonstration in different districts. Earlier, it was not in practice in the state.The demonstrations of onion variety Agri Found Dark Red developed by NHRDF,Nasik, have been successfully conducted at farmers’ fields. The farmers have startedits production on their own.

PHM and food processing demonstration/training: To increase the shelf-life andPost-harvest Management Demonstration-cum-Training Programmes are beingorganized in the potential pockets. Demonstrations on zero energy cool chambers arealso been organized. In addition, for value-addition, the Demonstration-cum-TrainingProgramme on Food Processing, jam, jelly, pickles, beverages, potato and tomatoproducts and solar energy are being organized.

NADEP, CPP, vermicompost demonstration: Indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizersover the years adversely affected the soil texture and its fertility. Keeping in view theabove facts, under the project, the demonstrations of Cow Pat Pit, Nadep,Vermicompost etc. are being organized at farmers’ fields. It is organized for increasingthe use of organic manure in cultivation in different agricultural/horticultural crops forbetter quality produce and maintenance of soil health and environment.

IPM demonstration: Indiscriminate use of chemicals, insecticides and fungicides overthe years adversely affected the health of human beings. Many serious ailments arecaused due to presence of toxic chemicals in food stuff. Keeping in view, thedemonstrations on integrated pest management are being organized for varioushorticultural crops at farmers' fields. Awareness about the ill effects of indiscriminateuse of pesticides is being created among farmers. In this context, it is being emphasized


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that the use of banned/restricted pesticides by the Government of India and FAO shouldbe restricted and these pesticides should not be recommended in any technical literature.

Rejuvenation of old mango orchards: Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture,Lucknow, standardized the technique for rejuvenation of old mango orchards. By thistechnique, the unproductive old mango orchards are being converted into productiveones. The demonstrations of this technique have been organized successfully in differentdistricts. The orchardists rejuvenated the orchards on their own after looking theperformance of these demonstration.

Marketing tie-up: In a few districts of the project the marketing tie-up of differenthorticultural crops has been made with the Mother Dairy (Fruit and Vegetable Project),New Delhi; HPMC, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh and Nestle Ltd.

A few new programmes have also been credit under horticulture component.

Onion storage: To reduce the post-harvest losses of onion during storage and betterincome realization by avoiding the glut in the market, onion storages should be establishedwith the locally available materials. Such types of storages/godowns for onion havebeen developed by NHRDF, Nasik. The capacity of these storage would be 6 tonnes.Under this programme 50 per cent of the cost would be borne by the concerned farmers/groups.

Polyhouses: To improve the productivity, off-season production and increase the incomeof farmers the polyhouses would be established. The size of the polyhouses would be200 m2. Under this programme, 50 per cent of the cost would be borne by the farmers/groups.

Varietal diffusion of garlic: Considering the successful demonstrations of garlic varietyG282 developed by NHRDF, Nasik, the potential pockets of garlic would be establishedin different identified districts. Under this programme 50 per cent of the cost of seedwould be borne by the farmers/groups.

Low tunnel polyhouse: Considering the successful demonstrations of raising theseedlings under the Low Tunnel Polyhouses, the programme of establishment of LowTunnel Polyhouses has been taken on large scale to produce disease-free, vigoroushealthy seedlings of vegetables to improve the productivity in adverse conditions atfarmers’ fields. Under this programme 2 low tunnel polyhouses would be established atfarmers’ field. Under this programme, 50 per cent of the cost would be borne by thefarmers/groups.


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Area Expansion Programme

Technical guidance is being provided to farmers on cultural practices for varioushorticultural crops through departmental officials and block level functionaries engagedat block level through NGOs.

Establishment of Nursery in Private Sector

Under this programme trainings are being imparted at Indian Institute of VegetableResearch, Varanasi; Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi and CentralInstitute for Subtropical Horticulture, Lucknow, to identified/interested farmers inestablishment of nursery. Under this programme, 5 sets of low tunnel polyhouses arebeing provided to the farmers for establishment of vegetable and fruit nurseries. Tools(secateur, prunning/budding knife etc.) are being made available to farmers. With thehelp of low tunnel polyhouses the farmers are enable to grow the seedlings in adversecondition and off-season. Thus the farmers get vigorous and healthy seedlings earlierthan normal condition, therefore the produce comes in the market early and fetch betterprice. In case of fruit nursery good planting material are being made available to farmersfor use as mother plant, from which are able to propagate it further.

Strengthening of Government Nurseries

To ensure the genuine and quality planting material 3 Departmental nurseries and 2nurseries at SAUs, Faizabad and Kanpur are being developed with the facility ofPolyhouse, Net house, Motherstock Protection house as modern nurseries. In addition,5 nurseries are being established as post-production and maintenance sale nurseries atGovernment Farm of Horticulture Department.

Strengthening of Infrastructure

To create infrastructural facilities, construction/renovation work is being done underthe project. Project Implementation Unit, District Horticulture Offices-cum-TrainingHall, Post-harvest Technology Centres/Sub Centres and Horticulture TechnologyDissemination Centres are being constructed/renovated under the project. In addition,the Departmental offices are being equipped well with the facility of telephone, fax,xerox machine, computers, equipments and materials etc.

Food Analysis and Research Centre

Under the project, a Food Analysis Research Centre is being established atLucknow with testing facilities of different processed products, water residues etc. Thecivil works of the centre is being carried out by the project, whereas the money would


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be made available for purchasing of required equipments and materials by Ministry ofFood Processing Industries, Government of India.

Capacity Building

Under the project to enhance and strengthen the technology base particularlyupgradation of technical knowledge of the staff and farmers in respect of production,post-harvest techniques and marketing of the produce, the training programmes andexposure visit are being organized at SAUs and Institutes and other relevant places.

Privatization of Extension Services

As a part of the privatization of extension services, one NGO of one block ofdistrict Allahabad and another NGO for one block of Jaunpur have been engaged totake up the extension activities apart from community participation.

Modern Horticulture Markets

Establishment of two modern horticulture markets at Lucknow and Noida arebeing planned to demonstrate modern storage handling and marketing facilities forperishable commodities. The techno-economic feasibility study report have also beensubmitted by the consultant

Market Information

Directorate of Agriculture Marketing is being strengthened under this programme.The project is being assisted through technical assistance, training and equipment at itsheadquarters and identified centres to improve its programme of price data collectionand dissemination. A market information unit is also being established at ProjectImplementation Unit (Horticulture), Lucknow, for access of market information ofdifferent horticultural commodities and its dissemination.

Credit Linkage

The project activities are being implemented through group approach. Thesegroup of farmers are also been linked with banks for credit purpose. Number ofgroups are availing the facility of Cash Credit Limit(CCL).

Project Development Facility(PDF)

A Project Development Facility has been set up under the project to assist, potentialprivate sector investors in exploiting market led opportunities for agro-industrialdevelopment in the state. The information about project profiles, means of finance,


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marketing opportunities etc. would be made available to the concerned. The PDFwould focus promotional and developmental functions for encouraging and facilitatingPrivate Investment in Agro-Industrial Ventures through dissemination of informationand guidance.

Integrated Farming System

One of the major activities of DASP is to recommend and suggest an appropriatefarming system to farmers to help them utilize their resources to the optimum level andassure the maximum return of their investment, considering the soil health andenvironmental aspects. An attempt is, therefore, made in the project to select 20 farmerfamilies in each village of every project block, which may be a representative segmentof various categories of farmers. An Annual Action Plan is to be prepared to observeand analyse the results.

Agricultural HelpLine

Despite latest breakthrough information technologies, the farmers in villages stilllanguish for timely guidance relating to various agricultural issues. In this context,agricultural helpline is the solution for their problems. Scientist of SAUs, KVKs, officersfrom agriculture related departments sit on a particular day at a particular place toadvise farmers to solve their problems over telephone. In some of the project districts,this telephone facility is available free of cost to farmers and the charges of telephoneare being reimbursed from the project.

Farmers Field School

Technology dissemination through farmers is the basic idea behind the concept ofthis programme. New technologies developed and invented at various institutions shouldreach the farmers to yield results. State extension services are inadequate to deliver therequisite goods/services to farmers. Therefore, the progressive farmers as specialists indifferent fields are being updated through trainings. These progressive farmers will serveas Master Trainers and be facilitated to disseminate the latest technologies among otherfarmers.

Seed Production

Seed multiplication concept has been introduced in the project to meet therequirement of seed of improved varieties. It is popular and has a proven record in aparticular area. Under this programme the groups of farmers are encouraged to producegenuine quality reliable seed of different crops. The farmers are being trained on seed


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production technologies through training and exposure visits. These are being organizedat different SAUs/Agricultural Institutes, to enable them to get the quality and improvevariety seed for multiplication purpose. In the initial stage they will multiply the seedkeeping in view the requirement of a particular variety seed in a village and neighbouringareas. Virtually, it may be viewed as a scheme to make villages self sufficient in terms ofavailability of quality seed in time.

PROCEEDINGS OF NATIONAL SEMINAR-CUM-WORKSHOP ON HI-TECH HORTICULTURE AND

PRECISION FARMING, LUCKNOW,26 - 28 JULY 2002

Growing demand for horticultural produce for internal consumption as well as forexports has increased the need for improving the production, productivity and qualityof produce. Since horticulture is technology-driven, technological infusion directedtowards use of right inputs at the right time and at right place is essential to have betteroutput, and be competitive. Precision farming, recognized as one of the newtechnological areas, has to play a significant role in future of sustainable agriculture.There has been technological advancement in increasing the efficiency of water andnutrients and use of high-yielding cultivars. These aspects need emphasis. The needand appropriateness of technology depend on field conditions and management abilityof the farmers. Precision farming technology is emerging as a promising tool forapplication in horticultural crops in future. Therefore, this National Seminar-cum-Workshop on Hi-tech Horticulture and Precision Farming was organised by NationalCommittee on Plasticulture Application in Horticulture (NCPAH) at Precision FarmingDevelopment Center, Lucknow, during 26-28 July, 2002.

The Seminar-cum-Workshop was attended by the representatives of the Ministryof Agriculture, NCPAH, Secretaries of Agriculture/Horticulture of different States,Directorate of Horticulture/Agriculture, Vice-Chancellors of State AgricultureUniversities, National Horticulture Board, Uttar Pradesh Diversified Agriculture SupportProject, progressive farmers and private sector representatives. A number of invitedspeakers and members of NGOs also attended. The Resource Speakers were invitedfrom the public as well as private sectors who had the experience and expertise onrelevant topics related to the theme of the Seminar.

The inaugural session was started with lighting of inaugural lamp by Dr. G. B.Singh, Director General, Uttar Pradesh Council for Agriculture Research (UPCAR),Lucknow and other dignitaries. Dr. R.K. Pathak, Director, CISH, Lucknow, welcomedDr. G.B. Singh, Director-General, UPCAR; Dr. H.P. Singh, Horticulture Commissioner,


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Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India; Dr. G. Kalloo, Deputy Director-General(Horticulture), ICAR; Vice-Chancellor, NDUA&T, Kumarganj, Faizabad; Secretaries,Horticulture/ Agriculture from different states and all distinguished delegates includingfarmers and media representatives to this important Seminar-cum-Workshop. He brieflyoutlined the background of the Seminar and said that it has been a vision of Dr. H.P.Singh that we are here today to discuss the issues of Precision Farming and said thatthere is a need to have short, medium and long-term strategies for the horticulturaldevelopment. He emphasized that an efficient planning mechanism and adequate resourcemobilization would help in achieving the goal of quality horticultural produce.

