dyslexia, and other things that make it difficult to learn to read proficiently dr. joseph k....
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Dyslexia, and Other Things Dyslexia, and Other Things that Make it Difficult to that Make it Difficult to
Learn to Read ProficientlyLearn to Read Proficiently
Dr. Joseph K. TorgesenDr. Joseph K. TorgesenFlorida State University and Florida State University and
Florida Center for Reading ResearchFlorida Center for Reading Research
Utah Branch, International Dyslexia Association, 2005Utah Branch, International Dyslexia Association, 2005
First ReaderFirst ReaderBy Billy CollinsBy Billy Collins
I can see them standing politely on the wide pages that I was still learning to I can see them standing politely on the wide pages that I was still learning to turn, Jane in a blue jumper, Dick with his crayon-brown hair, playing with a ball turn, Jane in a blue jumper, Dick with his crayon-brown hair, playing with a ball or exploring the cosmos of the backyard, unaware they are the first characters, or exploring the cosmos of the backyard, unaware they are the first characters, the boy and girl who begin fiction.the boy and girl who begin fiction.
Beyond the simple illustrations of their neighborhood, the other protagonists Beyond the simple illustrations of their neighborhood, the other protagonists were waiting in a huddle: frightening Heathcliff, frightened Pip, Nick Adams were waiting in a huddle: frightening Heathcliff, frightened Pip, Nick Adams carrying a fishing rod, Emma Bovary riding into Rouen.carrying a fishing rod, Emma Bovary riding into Rouen.
But I would read about the perfect boy and his sister even before I would read But I would read about the perfect boy and his sister even before I would read about Adam and Eve, garden and gate, and before I heard the name Gutenberg, about Adam and Eve, garden and gate, and before I heard the name Gutenberg, the type of their simple talk was moving into my focusing eyes.the type of their simple talk was moving into my focusing eyes.
It was always Saturday and he and she were always pointing at something It was always Saturday and he and she were always pointing at something and shouting, “Look!” pointing at the dog, the bicycle, or at their father as and shouting, “Look!” pointing at the dog, the bicycle, or at their father as he pushed a hand mower over the lawn, waving at aproned mother framed he pushed a hand mower over the lawn, waving at aproned mother framed in the kitchen doorway, pointing toward the sky, pointing at each other.in the kitchen doorway, pointing toward the sky, pointing at each other.
They wanted us to look but we had looked already and seen the shaded They wanted us to look but we had looked already and seen the shaded lawn, the wagon, the postman. We had seen the dog, walked, watered and lawn, the wagon, the postman. We had seen the dog, walked, watered and fed the animal, and now it was time to discover the infinite, clicking fed the animal, and now it was time to discover the infinite, clicking permutations of the alphabet’s small and capital letters. Alphabetical permutations of the alphabet’s small and capital letters. Alphabetical ourselves in the rows of classroom desks, we were forgetting how to look, ourselves in the rows of classroom desks, we were forgetting how to look, learning how to read.learning how to read.
““Current difficulties in Current difficulties in reading largely reading largely originate from rising originate from rising demands for literacy, demands for literacy, not from declining not from declining absolute levels of absolute levels of literacy”literacy”Increasing demands for Increasing demands for higher levels of literacy higher levels of literacy in the workforce require in the workforce require that we that we do better than do better than we have ever done we have ever done beforebefore in teaching all in teaching all children to read well.children to read well.
The influence of the NAEP The influence of the NAEP resultsresults
Far too many students across Far too many students across the nation cannot meet grade the nation cannot meet grade
level standards in reading in 4level standards in reading in 4thth and 8and 8thth grades grades
NationallyNationally
44thth – 37% – 37%
88thth – 26% – 26%
UtahUtah
44thth – 34% – 34%
88thth – 24% – 24%
PoorPoor
49%49%
48%48%
When we say that our goal is to help all When we say that our goal is to help all students read “at grade level or above” students read “at grade level or above” what do we really mean?what do we really mean?