Delivering the special lecture, Deputy Director-General (Horticulture), ICAR, Dr.G. Kalloo said that promotion of Hi-tech Horticulture and Precision Farming is anecessity to improve the productivity and competitiveness of horticultural crops. Heemphasized upon conservation of biodiversity and said that it is necessary to characterizeplant genetic resources through molecular indexing and latest available techniques for

Dr. G.B. Singh, Director-General, Uttar Pradesh Council for Agriculture Research, inaugurating the Seminar-cum-Workshop on Hi-tech Horticulture and Precision Farming. Other dignitaries (Left to Right) : Dr. G.Kalloo, DDG (Horticulture) ICAR, New Delhi, Sri Anand Mohan, Horticulture Secretary, Govt. of UP;Dr. R.K. Pathak, Director, CISH, Lucknow and Dr. H.P. Singh, Horticulture Commissioner, GoI.


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having the efficient genetic pool. Ensuring the quality of the produce, which includesenriched nutrition availability, is necessary for exports in the highly competitiveenvironment. Precision Farming, a new concept, which involves application of rightdoses of inputs at right time for maximizing the production is essential to stimulate thedevelopment involving all the aspects of production. He also emphasized upon thedevelopment of organic horticulture, keeping in view the sustainability. Need fordevelopment of efficient post-harvest handling system for improved shelf-life, reducedlosses and better quality was also emphasized. He stressed upon the mass productionof bioagents, trap crops and barrier crops to reduce dependence on pesticides. Hesaid that tree architecture modification could play a great role in boosting the productionof fruit crops. The technique for training/ non-selective pruning for various fruit cropsmust be developed. Efficient transfer of technology through modern informationtechnology techniques is the need of the hour, he added.

Dr. H.P. Singh, Horticulture Commissioner, in his keynote address outlined the

Dr. G. Kalloo, Deputy Director General (Horticulture), ICAR, delivering a special lecture onHi-tech Horticulture and Precision Farming. Other dignitaries sitting on the dais (Left to Right)Dr. R.K. Pathak, Director, CISH, Sri Anand Mohan, Hort. Secretary, Govt. of UP, Dr. G.B. Singh, DG,UPCAR, Dr. H.P. Singh, Horticulture Commissioner, GoI, Shri Naseem Zaidi, Secretary, Agriculture,Govt. of UP, Dr. B.B. Singh, VC, NDUAT and Mr. A.K. Sood, Joint Secretary, NCPAH.

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development of horticulture, initiative taken by the Government of India and theexpectations and said that there has been a growth rate of 6.9 per cent during lastdecade, and the horticulture sector is expected to play a pivotal role in the diversificationof agriculture aimed at employment led growth. Past investments have been rewardingand the experiences suggest that horticulture would be an option for improvingproductivity of land, generating employment, improving the economic condition offarmers and above all providing nutritional security. In the pursuit for achieving 4 percent growth rate in agriculture, horticulture sector has to grow at the rate of about 7 percent annually during the Tenth Plan, he added. The Government has given focusedattention to this sector in the Tenth Plan with an enhanced allocation. Achieving thetargeted production of about 265 million tonnes, in the environment of dwindling landand water resources, is a big challenge, and in this context, Hi-tech Horticulture andPrecision Farming have assumed greater significance. Precision farming is concernedwith the management of variability in the dimensions of both space and time. Variability

Dr. H.P. Singh, Horticulture Commissioner delivering the Keynote Address on Hi-tech Horticultureand Precision Farming during inaugural session of the Seminar.


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of resources, therefore, is a key factor of precision farming. Any component ofproduction, system ranging from natural resources to plants, production inputs, farmmachinery and farm operators that is variable in some way, is included in the realm ofprecision farming. Aspects of precision farming, therefore, encompass a broad array oftopics, including variability of the soil resource base, weather, plant genetics, cropdiversity, machinery performance, and most of the physical, chemical and biologicalinputs used in the production of a crop. These are closely linked to the socio-economicaspects of production system. To be successful in precision agriculture, orchestrating ofefforts together would be a key factor.

Although there have been successful attempts in enhancing the efficiency of inputs,the application of precision farming, as a package in the farmers’ fields has receivedlittle attention. Some aspects of precision farming have, however, been practised. Thishas been primarily due to the lack of awareness about the potential for increasingproductivity and improving the quality of produce with minimum use of inputs. Therefore,there is an urgent need to develop a package based on knowledge of soil environmentand crop needs to enhance the efficiency of inputs to get higher output in given timeframe. Hi-tech horticulture would play a major role in horticulture sector in the comingyears to improve production and productivity. Hi-tech interventions like microirrigation,fertigation, protected/greenhouse cultivation, hi-tech nursery, soil and leaf nutrient basedfertilizer management, mulching for insitu moisture conservation, micropropagation, useof biofertilizers, vermiculture, high-density planting, hi-tech mechanisation, green food,soil-less culture, recycling of horticultural wastes, biological control etc. have beenpromoted in past. What is needed now is to orchestrate these together having aim ofachieving higher output in given time period, which leads to precision farming. He alsomentioned about the efforts being made by the Government for the promotion of Hi-tech Horticulture and precision farming. Integration of efforts together shall be a key tothe success of precision farming.

Dr. G.B. Singh, Director-General, UPCAR in his opening remarks said thatorganization of this Seminar-cum-Workshop is timely to address the issues emerging inthe context of globalization, leading to highly competitive environment. He said thatprecision farming has been defined differently in different context under different socio-economic environments. In the Indian context, it should aim at achieving higher outputfrom given input where knowledge-based management shall be a key factor. He alsoemphasized upon institutional support mechanism needed for achieving success inprecision farming and added that organisation of this Seminar will prove to be land

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mark for precision farming as representatives of all the stakeholders are attending theSeminar with their keenness to develop strategies. He also complimented the organisersfor their efforts.

Due to emergent pressing needs, Shri J.N.L. Srivastava, Secretary, Agricultureand Cooperation, Government of India, could not be present in person. However, hiswritten inaugural address was read by Dr. H.P. Singh. He highlighted that hi-techinterventions are highly desirable to be competitive in the emerging scenario. It wouldbe appropriate to identify the nodal agencies which have the necessary infrastructureand manpower for executing hi-tech programmes in the States. Central Governmentshall play the role in facilitating the adoption of precision farming so that the benefits ofhi-tech horticulture and precision agriculture could reach to farmers without losing muchtime. Since hi-tech agriculture and precision farming would involve high investments ondata generation, it would be necessary to devise appropriate strategies to providecommon facilities to cater to the needs of a group of farmers and in contiguous blocks.Information about land and other material resources and their deficiencies need to beaddressed through precision farming technology. He said that the Ministry of Agriculture,has established 17 Precision Farming Development Centres (PFDCs) which have beenproviding support in the field of plasticulture application. These centres have reorientedtheir programme towards the aspects of precision farming. He also said that the basicresearch have to be conducted through the ICAR institutes in evolving equipment andtechnology, which are adaptable to Indian conditions. He thanked the organisers fortheir excellent arrangement and wished a fruitful deliberation. The Seminar-cum-Workshop was declared open for deliberation with a note that recommendationsemanating from the discussion will provide guidance in successful adoption of hi-techhorticulture and precision farming.

On the occasion, three books including the publication on Approaches forSustainable Development of Horticulture (Editors: H.P. Singh, J.P. Negi and J.C.Samuel) were released which was followed by a vote of thanks by Shri A.K. Sood,Joint Secretary, NCPAH, Ministry of Agriculture, and Government of India.

PRECISION FARMING IN HORTICULTURE

Dr. G B Singh, Director-General, UPCAR, chaired the first technical session. Dr.J. S. Parihar, Group Director, Agricultural Resource Group, Space Application CentreISRO and Dr. S.N.L. Srivastava, ADG (Engg.) ICAR, were on the panel of discussion.Six invited papers addressing issues of Precision Farming in Horticulture were presented.

Dr. Jose C. Samuel, Deputy Commissioner, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India,


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in his paper entitled Perspective of Hi-Tech Horticulture and Precision Farming, brieflygave an account of the current scenario of hi-tech horticulture and precision farmingtechnology and highlighted the concepts of the scheme on Hi-tech Horticulture andPrecision Farming to be implemented during the Tenth Plan. Hi-tech horticulturalinterventions like fertigation, use of biofertilizer, vermiculture, organic farming, hi-techmechanisation, soil-less culture and biological control would be necessary to enhancethe productivity duly ensuring the quality of produce. Besides, precision farming hasbeen identified as a tool for increasing the productivity through judicious use of availableresources. These interventions are proposed to be introduced in the farmers’ fields bylaunching a new Scheme during the Tenth Plan. The major focus would be on technologydevelopment, technology adoption and technology dissemination for all elements of theprogramme. In overall perspective, with the introduction of innovative technologies,horticulture sector is expected to achieve a vertical growth.

Dr. G. Kalloo, Deputy Director General (Horticulture), ICAR, releasing a book entitled ‘Approachesfor Sustainable Development of Horticulture (Eds: H.P. Singh, J.P. Negi and Jose C. Samuel)during the Seminar.

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Dr. H.S. Chauhan, Ex Dean, GBPUA&T, Pantnagar, presented a paper on Landand Nutrient Management in Precision Farming. He emphasized on management ofdegraded land, microirrigation, fertigation, rootstocks, high-density orcharding,environmental consideration etc. He also pointed out that the canvas of precision farmingis too large and we should restrict to a few important issues, which can be addressed infocussed manner.

Dr. S. Panigrahy from Space Applications Centre, (ISRO) presented a paper onremote sensing and GIS As a Tool for Precision Farming in Horticulture Sector inIndia. She explained that precision farming is essential for serving dual purpose ofenhancing productivity and reducing ecological degradation. Though it is widely practisedfor commercial crops in developed countries, it is still at a nascent stage in most of thedeveloping countries. Remote sensing can provide a key input (variability map) for theimplementation of precision farming. Developing countries have scope for precisionagriculture, though it needs an integrated and sustainable effort. Many studies, which

Dr. H.P. Singh, Horticulture Commissioner releasing publication ‘Udyan Rashmi’ during theSeminar.


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have started in India on precision farming, are expected to bear results and transformthe Indian agriculture from subsistence livelihood to a commercial enterprise.

Dr. Pitam Chandra, PI & Head, NPF, IARI, New Delhi, presented a paper onCultivation in Hi-Tech Greenhouses for Enhanced Productivity of Natural Resourcesto Achieve the Objective of Precision Farming. He spoke about the work done atIARI, New Delhi, and emphasized on management of inputs to maximize the output.He said that the hi-tech greenhouse cultivation is essentially a form of precision farmingas the crop input requirements are precisely met. The land use, photosynthetic and totalenergy-use efficiencies of open field and greenhouse cultivation was compared. Cropproductivity in greenhouses was reported to increase manifold in comparison to that inopen fields. Photosynthetic efficiency of greenhouse cultivated crops is 1.5-5 times thatof open field cultivated crops. The total energy use per kg of tomato produced in openfield is 2.5-3 times more than that in greenhouse cultivation.

Dr. Balasubramanayam from Jain Irrigation, Jalgaon, Maharashtra, presented apaper on Precision Farming in Banana giving examples of the work done by the farmers.Adoption of high-yielding cultivars has changed the scenario of banana. Grand Nainecultivar coupled with in-vitro propagated plants and allocation of nutrients and wateras per the requirement of plants through fertigation has increased the productivitymanifold. He also said that 3 million micropropagated bananas have been producedand there is a growing demand for the same in Jalgaon region. Increased yield andbetter quality banana can be obtained through judicious fertigation employing dripirrigation. The quality of produce is also superior under this system of management.

Dr. K. N. Tiwari, Director, Potash Phosphate Institute of Canada-IndiaProgramme, presented a paper on Site-Specific Management of Nutrients for PrecisionFarming in Horticulture. He emphasised on application of nutrient based on soil guidedby leaf nutrient status to achieve higher efficiency in nutrient use. He said the futurestrategy in terms of precision farming should include soil fertility status analysis, DRIS,nutrient interaction analysis, site-specific nutrient management, INM and mulching.

HI-TECH HORTICULUTRE INTERVENTIONS

Dr. G Kalloo, DDG (Hort.), ICAR, chaired the second technical session. Dr. R.K. Pathak, Director, CISH, Lucknow, Dr. B.B. Singh, VC, NDUA&T., Kumarganj,Faizabad, Dr. M. M. Sinha, Director Horticulture & Food Processing, Govt. of UPand Dr. A. K. Gupta, NHB., were the panelist for discussion. Under this technicalsession, seven papers were presented on Hi-tech Horticulture Interventions.

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Dr. Ashwani Kumar, PC, AICRP on APA, CIPHET, Ludhiana, presented thepaper on Scope of Fertigation in Hi-Tech Horticulture. He said that application offertilizer along with irrigation water in plant root zone, as per their requirements duringdifferent period of growth is referred as fertigation. It is getting favour worldwide due toenhancement in quality of produce. The research conducted in India has demonstratedthat fertigation reduced the requirement of fertilizer by 40-60 per cent, at the same timeenhanced the yield, and quality of produce. However, crop response depends on theirspecies and level of technology adoption. In the promotion of fertigation, liquid fertilizeror water-soluble fertilizers are advocated, which are available in different grades.However, currently indigenously manufactured liquid fertilizer or water-soluble fertilizersare not available in the required quantity. Although, there is a saving in fertilizer but thereis no commensurative savings on input as these fertilizers are costly. The R & D effortsare required to develop package of practices for different agroclimatic conditions andefforts of Government are required to encourage fertilizer manufactures to developdesired fertigation material at competitive market rates. The farmers should be trainedto adopt these technologies as per scientific recommendations to produce qualityproduct. The government’s effort in these directions will help in enhancing the overallGDP of the country and in turn, its prosperity.

Dr. S.N.L. Srivastava, ADG (Engg.), ICAR, presented a paper on Hi-TechMechanization in Horticulture. He emphasized the need for introduction and subsequentlymodification of precision instrument developed elsewhere. He highlighted the precisioninstruments developed in India and abroad and emphasized upon promotingmechanization to improve efficiency.

Dr. T.B.S. Rajput, WTC, IARI, presented a paper on Automation in Hi-techHorticulture for Efficient Resource Management. He highlighted the available technologyon automation in different countries. On nursery mechanization of vegetable crops (whichincludes sowing and transplanting, soil moisture measurement, plastic mulching, irrigation,fertilization, insect pest management and weed control), harvesting, transportation,grading, packaging, post-harvest technology and cold storage/ cool chain. He alsospoke on methods of precision farming, map and sensor-based technologies andimportant precision farming equipment.

Dr. R.K. Pathak, Director, CISH, Lucknow presented a paper on Approachesfor Green Food Production in Horticulture. He explained that the chemical based farminghas been a cause of concern for human, environment and soil health. Impact is seen ondegradation of soil resulting in reduced productivity and increased residual toxicity.


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The organic farming if done biodynamic way, can take care of some of these problems.Details of different steps involved in preparation of different biodynamic products likeBD 501, 502, CPP, Vermiwash etc. were explained. To achieve green food production,it would be necessary to promote demonstration of biodynamic farming and training ofresource personnel and take up market promotion of green food. Emphasis is alsoneeded on scientific explanation of all the processes involved with biodynamic farming.

Dr. Ramesh Chandra, Principal Scientist, CISH, Lucknow, presented a paper onMicropropagation for Production of Disease-free Planting Material. He explained variousmethods of virus eradication including micrografting, nucellar embryogenesis, chemoand thermotherapy. Micropropagation using tissue culture is essential for massmultiplication of virus-free plants in banana, and strawberry, flowers like carnation anddahlia. Commercial success has been achieved in these and there is a need to exploit inother crops for economic benefit.

Sri Ajit Kumar, UPDASP, talked about UPDASP in promotion of Hi-TechHorticulture. Many interventions including development of rural infrastructure have beentaken up and the project has laid emphasis on facilitation of private initiative. He highlightedthat the impact of project has been excellent in terms of improving the household incomeof people through adoption of horticulture.

Dr. U.B. Pandey, Director NHRDF, presented a paper on Precision Farming inOnion. He suggested that in a crop planted in row, operation, i.e. selection of variety/seed, fertilizer application rate and time for application, date of planting, population anddepth, cultural practices, irrigation scheduling, pesticide application, harvesting andcuring, and further operations require to be done precisely keeping in view time andplace. This precise operation based on the knowledge gives higher income per unit ofinvestment hence there is a scope for adoption of precision farming in onion.

REVIEW WORKSHOP OF PFDC

A National Committee on Use of Plastics in Agriculture (NCPA) was initiallyconstituted in the Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals (DCPC) in March,1981 which contributed significantly to the promotion of plasticulture applications inagriculture sector by initiating various programmes. During the course of developmentit was realised that the agriculture sector was one of the largest consumers of plastics.Hence, NCPA was transferred to the Ministry of Agriculture in the year 1993. Thereafter,the Committee was reconstituted in 1996. After transfer of NCPA to the Ministry ofAgriculture in 1993, it functioned till 1996 under the Chairmanship of Secretary (A&C).

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However, with a view to give greater thrust to the plasticulture applications and improvethe productivity of horticultural crops through plasticulture interventions, the Committeewas reconstituted in 1996 under the Chairmanship of Union Minister of Agriculture.Further, with a view to give focused thrust to plasticulture applications in horticulture,the Committee was reconstituted in 2001 as the National Committee on PlasticultureApplications in Horticulture (NCPAH). The Terms of Reference of the NCPAH are asfollows:

! To prepare plans for promoting horticultural development through plasticultureapplications with special reference to optimizing the use of available water resourcesand improving quality of the product.

! To recommend suitable policy measures such as fiscal policy, subsidy assistanceto farmers etc. for promotion of use of plastics in agriculture.

! To suggest strategies for propagation and increased adoption of various plasticultureapplications like drip irrigation systems, greenhouses, mulching, packaging, etc.

! To arrange promotion of Research and Development, to build database, to assistin prescribing quality standards for plastics used in agriculture, water managementetc.

! To supervise and monitor effectively the performance of Plasticulture DevelopmentCentres (PDCs) in particular and overall development of plasticulture in generalin the country.

! Any other matter connected with promotion of plasticulture in the country.

The Coordination Cell of NCPAH, located at Delhi is providing secretarial supportfor various activities related to plasticulture application in general and implementingcomponents like promoting research and training through Plasticulture DevelopmentCentre (PDCs).

Applied research on Plasticulture applications in agriculture were initiated throughthe PDCs located in different parts of the country. Keeping in view the need for takingup focused research on precision farming, the PDCs were re-designated as PrecisionFarming Development Centres (PFDCs) during 2001-02. One new PFDC was addedduring the same year at Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, and another one is in the process ofestablishment at Ranchi, Jharkhand. The PFDCs have been carrying out applied researchon various aspects of plasticulture applications involving microirrigation, greenhousedesign and development, plastic mulching besides conducting field surveys as well as


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imparting training to beneficiaries and field functionaries.

Dr. H. P. Singh, Horticulture Commissioner, chaired the Review Workshop ofPFDC on 27 July 2002. He briefed the participants about the importance of Hi-techHorticulture and precision farming for increasing the productivity of horticultural crops.Precision farming is emerging as a means of achieving high productivity with optimumutilization of resources. He emphasized that the success of any programme dependsupon refinement of technology in a regionally differentiated manners as per the localneeds. In this context, the Precision Farming Development Centres (PFDCs) locatedin 17 agroclimatic conditions have to play a pivotal role. In past, these centres haveaddressed the issues of microirrigation, protected cultivation imparting training etc. andnow these centres have to address system management to get maximum inputs fromgiven output. The task is challenging but with commitment and sincerity, it may not bedifficult to achieve the goal. He complimented all the concerned scientists for theirefforts which has paved the way for introducing precision farming. With brief introduction,the Chairman requested Mr. A.K. Sood, Joint Secretary, NCPAH, to present theprogress report of centres.

Shri A.K. Sood, Joint Secretary, NCPAH, gave a brief account of the progressachieved and said that the centres have succeeded in developing regionally differentiatedtechnologies on drip irrigation, protected cultivation and have imparted training of farmers.He further indicated that action on all the recommendations of last review meeting ofthe PFDC held at Solan and meeting held at Delhi on 25 January 2001 has been taken.Some action points pertaining to PFDCs needed immediate attention. The Chairmandirected JS, NCPAH to consolidate the recommendations and the action taken thereof.Thereafter, the Chairman requested Dr. Pitam Chandra and Dr. T.B.S. Rajput to presentthe summary of progress achieved on various research studies conductied by the PFDCs.

Dr. Pitam Chandra presented the summary of annual progress reports of PrecisionFarming Development Centre (PFDC) on Protected Cultivation and Post-HarvestTechnology. He said that most of the centres have carried out the allotted work andmentioned that overall yield increase was found in greenhouse as compared to openfield cultivation. Propagation success was also enhanced under greenhouse than in open.The Chairman complimented Dr. Pritam Chandra for an excellent compilation andpresentation of report and desired that the technology developed through the centreshould be adopted for commercial production. He also emphasized on working out theeconomics of the technology. A modality should be worked out to integrate with otherschemes so that farmer can take advantage, by demonstration.

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Dr. T.B.S. Rajput presented the summery of annual progress reports on watermanagement describing the work done at different centres. He also highlighted thework done at IARI, New Delhi, for automation and modeling. The Chairman appreciatedthe presentation and work on automation and desired that CD on modeling of dripirrigation should be distributed to all the centres.