We want students to be able to read grade We want students to be able to read grade level text with a reasonable level of level text with a reasonable level of understandingunderstandingWe usually also mean we want them to be able to do We usually also mean we want them to be able to do this fluently, so that reading the text doesn’t take this fluently, so that reading the text doesn’t take an inordinate amount of time.an inordinate amount of time.
And we would like them to find pleasure in reading, And we would like them to find pleasure in reading, which also means we would like them to be able to which also means we would like them to be able to read a book like we read books, without having to read a book like we read books, without having to struggle with the words, and be able to focus on struggle with the words, and be able to focus on the meaningthe meaning
What skills, knowledge, and
attitudes are required for good reading comprehension?
What we know about the factors that What we know about the factors that affect reading comprehensionaffect reading comprehension
Proficient comprehension of text is influenced by:Proficient comprehension of text is influenced by:
Accurate and fluent word reading skillsAccurate and fluent word reading skills
Oral language skills (vocabulary, linguistic comprehension)Oral language skills (vocabulary, linguistic comprehension)
Extent of conceptual and factual knowledgeExtent of conceptual and factual knowledge
Knowledge and skill in use of cognitive strategies to Knowledge and skill in use of cognitive strategies to improve comprehension or repair it when it breaks down.improve comprehension or repair it when it breaks down.
Reasoning and inferential skillsReasoning and inferential skills
Motivation to understand and interest in task and Motivation to understand and interest in task and materialsmaterials
In other words, student’s reading In other words, student’s reading comprehension depends on:comprehension depends on:
How well they read the words on the How well they read the words on the pagepage
How much knowledge they have, and How much knowledge they have, and how well they thinkhow well they think
How motivated they are to do “the How motivated they are to do “the work” of comprehensionwork” of comprehension
Reading is a multifaceted skill, gradually acquired over years of instruction and practice.
The Many Strands that are Woven into Skilled Reading(Scarborough, 2001)
BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE LANGUAGE STRUCTURES VERBAL REASONING
LITERACY KNOWLEDGE
PHON. AWARENESS
DECODING (and SPELLING) SIGHT RECOGNITION
SKILLED READING: fluent execution and coordination of word recognition and text comprehension.
LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION
WORD RECOGNITION
increasingly
automatic
increasingly
strategic
Skilled Reading- fluent coordination of
word reading and comprehension
processes
1. Difficulty learning to 1. Difficulty learning to read wordsread words accurately and fluently accurately and fluently
2. Insufficient vocabulary, general knowledge, and 2. Insufficient vocabulary, general knowledge, and reasoning skills to support reasoning skills to support comprehensioncomprehension of of written languagewritten language
3. Absence or loss of initial 3. Absence or loss of initial motivationmotivation to read, or failure to read, or failure to develop a mature appreciation of the rewards of to develop a mature appreciation of the rewards of reading.reading.
Three potential stumbling blocks to Three potential stumbling blocks to becoming a good readerbecoming a good reader (NRC Report, 1998)(NRC Report, 1998)
Reading is a multifaceted skill, gradually acquired over years of instruction and practice.
The Many Strands that are Woven into Skilled Reading(Scarborough, 2001)
BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE LANGUAGE STRUCTURES VERBAL REASONING
LITERACY KNOWLEDGE
PHON. AWARENESS
DECODING (and SPELLING) SIGHT RECOGNITION
SKILLED READING: fluent execution and coordination of word recognition and text comprehension.
LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION
WORD RECOGNITION
increasingly
automatic
increasingly
strategic
Skilled Reading- fluent coordination of
word reading and comprehension
processes
What is the most critical What is the most critical problem for students with problem for students with
specific learning disabilities specific learning disabilities in reading, or dyslexia?in reading, or dyslexia?