After the presentation of report, Chairman wanted the comments of StateGovernment representatives and farmers. During the discussion need for training ofstaff of Directorate of Horticulture was emphasized. The Chairman also desired toknow that how the PFDC at Jorhat can help the North-Eastern states and integrate theprogrammes under Technology Mission. The PFDC, Jorhat, should interact withDirectors of NE States and workout the modalities. A training programme should beorganised at Jalgaon for Directors of the States and trainers immediately. The trainingmanuals should be reviewed and revised, keeping in view the technologicaladvancements. After the discussion, the Chairman requested Dr. Raman and PitamChandra and Dr. T.B.S. Rajput to continue the review of individual centres and alsodiscuss the technical programes.

Review meeting continued under the Chairmanship of Dr. Raman to discusstechnical programmes. All the PFDC presented the progress reports and technicalprogramme. During the discussion, it was pointed out that in many of the states,greenhouses have been constructed by farmers. Evaluation of such greenhouse wouldprovide good feedback for refinement of technology. The PFDC, Rahuri, may evaluatesuch greenhouses scientifically in the region and submit a report. Similarly, in drip irrigationalso evaluation should be done by all the centres. Thereafter, programme ofdemonstration should be integrated with state Government, which has enough funds fordemonstration. State Government and PFDC should work closely for effectiveimplementation of the programme.

FIELD VISIT

On-Farm Interactive Workshop was organisd for all the participants who visitedthe experimental farm of CISH, Lucknow. Dr. H.P. Singh, Horticulture Commissioner,DAC and Dr. G. Kalloo, DDG (Hort.), ICAR, visited rejuvenated mango plots infarmers’ fields. During the visit, noting the differences in revival of pruned stem,Horticulture Commissioner suggested to have information on emergence of shoots onvertical and horizontal stem and also suggested that after rejuvenation, new plantingwith improved cultivar should be taken up. He appreciated the work on high-density


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planting in guava coupled with toppingand hedging particularly at the early stageof the tree. He also suggested large fielddemonstrations of this technology musttaken up so as to popularize it among thefarmers. The delegates who visited the farmwere also impressed by the work done atCISH, Lucknow. Horticulture Commissioneralso apprecicated the work on guavarejuvenation and initiative taken forprecision farming by CISH, Lucknow.

Visit to Expiremental field of high-density planting ofguava at CISH, Lucknow. (Left to Right) : Dr.GorakhSingh, Dr. M.M.Sinha, Dr. G. Kalloo and Dr. H.P. Singh

Dr. H.P. Singh, Horticulture Commissioner,being shown altered canopy architecture inguava under high-density orcharding by Dr.Gorakh Singh, Sr. Scientist (Hort.)

Dr. H.P. Singh, Horticulture Commissioner, givingsome suggestions at farmers’ fields

Field visit of rejuvenated mango plots inKakori, Lucknow

Delegates visiting CISH Experimental Farm.Director, CISH, Lucknow, explaining the ongoingactivities/programme under PFDC.

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PLENARY SESSION

The Plenary Session was chaired by Shri Hemendra Kumar, Special Secretary(A&C), MOA. Dr. H.P. Singh, Horticulture Commissioner, Govt. of India, convenedthe session. Dr. R.K. Pathak, Director, CISH, Lucknow, participated in discussion aspanelist. The Session started with welcome to Chairman and dignitaries on the dais andother delegates. Dr. H.P. Singh gave a brief account of discussion during two days ofdeliberation and requested the Chairmen of different technical sessions to present therecommendations. Dr. G.B. Singh, Director-General, UPCAR and Chairman oftechnical session on precision farming presented the recommendations and said that thegroup recognizes the need for precision farming to achieve improvement in productivityof land and suggested that research and developmental efforts on this aspect should begiven priority. Dr. R.K. Pathak presented the report on behalf of Dr. Kalloo, Chairmanof the session on hi-tech horticulture. The group recognised the importance of hi-techhorticulture for achieving improved productivity and quality of produce. Site-specificmanagement of nutrients and in-vitro propagated plants are needed to be essentiallyadopted. Dr. Raman presented the observations and recommendations of PFDC reviewmeeting and said that regionally differentiated strategies are essential to make thetechnology farmers-friendly and stressed the need for strengthening of the centres toachieve the objectives of precision farming, an emerging technology. There is a need forthe PFDCs to switch over from hi-tech mode to precision farming research studies. Healso said that group recognizes the need for faster adoption of precision farming whichcannot be accomplished without appropriate institutional support mechanism.

In the valedictory address, Chairman, Shri Hemendra Kumar appreciated theefforts made by the organisers and complimented Dr. H.P. Singh and his team foraddressing this emerging issues of precision farming systematically. He called theattention to various programmes and policies of Government, which addressed theissues of improved productivity and high economic returns to the farmers, and said thatGovernment is committed to achieve the excellence in agriculture which calls forcoordinated efforts involving all the stakeholders. Dwelling upon the precision farmingand hi-tech horticulture, the Chairman said that priority attention has been given to thisprogramme. He also briefed about the genesis of NCPAH and programmes intendedto be taken up and stressed the need for more concerted efforts on research anddevelopment of hi-tech horticulture and precision farming. After brief deliberations,Chairman called for discussion on various recommendations.

Various issues on definition of precision farming, viz. how precisely it could beapplied, what kind of training would be needed, how green food production could be


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encouraged and how results of research could be effectively used were discussed.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations emerged from the deliberation.

! Recognizing the importance of the horticulture, target of production and expectedgrowth rate of 7 per cent, Hi-tech Horticulture and Precision Farming wereobserved to be inevitable to enhance the productivity of land and improve thequality of produce to be competitive in changing scenario. Hi-tech Horticultureand Precision Farming interventions require to be pursued more vigorously so thatadvantage of technological advancements can reach to the users, especially thefarmers.

! The programme for Hi-tech Horticulture and Precision Farming proposed andpresented was considered to be highly comprehensive and requires to be pursuedduly ensuring effective mechanism, which ensures its implementation in the field.

! Since the Precision Farming is an emerging technology, R&D support andinstitutional mechanism for the coordination of efforts orchestrating all thetechnologies would be essential.

! The Seminar also recognized the definition of hi-tech horticulture as “Deploymentof modern technology, which is capital intensive, based on technologies havingcapacity to improve the productivity and quality of produce.” Hi-tech horticultureinterventions include efficient utilisation of water through pressurized water andirrigation system, utilisation of hybrids and high-yielding varieties, canopyarchitectural management, micropropagation and biotechnological tools, green foodproduction, protected cultivation, water conservation, hi-tech nurseries, hi-techmechanisation, on-farm handling etc.

! Precision farming, involves application of technologies and principles to managespatial and temporal variability associated with all the aspects of horticultureproduction for improving crop performance and environment quality. Precisionfarming is also termed as site-specific application, precision agriculture, farming tothe foot etc. However, in simple words, precision farming can be referred toapplication of right amount of inputs at right time and right place based on theknowledge base either through traditional means or through use of advancedtechnologies like Remote Sensing, GIS, Sensors etc. Precision farmingencompasses all the disciplines to make the maximum utilisation of naturalresources and brings about higher output in relation to input.

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! In hi-tech horticulture, resource economy must be ensured and indigenoustechnological knowledge must lead to precision farming. While working out thetechnological package, economical examination should become its part and thebenefit, in terms of improvement in the soil health and environment should be dulyaccounted for.

! The green food production must get due attention by utilisation of knowledgegenerated including the biodynamic farming, vermicomposting, integratedmanagement of pests and these technologies orchestrated together may be testedat large scale for its adoption by the farmers.

! Since water and nutrients are most important inputs, as it constitute a major part ofproduction inputs, they require to be managed efficiently. Site-specific utilisationof nutrients and water based on the water and nutrient status of soil and plants hasto be the strategy to achieve the productivity per unit of nutrients and water for thespecific crops in the given environment and also to reduce the pollution of waterwhich occurs due to excessive use of nutrients especially in high-value crops.Excessive use of water also leads to degradation of soil.

! The Seminar recognises the benefit of fertigation and also the issues, which havebecome a hindrance in the large-scale adoption of fertigation. Although the benefitsin terms of fertilizer efficiency are recognised due to reduction in fertilizer used by40-60 per cent through fertigation, but due to higher cost of water-soluble fertilizer,the benefit does not get translated because commensurating benefit with reductionin the fertilizer requirement do not occur due to high price of water-soluble fertilizer.Therefore, there is a need to examine the policy issues to promote the productionof water-soluble organic fertilizer, which should be cost-effective and can beadopted.

! Since Hi-tech Horticulture and Precision Farming are highly technology oriented,regular training has to be provided to farmers as well as the trainers including theextension personnel to keep them abreast of technical advancements andtechniques. There is also an urgent need to develop a mechanism which ensuresthe servicing of hi-tech equipment.

! There is a need for promoting mechanization in horticulture to achieve increasedoutput and also introduce the precision instruments developed elsewhere. ICARwould provide a list of such equipment which can be tested and further developedfor large-scale application.


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! Through the application of hi-tech horticulture and precision farming, the quality ofproduce is expected to improve which has to be appropriately handled and value-added to bring the better remuneration to farmers. Therefore, integration of theproduction with post-harvest management and value-addition should be theapproach.

! The commercial exploitation of micropropagation has been limited to banana anda few ornamental crops and there exists an immense potential to utilise thesetechnologies. Failure of many of the production units is associated with poor marketbase initiated and coupled with poor quality of produce and high cost of production.The expertise has, however, improved and there is a vast market for in vitro plantpropagation. Therefore, this technology requires to be promoted in all the regionsthrough demonstration and assistance and also by creation of awareness forachieving higher productivity level.

! Recognizing the Remote Sensing as tools for precision farming in horticulturesector, there is a need to have enhanced information base which can be utilised fordecision-making process for improving the effectiveness of precision farming.

! Since precision farming is an emerging technology, there is a need for concertedefforts for taking up research which can be translated into the technologies adoptableby the farmers. ICAR may include the precision farming as priority researchactivities in horticulture.

! Recognising the importance of Precision Farming Development Centres (PFDCs),the workshop observed that there is a need to strengthen the centre having specificfocus in different regions so that the regionally differentiated technologies can bedeveloped and demonstrated for large-scale adoption.

! The PFDC at Jorhat shall coordinate with the Directors of North-Eastern States,identify the need for the training and provide all the technical support. Whereverthere is a need for the training from other States / Centers, it shall also be organisedunder Technology Mission on Horticulture, coordinated by NCPAH.

! While presenting the report on the greenhouse technologies and suitability of thecrop under greenhouse, there is a need to provide economics both for greenhousecrop and traditional cultivation so that choice to adopt technology can be left tothe farmers. However, quality of produce and its consumer acceptance shall alsobe kept in mind while calculating the economics.

! Recognising the benefits of the training provided by different centres and also thetraining organised for the trainers in Jalgaon, the need for follow up training both

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for Directors and trainers was also essential. Accordingly, it was decided that thetraining for the Directors of Horticulture or his representative and the trainers atdifferent PFDC centers shall be organised at Jalgaon. NCPAH should takeimmediate action for organising the training.

! Since the focus is on precision farming, there is a need for re-orientation in thetechnical programme of address the emerging issues. Accordingly, a separatemeeting may be organised at Delhi with the Principal Investigator of PFDCs at theearliest to finalise the programme. The NCPAH may make arrangements fororganising the programme early.

! It was also decided that all the PFDC shall submit a manual which has been usedfor the training for its upgradation in the light of further advances made and thefocus on the training on Precision Farming.The meeting ended with the Vote of Thanks by Dr. Gorakh Singh, Principal

Investigator and Coordinator, Precision Farming Development Centre, CISH, Lucknow,to the Chair, delegates and all the concerned.

APPENDIX 1REVIEW REPORT OF PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND POST-

HARVEST TECHNOLOGYA. Greenhouse StudiesBangalore! Studies on cultivation of tuberose, limonium, cucumber and mass multiplication of

medicinal and aromatic plants under naturally ventilated greenhouse conditionshave been conducted. The results indicate that productivities of tuberose, limoniumand cucumber are higher under greenhouse conditions and are capable of givinghigher economic returns.

! In tuberose (Sringar and Shuvasini hybrids) studies were undertaken on differentlevels of planting densities and fertigation. The Shuvasini hybrid gave an annualproduction of 143 spikes/m2 with a benefit : cost ratio of 2.03 when planted at adensity of 34 bulbs/m2 and provided with 250 per cent out of the recommendeddose of fertilizer through fertigation. In limonium variety Blue Diamond gave aspike yield of 90/m2/year at a spacing of 30 cm x 45 cm.

! In case of cucumber Poinsett variety was found to give maximum yield and netprofit (Rs. 11,175.00/100 m2/year) at a spacing of 45 cm X 60 cm maintainingonly two main branches/plant.

! The effect of polybags size, root media composition, type of greenhouse andeconomics for mass multiplication of long pepper, Coleus, Patcholi, rosemary,geranium, thyme and mint have been studied. The temperature range in the naturallyventilated greenhouse was 26-310C and relative humidity 85-90 per cent. Thenumber of polybags which could be accommodated in 1 m2 160. The results have

Yield (kg/ plant)

Yield

(kg/m2) Crop Advancement

of harvesting (days) Green-

house Open field

Green-house

Open field

Remarks

Tomato (Rupali)

-3 1.89 0.61 7.0 2.28 13 days increase in total harvesting periods in the greenhouse.

Okra (Vijaya)

+16 0.38 0.13 2.8 0.96 Fruit quality and number of harvesting higher in greenhouse

Cucumber + 4 - - 2.06 0.72 Number of harvesting and fruit quality are more under greenhouse conditions.


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shown that substantial income could be generated through the propagation ofthese medicinal and aromatic plants.

BhubaneswarThe studies were conducted on tomato, okra and cucumber. The results are

summarized in the following table:

! Grafting of mango and cashewnut during September-March had a higher survivalpercentage in the greenhouse as compared to that under open field conditions.

Coimbatore

! The cultivation of cauliflower (cv. NS 60) was studied in naturally ventilatedgreenhouses with 3m, 3.7m and 4.5 m height. The yield of cauliflower was observedto be maximum under greenhouse of 4.5m height. The yield of cabbage undernaturally ventilated greenhouse was observed to be 40-50 per cent highercompared to open field condition. Tomato (cv. S 41) in the naturally ventilatedgreenhouse gave a yield of 106.4 tonnes/ha as compared to 54.6 tonnes/ha underopen field conditions.

Crop Leafy Vegetables Open field (kg/m2)

Green-house yield (kg/m2)

Spinach 19.30 6.80 Amaranth 10.50 4.80 Fenugreek 2.50 1.40

Vegetable Crops Okra (var. Indam-62) (Summer 2001) 2.1 0.72 Cabbage(cv.Golden Acre) (Rabi 2001-2002) 5.0 2.4 Tomato(cv.Naveen) (Rabi 2001-2002) 8.8 3.0

Vegetable Nurseries Tomato 40-95% 30-90% Capsicum 35-97% 25-93% Chilli 42-96% 25-87%

Grafting, Cutting and Layering Mango 70-90 60-80 Pomegranate 60-100 40-60 Guava 70-90 60-85

Hyderabad! The APAU Hyderabad centre, has conducted studies on raising of vegetable nursery

of tomato, chilli, capsicum, tomato, okra, cabbage, spinach, amaranth and fenugreek


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and the propagation of nurseries of mango, guava and pomegranate. The resultsare summarized in the following table:

Jorhat! The tomato variety VC 48-1 cultivated under plastics rain shelters during summer

produced 5.7 kg/m2.! Early Nentis and Pusa Yamdagni varieties of carrot sown during June-July under

plastic rain shelter gave early yield, i.e. in November. The cultivation of coriander,palak, laisaak and amaranth has been found to be profitable under plastic rainshelters as well as low tunnels during off- season.

Kharagpur! Crops of onion, cauliflower and radish were raised under naturally ventilated

greenhouse. The yield of onion was 15.6 tonnes/ha in greenhouse as compared to11.1 tonnes/ha in the open. The average bulb diameter in greenhouse was 64.3mm as compared to 47.7 mm in open field conditions. The yield of cauliflower andradish were 15.2 and 55.3 tonnes/ha, respectively.

! A greenhouse with fan and pad cooling system has been established at the PFDCfor demonstration as well as crop cultivation studies. The crops of capsicum,tomato, onion, coriander and rose have been grown. In case of rose, averagenumber of flowers/plant/month was 36.

New Delhi! Performance of a Naturally Ventilated Greenhouse: A naturally ventilated

greenhouse has been designed for use in the North Indian plains. This greenhousedoes not have dependence on electric supply for crop cultivation round the year.The average solar transmissivity of greenhouse is about 62 per cent. During winters,the day time temperature rise in the greenhouse was 11.8oC above the ambient.With the side covers open, the temperature rise in greenhouse was restricted toonly 4.90C above the ambient. During summers the temperature in greenhousewith overhead misting system and side ventilation was about 100C lower than theambient temperature. Several vegetables have been successfully raised in thegreenhouse.

! The multispan greenhouse, developed for the north Indian plains, has been usedfor the cultivation of tomato and capsicum. The maximum yield of 9.9 kg/m2 wasobtained for Avinash 2 variety of tomato. The yield of capsicum (variety Bharat)obtained was 13.1 kg/m2.

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Pantnagar

! A 75 m2 naturally ventilated greenhouse used for year round grafting of mangowas found to yield an annual net return of Rs. 39,295. The mango graft survivalout of 4,000 grafts made during the year 2001-2002 was more than 80 per cent.For tomato, NS 812 in a naturally ventilated greenhouse the maximum yield of16.44 kg/m2 was obtained when the plants at 50 cm X10 cm spacing were prunedto have only single shoot.

! Planting of cabbage hybrid (Variety T 621) on 10 October resulted in maximumyield of 4.17 kg/m2 although the planting on 10 August was more remunerative.

! Bitter gourd sown on 16 September in naturally ventilated greenhouse requiredminimum time for seed germination as compared to later sowing dates and resultedin a yield of 6.62 kg/m2.

! The coriander in a naturally ventilated greenhouse sown on 15 January (Ist date)resulted in a yield of 7.05 tonnes leaves/ha.

! Chilli and capsicum transplanted on July 1 in a naturally ventilated greenhouseyielded 2.71 kg/m2 and 6.48 kg/m2,respectively.

! The success of cleft grafting in greenhouses for different months in a year rangedfrom 44.47 to 100 per cent, whereas the success was as low as 8.87 per centunder open field condition in certain months.

Samastipur

! Seeds of Papaya (Pusa Dwarf) sown on 22 October 2001 in a bamboo framenaturally ventilated greenhouse required only 16 days for germination as comparedto 28 days under open field conditions. The germination percentage was 63-74per cent as compared to 15-32 per cent in open field. The germination percentagefor brinjal seeds in greenhouse was 76 per cent as compared to 48 per cent forthe open field.

! Capsicum grown in greenhouse gave a yield of about 15 tonnes/ha, whereas theyield of tomato (cv. Rupali) per plant in greenhouse was found to be 2.91 kg ascompared to 2.2 kg in open field.

Tavanur

! Cultivation of tomato, china aster and gerbera have been studied under rain shelterswith favourable results as compared to those under open field conditions.


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B. Studies on Low Tunnels

! Vegetable seedlings of brinjal, chilli and tomato were raised under low tunnels andin the open nurseries at Bhubaneswar center. The seed germination under the lowtunnel was advanced by two days and seedlings were ready for transplanting 5-6days earlier as compared to open nursery.

! Paddy straw mushroom under the low tunnel yielded an average of 1.25 kgmushroom/bed as compared to no production in the open field condition duringwinter.

C. Studies on Mulching

Bhubansewar

! The crop of ginger ( Suparva) mulched with LDPE film recorded a yield of 29.3tonnes/ha as compared to 20.2 tonnes/ha for unmulched crop. The weed controlwas to the extent of 98.5 per cent and the number of irrigation saved was 4 ascompared to the control treatment. In case of turmeric (variety Roma) the LDPEmulched crop gave a yield of 24.7 tonnes/ha as compared to 20.3 tonnes/ha forthe control treatment. The weed control was up to 90 per cent and number ofirrigation saved was 5 for the LDPE mulched crops as compared to control.

Navasari

! Mulching of summer groundnut with 7 micron thick LLDPE film at Navasari campusapplied with pre-emergence weedicide application of Pendimethylene @ 3.0 litres/ha resulted in to about 50 per cent higher yield and about 72 per cent higher netincome.

! Mulching of ber in the unreclimed costal salt affected soil of South Gujrat with 100micron thick black PE film was found to increase the yield by 97 per cent. Themulching film should cover 1mX1m area around the stand in the first year and2mX2m area from second year onwards.

Raipur

! Tomato with red plastics mulch of 25 micron thickness with drip irrigation systemgave better yield as compared to mulches of other coloures.

Tavanur

! In case of okra 33 per cent yield increase was observed in plastics mulched plotsas compared to the unmulched crops.

Appendices

329

D. Post-Harvest Technology

! Tomato fruits packed in 100 gauge polyethylene bags with 3% ventilation underambient conditions could be stored for 27 days as compared to 14 days withoutpacking.

! Studies on greenhouse type solar dryer: With a view to generalise theperformance of the greenhouse type solar dryer, temperature, humidity and solarradiation inside and outside greenhouse have been collected. The crops dried ingreenhouse type dryer have been aonla, sapota, mango and plums. It is proposedto develop empirical relationships for predicting the drying time in the greenhousetype dryer for a given crop at a given location.


330

APPENDIX 2

REVIEW REPORT OF DRIP IRRIGATION, MULCHING ANDFERTIGATION

A. Drip Irrigation

Jorhat

! Drip irrigation resulted in better plant height, canopy area and stem girth of citruscrop, Khasi Mandarin as compared to rainfed treatment. The highest value ofphysiological parameters were recorded when plants were drip irrigated with101.08 , 91.48, 45.34, 99.20, and 65.69 litres of water during November,December, January, February and March and mulched with black plastic film.

! Drip irrigation did not significantly influence growth and yield of pineapple crop.Only mulching with black plastic film (50 µ thick) influenced growth and yieldand mulched plants showed significantly better growth and yield.

! Drip irrigation resulted in significantly better quality of broccoli as compared withthat of furrow irrigation and highest return on investment was observed for drip-irrigated crop with 39.91 mm water per year (full irrigation) and without plasticmulch. Significantly better yield was recorded in all drip-irrigated treatmentsirrespective of plastic mulching.

Navsari

! Sugarcane (var. Co 91132) planted in paired row 1.2 m X 0.6 m can be grownwithin line drip irrigation system with 2 or 3 or 4 lph drippers and place thesystem either as surface or sub-surface (at 15 cm depth).

New Delhi

! Cauliflower grown with low head drip irrigation system resulted in 56 tonnes/hayield with the spacing of 50 cm X 50 cm and also in better quality as compared toflood irrigation.

! The cabbage F1 hybrid variety INDAM 296 grown with drip irrigation resulted ina yield (88 tonnes/ha) as compared to 32 tonnes/ha under flood irrigation.

Appendices

331

Performance evaluation of drip irrigation system

Centre Crop Treatment recommended

Yield (tonnes/ha)


(tonnes/ha/cm)

Curry leaf 1.0 V 22.00 0.72 Hyderabad

Guava 0.8 V 5.56 0.24

Samastipur Bottle gourd (var. INDAM 140) 1.0 V 27.70 -

B. MulchingNavsari

! Summer groundnut crop with 7 µ LLDP up to harvesting along with pre-emergence weedicide application of Pendimethalin @ 3.33 litres/ha resulted inabout 50 per cent higher yield and about 72 per cent more net income. In theabsence of mulch only application of Pendimethalin can increase the yield by 28per cent and the net return by 63 per cent.

! Groundnut after kharif paddy should be sown in raised bed condition duringfirst fortnight of December and mulch with 7µ transparent plastic film with hole atthe point of seedling which increases the net return by 44 per cent over unmulchedcondition. The plot should be treated with Pendimethalin @ 3.33 tonnes/ha andsowing must be done at 4 cm depth.

! Ber in unreclaimed coastal salt affected soils, mulched with 100 µ thick blackpolyethylene film right from the first year resulted in 97 per cent more yield and84 per cent more income even during the initial growth period. The 100µ thickblack polyethylene film should be kept around the trees (1m X 1m in the first yearand 2m X 2m from second to fourth year) immediately after the cessation of themonsoon.

Tavanur

! In case of of okra with black plastic film of 100 gauge thickness gave 33 percent higher yield than that with non-mulched plots.

Navsari

! Bitter gourd (var. Namadhari) as summer crop can be grown with black plasticmulch (25 µ thick), which results in 18 per cent more yield and net return. Bitter


332

C. Drip + Mulch


Average yield

(tonnes/ ha)

Increase over surface irrigation

(per cent)


(tonnes/ha/cm)

Ber 0.6 V + mulch 12.625 41.45 -

Pomegranate 0.6 V + mulch 1.425 21.27 - Brinjal 0.6 V + mulch 62.667 33.14 -

Bikaner

Cabbage 0.6 V + mulch 23.300 17.08 - Okra (F1 var. Vijay) 1.0 V + mulch 22.40 25.40 -

Tomato 1.0 V + mulch - 32.38 - Brinjal 1.0 V + mulch 61.880 38.38 - Litchi (Shahi) T6 35.26 25.00 -

Samastipur

Papaya (Pusa Dwarf) 1.0 V + mulch - 54.24 -

Pantnagar Litchi 0.8 V + mulch - - -

Lemon (Pant Lemon I)

0.8 V + black plastic mulch (100 µ thick)

- - -

Mango 0.6 V + black plastic mulch (100 µ thick)

- - -

Rahuri Rose (cv. Gladiator)

0.85 PE + black plastic mulch (100 µ thick)

4.54 lakh/ha. -

-

Groundnut Drip + mulch - - - Hyderabad Tomato T5 45.01 - 2.52 Cabbage T6 16.25 - 3.28 Chilli T6 20.90 - 0.93 Tavanur Arecanut 0.6V without

mulch - - -

Saving in irrigation as a result of mulching

Centre Crop Best mulching practice

Yield (tonnes/ha)

Saving in irri-gation as com-pared to

normal

Weed control

(per cent Ginger (var. Sup.) LDPE 29.33 4 98.5

Bhubneshwar Turmeric (var. Roma) LDPE 24.66 5 90.0

Appendices

333

Effect of the drip irrigation and mulching on biometric properties

VD, 1.0 V of drip; VF, 1.0 V of floodPM, Black plastic mulch; HM, rice husk mulch; SM, paddy straw mulch

Performance evaluation of different types of mulches


Plant height (cm)

Stem girth (cm)

Mango (var. Amrapalli) 0.8 V + mulch 147.8 11.5 Bhubneshwar Cashewnut (var.

Vengrula 2) 0.8 V + mulch 169.1 17.1

Banana (Basrai) 1.0 V + mulch 146.2 - Samastipur

Banana (Basrai) 0.8 V + mulch - 45.8

Centre Crop Treatment recommended Highest value Criteria

VD + HM 19.81 tonnes/ha Yield

VF 2.51 Benefit : cost ratio Cauliflower

0.6 VD Rs. 168.08/- Net profit per mm of water

Brinjal VD + PM 49.77 tonnes/ha Yield

VD + HM 4.87 Benefit : cost ratio

0.6 VD + PM Rs. 203.71/- Net profit per mm of water

0.8 VD + PM 233.33 cm Average height Guava

0.8 VD 34.66 cm Average girth

VD + PM 262.66 cm Average height Citrus

VD + PM 29.66 cm Average girth

VD + PM 291.66 cm Average height

Kharagpur

Mango

VD + PM 37.00 cm Average girth


334

gourd grown with drip irrigation and black plastic mulch results in 40 per centsaving of irrigation water and bring about 0.67 additional hectares under irrigationwith this crop. In the paired row (50 cm x 50 cm x 150 cm) sown crop the systemshould be laid out at a lateral distance of 200 cm (middle of paired row) with 8 lphdischarge dripper in the middle of 4 plants and operated at 1.2 kg/cm2 pressurefor 100 minutes on alternate day.

! Cotton can be grown with paired row system and mulch with grass @ 5 tonnes/haor black plastic (50 µ thick) to increase the yield by 54 per cent. Use of grassmulch can increase the net income by 162 per cent while plastic mulch can increasethe net return by 30 per cent.

D. Microsprinkler

Rahuri

! The micro sprinkler method of irrigation was found the most effective methodand contributed for higher flower yield of tuberose with better quality than dripand surface irrigation method. Bulb and bulblet yield (6.77 lakh spikes/ha) wasalso highest in microsprinkler irrigation.

Samastipur

! Sprinkler irrigation on the top of the canopy of litchi (var. Shahi) improvedexcellently not only the number of fruits but also the physical quality of thefruit. Four sprinklers per tree resulted in the maximum average weight of fruiti.e. 21.83 g as well as pulp or aril i.e. 12.34 g/fruit and it also resulted in highestyield, i.e. 38.53 q/ha and pulp percentage and minimum fruit cracking (2.04 percent).

Appendices

335

F. IntercroppingPantnagar! One year of experimental result of intercropping of okra – pea – bottle gourd in

litchi shows that there is a net saving of water and corresponding yield increaseup to 38.25 per cent and 26.85 per cent in okra grown under microsprinklerirrigation as compared to surface irrigation method. Similarly the water savingand yield increase for pea was observed to be 51.13 per cent and 22.73 percent respectively. The bottle gourd was grown in the monsoon season and henceno yield difference was observed. The total income (Rs. / ha) from okra, bottlegourd and pea intercropping were 34,640, 75,000 and 31,560 grown undersurface irrigation as compared to 43,940, 75000 and 37,080 from microsprinklerirrigation treatments.

Samastipur! Maximum yield of ginger (23.96 tonnes/ha) in intercropping with lime was found

under treatment T1 while minimum (19.97 tonnes/ha) was under treatment T3.! Maximum yield of guava var. Allahabad Safeda (5.11 tonnes/ha) irrigated by

drip irrigation and ginger var. Rajendra Sonia (19.36 tonnes/ha) irrigated by minisprinklers was obtained under treatment T1 (1.0 V). Ginger was sown in 2/3rd

interspaces between 4 years old plantations of Guava.G. FertigationNew Delhi! Tomato crop grown under fertigation using same amount of fertilizer as in control

E. Experiment on crop geometry


Yield (tonnes/ ha)

Increase over surface irrigation (per cent)

Water-use efficiency (tonnes/ha/ cm)

Tomato 40 cm x 40 cm (2 rows per lateral) 51.12 76 11.97

Delhi Okra 30 cm x 15 cm (2 rows

per lateral) 30.51 67 10.24

Cabbage T1 16.30 5 5 Hyderabad Chilli T1 20.20 - 1.08

Raipur Cabbage 20 cm x 72 cm (1.5 m lateral spacing) - - -

Coimbatore Okra 30 cm x 40 cm (2.4 m lateral spacing) 14.10 - -


336

treatment resulted in 18 per cent higher yield. It also resulted in 40 per centsaving of fertilizer when applied through fertigation to get the same yield as that inconventional method of fertilizer application i.e. broadcasting.

! Okra crop can be grown with fertigation. If the same amount of fertilizer wasused then adoption of fertigation resulted in approximately 21 per cent higheryield than control. It also shows that to get the same yield in fertigation only 60per cent fertilizer was required then that in broadcasting method.

Pantnagar! Lemon resulted in best yield with 80 per cent of the recommended dose of the

fertilizer application under fertigation as compared to the other fertigation andconventional treatments.

Rahuri! The effect of fertigation was not significant and conventional fertilizers (300: 200:

200 kg/ha NPK) work equally effective in gladiolus var. White Prosperity.Samastipur! Fertigation not only increase the yield of litchi but also lowered slightly cracking

percentage. Litchi grown with treatment T1 resulted in 20.86 per cent yield overcontrol.

! Papaya grown with treatment T1 i.e. 1.0 V and 100 per cent recommended doseof the fertilizer resulted in 27.34 kg fruits/plant, which was 55.69 per cent morethat of control.

Tavanur! The organic carbon, available nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium content are

more in mulched plots after planting than that before planting.Recommended dose of fertilizers for fertigation

Centre Crop Treatment recommended Recommended dose of fertilizer

Mango (Dashehari)

Drip + black plastic mulch (25 µ)

60 per cent of recommended dose of fertilizer

Pomegranate Drip irrigation 60 per cent of recommended dose of fertilizer

Raipur

Tomato Drip + red plastic mulch (25 µ) -

Appendices

337

H. MiscellaneousCoimbatore! In case of papaya treatment T6 (8 lpd) has recorded maximum number of fruits

apart from registering higher fruit weight (1.8-3.2 kg/fruit), TSS (13.7 – 15.3)and latex yield (32.7 g/ fruit).

Kharagpur! One dimensional numerical modal was developed by using Finite Difference

Scheme (FDS) to study the water distribution under the drip emitter for variabledischarge conditions. Model is capable of providing the ideal wetting depth ofsoil for a particular discharge rate operation for variable duration of operation.

! An optical sensor based automated irrigation controller has been designed,developed and tested in the field condition.

! The calibration curves (i.e. moisture content in % vs. resistance in K ohm) foravailable sensors like granular matrix and nylon sensors have been developed.

! The water level sensors have been designed to switch on or switch off the motorbased on the rise or fall of water tank supplying water to the cooling pad of greenhouse.

! A hydro cyclone filter of length 81 cm and cone angle of 300 was fabricatedlocally and the calibration curve (turbidity in N.T.U. vs. sediment load in gm/l)have been developed.

New Delhi! The observations on water front advance for three emitters placed at the vertices

of the equilateral triangle shows that after overlapping of the water front of allthree emitters, the waterfront advance at a faster rate in vertical direction thanthat in the horizontal direction. After the front join each other, they tend to forma unified bulb.

! A computer software DRIPD an interactive user friendly software was developedusing C++ computer language. This software is also capable of providing defaultvalues to most parameters in the design of drip irrigation system if the user isuncertain about the actual values at the time of design.


338

APPENDIX 3

PARAMETERS FOR EVALUATING A TISSUE CULTURE LAB(SUGGESTED COMMITTEE ON TISSUE CULTURE, DAC,

NEW DELHI)

S.No. Particulars Requirement Marks 1. Infrastructure A. Lab facilities

Washing room • Facilities for washing,

drying and storing of glassware

• Quality of washing • Overall cleanliness

• Depending on the volumes, washing may be done manually or through a machine but the quality of washing must be good.

• Contaminated cultures should not be stored. They should be washed as soon as possible.

• All the contaminated cultures must be autoclaved before washing with a detergent. If the contamination levels are very high then the glassware (infected cultures only) after autoclaving should be left overnight in the chromic acid before washing with detergent the following day.

• The glassware must be washed under running tap water to ensure that no traces of media or detergent is left behind

• After washing with ordinary water, the culture vessels should be rinsed with deionized water before drying.

• Drying may be done by leaving the jars in an inverted position, overnight. Petriplates and other glassware may be dried in an oven.

• There should be a proper mechanism for disposal of used agar

• Overall cleanliness must be maintained.

5

Appendices

339

Media preparation

• Availability of equipment for media preparation and autoclaving

• Quality of chemicals • Quality of culture

vessels • Maintains of records -

Operational efficiency of media preparation (amount of media prepared everyday, proper labelling of media, etc.)

• Cleanliness

• The media preparation lab must nave all the basic equipment such as weighing balance (electronic). PH meter, conductivity meter, microwave oven, de-ionizer / distillation unit/ RO water facility, autoclave, etc.

• The chemicals should be of AR grade from a reputed company such as MERCK or QULAIGENS.

• The details of the media must be recorded and the trays/racks containing media should be properly labelled.

• All the parameters pertaining to autoclaving such as the time when the autoclave was switched on, when the desired pressure was obtained, autoclaving time, etc. must be recorded.

• As much as possible, high operational efficiency should be maintained to save on manpower.

• After autoclaving, the medium should ideally be stored for 2-3 days so that if something goes wrong with autoclaving, microbial contamination is detected before the medium is put to use.

• The medium must be stored in clean area where very high level of sterility (at least Class 1,000) is maintained

10


340

Inoculation room • Equipment

• Sterility levels • Technical competence

of the operators • Operational efficiency

(number of cultures handled by each operator, labelling of cultures, contamination losses, etc.

• The inoculation room should have at least sterility level of Class 1,000.

• The room must be fumigated periodically with sterilant

• The airflow of the laminar airflow cabinet should be checked periodically.

• Besides flaming, the tools (forceps, scalpels, etc.) should also be autoclaved periodically

• Instead of rectified spirit, use of glass bead sterilizers should be favoured as the former is a potential fire hazard

• Regular monitoring of air-borne microbes in the lab is must

• Operators working in the lab must remove their footwears outside the room and wear clean (preferably autoclaved) lab coats

• Entry to the lab must be trained/technically sound during sub-culturing at a time only one clone/genotype should be handled to avoid any mixing

• Due emphasis should be given to the efficiency of operators (the number of jars handled, multiplication rates, contamination losses, etc.). Proper record of species, clone, passage number, media, operator name, etc. should be maintained

10

Appendices

341

Growth room • Availability of

equipment such as BOD, shakers, etc

• Adequate facility to maintain stringent conditions for temperature and RH

• Sterility levels

• The growth room should be equipped with racks, AC, heat convector, temperature and humidity controller, photoperiod stimulator, shakers

• High sterility levels (Class 10,000) should be maintained with periodic check on airborne contaminants

• The room must be fitted with UV lights. It should also be fumigated periodically especially during the monsoon to keep the contamination under control

• Restricted entry

10

B. Hardening facilities

• Transfer area • Ex agar management • Selection of proper

container and potting mix

• Only one clone to be washed at a time

• Hardening trays should be properly labeled

• Selection of the hardening container and potting mix to be done as per the requirement of the species

• Drying of plants should be avoided by transferring them to the mist room/greenhouse immediately after transfer to the potting mix

• Water used for irrigation must not be hardy (rich in salts)

• Excessive watering of plants to be avoided

• Due consideration should be given to the texture and pH of the soil used for hardening

• All records pertaining to number of plants transferred, date of transfer, etc should be maintained for future reference

10


342

• Greenhouse/ polyhouse/ shade area

• Necessary facilities for proper hardening of plants through adequate control on temperature and RH

• Stringent control on temperature and RH

• There shouldn't be any leakage for the inside air to escape

• Facility for ventilation to control excess of RH during monsoon

• Excessive watering of plants to be avoided

• It must be ensured that direct sunlight does fall on the plants but at same time there should be sufficient natural light in the GH

• Adequate provision for artificial light for those species that are high light demander

• Plants should be monitored regularly for their growth and presence of any disease or pest

• Dead plants should be removed immediately to avoid any possible attack of saprophytic fungi

• Fungal infestation in GH particularly during monsoon season is very common. If present, the plants should be sprayed with suitable fungicides

• Wherever possible, use of compost at the GH stage should be avoided because that may invite contamination

• Any kind of treatment given to the plant such as fertilizers, fungicides, pesticides, etc. must be recorded for reference just in case something goes wrong with the plants

• All moralities taking place in the GI / polyhouse should be recorded to arrive at the transplantation losses

10

Appendices

343

• Nursery • Adequate space

and facilities for irrigation

• Proper management

• Nursery should have some shade area where the plants could be kept till they are harden enough to be kept under direct sunlight

• Only fully decomposed organic manure to be used. Partially decomposed manure will do more harm than any good to the plant

• There should adequate facilities for irrigation Nursery beds should be properly leveled so as to avoid any water-logging

• Regular weeding • Regular shifting of plants to

prevent the roots from entering the ground

5

Quality control • Selection of clones and

maintenance of germplasm

• Selection of high yielding clones

• Maintaining the germplasm in proper disease-free conditions

• Following points must be recorded while selecting the mother plant

• Geographical location of the mother plant or the area where mother plant is growing

• Microclimatic conditions prevailing in that area

• Various growth attributes of the mother plant (height, diameter of the stem, yield, etc.)

5

• Origin of the mother plant (seedling raised or vegetatively raised)

• Age


344

• High- yielding clones should only be used for micropropagation work

• The mother plants should be maintained in disease-free environment so the chances of getting aseptic cultures remain high

• Explant

• Apical or axillary bud • Choice of the explant is a critical factor in the success of the micropropagation protocol. Since axillary branching method is the most favoured method for in vitro clonal propagation, only apical or axillary bud should be used as the explant for micropropagation work. While excising the explant from the mother plant, following points must be properly recorded:

• Location of the explant on the mother plant (branches/coppice shoots)

• Season (month) in which the explants have been derived

• Any pre-treatment given to the mother plant before excising the explant

5

Appendices

345

• Virus indexing • Testing the plants

for known viruses and ensuring their climination before micropropaqation

! Before starting with the micropropagation work, the material should be tested for the presence of the known viruses (this facility may be developed in house or it may be done at other established centers)

5

! If the presence of virus is established then these must be removed off through meristem culture or chemo/heat therapy or a combination of techniques

! Only virus-free tissue should be used for further micropropagation work

• Number of multiplication cycles and clonal uniformity

• Number of multiplication cycles

• Ensuring that multiplication is only through axillary shoots and not adventitious

• Ensuring clonal uniformity of plants by molecular methods

! In general the multiplication cycles should not exceed 10 passages. However, this number is not fixed and would vary with the species under consideration.

! Operators should be thoroughly trained so that they can draw a distention between the adventitious and axillary shoots. Only axillary shoots should be used for micropropatation work

! The plant tissue should be tested for the presence of systemic bacterial contamination by culturing the tissue after every 3-4 passages on LB medium

10


346

• Carrying out field trials and confirming the yield before undertaking mass distribution of TC plants

! Clonal uniformity may be established morphologically through field trials and with the help of molecular techniques.

• Before wide scale distribution to the farmers or growers, it would be good to reconfirm the superiority of tissue cultured plants. However, this would be valid only for short rotation crops because in perennial crops it will take several years to confirm the superiority of TC plants

• Proper field data must be collected and analysis be done

• Overall quality of plants

• At the time of dispatch it must be ensured that the plants are fully hardened and are of transplantable size

• A small hand out giving all necessary information about after-care of the tissue cultured plant of that particular species should be provided to all growers for reference

5

3. • Technical supervision and monitoring

• Monitoring of the production process and the staff involved therein

• Strict monitoring of the entire production process covering all the activities that are performed in media lab, inoculation lab, growth room and hardening area is a must

10

Appendices

347

• Technical competence of the production supervisory staff

• The managers, scientists and the supervisory staff involved in production must have very sound technical knowledge of the subject so that they could deal with any eventuality that may arise during course of production.

• There should be at least two supervisors (one in the clean area to monitor lab activities and one in the hardening area for after care and for monitoring field activities) in the production facility

• Operators • The operators mayor may not have very sound scientific background but they must be thoroughly trained by the supervisors and the professional staff before they undertake any skilled job such as media preparation or inoculations


348

ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS

Bajpai Anju

Scientist, SSCentral Institute for SubtropicalHorticulture, Rehmankhera,Lucknow 227 107

Balasubrahmanyam V.R.Research and Development Farm,Jain Irrigation System Ltd.Jalgaon, Maharashtra

Chandra PitamPrincipal Scientist, Division ofAgricultural Engineering,IARI,New Delhi 110 012

Chandra RameshPrincipal Scientist,Central Institute forSubtropical Horticulture, Rehmankhera,Lucknow 227 107Chauhan H.S.Ex. Prof. Irrigation and Drainage Engg.G.B. Pant University of Agriculture andTechnology,Pant Nagar2/156, Vishal Khand, Gomti Nagar,Lucknow, U.P.Daryapurkar S.Research and Development Farm JainIrrigation System Ltd.Jalgaon, Maharastra

Dhake A.V.

Research and Development FarmJain Irrigation System Ltd.Jalgaon, Maharashtra

Gupta M.J.Division of Agricultural Engineering,IARI,New Delhi 110 012

Jose C. SamuelDeputy Commissioner (SWC-E),Ministry of Agriculture, Department ofAgriculture & Cooperation, KrishiBhawan,New Delhi 110 001

Kumar AjitSr. Technical Expert (Hort.), DiversifiedAgriculture Support Project, U.P.Lucknow 226 010Kumar AshwaniProject Coordinator, AICRP onApplication of Plastics in Agriculture,Central Institute of PostHarvest Engg.and Technology,PAU, Ludhiana 141 004Mishra DushyantScientist, Central Institute forSubtropical Horticulture,Rehmankhera, Lucknow 227 107

Addresses of Authors

Addresses of Authors

349

Mishra ManeeshScientist, SSCentral Institute for SubtropicalHorticulture, Rehmankhera,Lucknow 227 107

Moitra P.Research and Development FarmJain Irrigation System Ltd.Jalgaon, Maharastra

Om PrakashPrincipal Scientist,Central Institute forSubtropical Horticulture, Rehmankhera,Lucknow 227 107

Padaria J.C.Scientist, SSCentral Institute for SubtropicalHorticulture, Rehmankhera,Lucknow 227 107

Pandey D.Sr. Scientist,CentralInstitute for Subtropical Horticulture,Rehmankhera, Lucknow 227 107

Pandey U.B.Director, National Horticulture ResearchDevelopment Foundation, 2954 - EKanadu Butata Bhavan, Nasik,Maharashtra 442 001

Panigrahy S.Space Application Centre (ISRO)Ahmedabad 380 015

Parihar J.S.Mission Director, RSAM & Group,Director, ARG, Space ApplicationCentre (ISRO)Ahmedabad 380 015

Patahk R.K.Director, Central Institute forSubtropical Horticulture, Rehmankhera,Lucknow 227 107

Patel Neelam,Scientist,Water Technology CentreIARI, New Delhi 110 001

Patil K.B.Jain Irrigation System Ltd.Jalgaon, Maharastra

Rajan ShailendraSr. Scientist, CentralInstitute for Subtropical Horticulture,Rehmankhera, Lucknow 227 107

Rajput T.B.S.Principal ScientistWater Technology CentreIARI, New Delhi 110 001

Ram R.A.Sr. Scientist, Central Institute forSubtropical Horticulture,Rehmankhera, Lucknow 227 107

Singh A.K.Sr. Scientist, Central Institute forSubtropical Horticulture, Rehmankhera,Lucknow 227 107


350

Singh AshvirSpace Application Centre (ISRO)Ahmedabad 380 015

Singh GorakhSr. Scientist,PI & Coordinator, PrecisionFarming Development Centre, CentralInstitute for Subtropical Horticulture,Rehmankhera, Lucknow 227 107

Singh H.P.Horticulture Commissioner, Departmentof Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministryof Agriculture, Krishi Bhawan,New Delhi 110 01

Singh MahendraTechnical Coordinator,Diversified Agriculture Support Project,U.P., Lucknow 226 010Singh V.K.Sr. Scientist,Central Institute for SubtropicalHorticulture, Rehmankhera,Lucknow 227 107Tiwari K.N.Director, Potash & Phosphate Instituteof Canada, Indian Programme,Sector-19, Dundahera,Gurgaon 122 016 (Haryana)

Author Index

A

A.K. Singh 92, 164A.V. Dhake 114Ajit Kumar 295Anju Bajpai 226, 261Ashvir Singh 35Ashwani Kumar 198

D

D. Pandey 176Dushyant Mishra 176

G

Gorakh Singh 75, 92, 124, 164, 176, 226, 261

H

H.P. Singh 1, 21, 198H.S. Chauhan 55

J

J.S. Parihar 35Jasdeep Chatrath Padaria 239Jose C. Samuel 21

K

K.B. Patil 114K.N. Tiwari 45

M

M.J. Gupta 64

Mahendra Singh 295Maneesh Mishra 253

N

Neelam Patel 214

O

Om Prakash 145

P

Pitam Chandra 64Prosenjit Moitra 114

R

R. A. Ram 275R. K. Pathak 176, 275Ramesh Chandra 239, 253, 261

S

S. Daryapurkar 114S. Panigrahy 35Shailendra Rajan 92, 124

T

T.B.S. Rajput 214

U

U.B. Pandey 192

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V. K. Singh 75V.R. Balasubrahmanyam 114

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About the EditorsDr. H.P. Singh born on 2nd July, 1950, obtained his Doctorate inHorticulture from the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore.He graduated from Banaras Hindu University and earned hisPostgraduate degree with Gold Medal from Rajendra AgricultureUniversity, Bihar, in 1971. Starting his career as a Scientist at CentralHorticulture Experiment Station, Chethalli (Kodaju), Karnataka,in 1972, Dr. Singh has contributed significantly to HorticulturalResearch and Development, and has set an example as Researcherand Research Manager, which has brought his National andInternational Recognition. He is a recipient of International Award

Kalpvriksha Awards 2001, APCC, Jakarta, Indonesia and Pisang Raja 1996 ASPNET(INIBAP), and many National Awards, which includes Recognition award from, CIHand AIBGA, 2002. All India Kitchen Garden Gold Medal 2002; Recognition Award,2002; Dr. M.H. Marigowda National Award 2001; Ranade Memorial Senior ScientistAward 1988; G.L. Chadha Memorial Gold Medal 1996; Kadali Puraskar 1996;Sheveroy Foundation Awards 1995 etc. He is a fellow of the National Academy ofAgricultural Sciences (NAAS), 1998 and AIPUB, 2002.

In a distinguished career spanning 30 years, he served in various capacities asScientist, Project Coordinator (Tropical Fruits), Director of National Research Centreon Banana (NRCB), Trichy and Horticulture Commissioner in Department of Agriculture& Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. He also served asChairman, Coconut Development Board and is responsible for the promotion of efficientuse of water as Member-Secretary, NCPAH.

National Repository of Banana Biodiversity at National Research Centre onBanana, Trichy, was established by him. His outstanding contributions are in geneticresource management of fruits, development of cultivars and production system basedtechnologies. He is credited to have developed 11 cultivars of fruits (passionfruit, litchi,banana, papaya and sapota). The production technology developed by him is widelyadopted which includes high-density planting, nutritional management, flower regulationetc. and his efforts starting since 1983 have given a direction for water management inhorticultural crops. He is instrumental in promotion of efficient water management usingmicroirrigation. He has conceptualized hi-tech horticulture and precision farming. Hehas also contributed significantly for the promotion of organic farming.

Dr. Singh has widely travelled in India and abroad, and is credited to have authored

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more than 250 research papers and book chapters. He has edited 18 bulletins and 21books. Microirrigation, a book edited by him, is well acclaimed. He has distinctlyproved his leadership in Horticulture and is associated with many academic andprofessional societies which have the mandate of catalysing the growth of Horticulture.He has been resource speaker at National and International Conferences on Horticulture.Dr. Singh has an excellent organising ability and is creditor to have organise 7 InternationalConferences and more than 30 National Conferences and Workshops. He is Chairmanof several International Committees and a large number of National Committees.

As a Horticulture Commissioner, he has contributed for the development ofhorticulture, including the efficient utilisation of resources through effective planning anddiffusion of technologies. The efforts have resulted in increased production, productivityand availability of horticultural produce, a step in heralding “Golden Revolution”. Heis credited to have given a major boost for the widespread adoption of improvedtechnologies like microirrigation, protected cultivation, use of in-vitro propagated plants,fertigation, organic farming, etc. Currently he is engaged in providing direction forhorticultural development having focussed attention.

Dr. Gorakh Singh born at Mohanpur in Rohtas District of Biharon 5th February 1958, obtained his doctorate in horticulture fromBanaras Hindu University. Starting his career as a scientist at IndianInstitute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore in 1986, engaged inproduction system research on guava, papaya and mango. In adistinguished career spanning 17 years, he made significantcontributions in various fields of horticultural science like clonalselection, propagation, crop regulation, pruning techniques, canopymanagement, cropping pattern, high-density orcharding, fertilization,microirrigation etc. He is credited with new technique of crop

regulation in guava, for manifold increase in its productivity. He has conceptualizedpruning techniques under high-density planting in guava and is credited with selection oftwo clones of 'Langra' mango from Varanasi which are recommended for commercialplantation.

Dr. Singh has attended many training courses, the recent being International Courseon Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Production in Shefayim, Israel. He is associated withmany academic and professional societies and has more than 125 scientific publicationsincluding research papers, popular articles, book chapters, technical and extensionbulletins.

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Dr. Singh has proven his mettle as a researcher and his organising capabilities have wonhim high accolades. Presently working as Senior scientist in Central Institute forSubtropical Horticulture, Lucknow, he is also involved in monitoring, research anddevelopmental programme under Precision Farming Development Centre as aCoordinator and Principal Investigator at Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture,Lucknow.

Dr. Jose C. Samuel, born on 22nd April, 1948, obtained hisDoctoral Degree from the University of Roorkee. In a careerspanning over 30 years, he has contributed significantly in the fieldof soil and water conservation, watershed management andhorticulture. Presently working as Deputy Commissioner in theMinistry of Agriculture, he has been involved in monitoring anddevelopment of programme on horticulture, i.e. fruits,microirrigation, apiculture and medicinal and aromatic plants. Hehas played a key role in the development of programme on humanresource development. He has published 54 articles and has editedthree books.

Dr. R.K. Pathak is currently Director, Central Institute forSubtropical Horticulture, Lucknow. He served the cause ofHorticulture in various capacities after receiving Ph. D. degreefrom IARI, New Delhi in 1970. He started his career on temperatefruits at Govt. Hill Fruit Research Station now HorticulturalExperiments and Training and Centre, Chaubattia, Almora, andshifted to education at N.D. University of Agriculture adTechnology, Kumarganj, Faizabad. He established theDepartment and Main Experiment Station Horticulture (MES),guided 15 M.Sc. Agriculture and 9 Ph. D. students. His main

field of research has been on aonla based cropping. Dr. Pathak had been instrumentalin preparation, launching and monitoring of U.P. Diversified Agricultural Support Project(UPDASP) in the Uttar Pradesh. He is credited to have published more than 125scientific publications including research papers and popular articles. He has abouttwo original and five contributory books to his credit. For the last 5 years, Dr. Pathakhas been engaged in standardizing and popularizing organic production of horticulturalcommodities.

Dr. Pathak is recipient of Dr. Rajendra Prasad and Shri Girdhari Lal ChadhaMemorial Gold Medal for writing a book and wasteland utilization, respectively.

Dr. Jose C. Samuel

Dr. R.K. Pathak

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