1. Difficulty learning to 1. Difficulty learning to read wordsread words accurately and fluently accurately and fluently
2. Insufficient vocabulary, general knowledge, and 2. Insufficient vocabulary, general knowledge, and reasoning skills to support reasoning skills to support comprehensioncomprehension of of written languagewritten language
3. Absence or loss of initial 3. Absence or loss of initial motivationmotivation to read, or failure to read, or failure to develop a mature appreciation of the rewards of to develop a mature appreciation of the rewards of reading.reading.
Three potential stumbling blocks to Three potential stumbling blocks to becoming a good readerbecoming a good reader (NRC Report, 1998)(NRC Report, 1998)
Extreme difficulties mastering the use of Extreme difficulties mastering the use of “phonics” skills as an aid to early, independent “phonics” skills as an aid to early, independent readingreading
• difficulties with the skills of blending and analyzing difficulties with the skills of blending and analyzing
the sounds in words (phonemic awareness). the sounds in words (phonemic awareness).• difficulties learning letter-sound correspondencesdifficulties learning letter-sound correspondences
Slow development of “sight vocabulary” Slow development of “sight vocabulary” arising from:arising from:
•limited exposure to textlimited exposure to text•lack of strategies to reliably identify words in textlack of strategies to reliably identify words in text
Alexis….Alexis….
The nature of the underlying difficulty for most The nature of the underlying difficulty for most children who have specific reading disabilities children who have specific reading disabilities
or dyslexiaor dyslexia
Weaknesses in the phonological area of language Weaknesses in the phonological area of language abilityability
Expressed primarily by delays in the development Expressed primarily by delays in the development of phonemic awareness and phonics skillsof phonemic awareness and phonics skills
inherent, or intrinsic, disabilityinherent, or intrinsic, disability
What is phonemic awareness?What is phonemic awareness?
• Phonemic awareness is the ability to identify, think about, or manipulate the individual sounds in words
big
dig
bog
bin
Words are composed of strings of phonemes. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a word that makes a differences to its identity
b i g
dig
bog
bin
Words are composed of strings of phonemes. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a word that makes a differences to its identity
Discovery work with PhonemesWhy speech is easy and reading is hard
Every phoneme is made with a unique articulatory gesture
Phonemes differ in place and manner of articulation, and in voicing
Why is it so difficult for some children to acquire sufficient phonemic awareness to
enable good growth in word reading ability?
Now, for the thing that makes reading hard for some students…. fat---friend
beet
ball
Discovery work with PhonemesWhy speech is easy and reading is hard
Every phoneme is made with a unique articulatory gesture
Phonemes differ in place and manner of articulation, and in voicing
The phonemes in words are co-articulated. Their pronunciation overlaps, so that what we hear is a single, seamless beat of sound. As Frith (1978) explained, “although speech can be made visible on a spectrograph, the picture reveals no natural segments that might correspond to single letters.”
Phonemes are Phonemes are abstractedabstracted from the speech streamfrom the speech stream
Phonemes have many Phonemes have many allophonicallophonic variations that variations that differ in acoustic properties, differ in acoustic properties, but which must be but which must be recognized as a single recognized as a single phoneme before the phoneme before the alphabet makes sensealphabet makes sense
These children we have referred to These children we have referred to as “reading disabled” or “dyslexic”as “reading disabled” or “dyslexic”
A new science based definition --A new science based definition --
““Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction.” effective classroom instruction.” (Lyon & (Lyon &
Shaywitz, 2003)Shaywitz, 2003)
These children we have referred to These children we have referred to as “reading disabled” or “dyslexic”as “reading disabled” or “dyslexic”
A new science based definition --A new science based definition --
““Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is is neurobiological in originneurobiological in origin. It is . It is characterized by difficulties with characterized by difficulties with accurate accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities.spelling and decoding abilities. These These difficulties typically result from a deficit in difficulties typically result from a deficit in the the phonological component of languagephonological component of language that is often that is often unexpectedunexpected in relation to other in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction.” effective classroom instruction.”
(Lyon & Shaywitz, 2003)(Lyon & Shaywitz, 2003)
These children we have referred to These children we have referred to as “reading disabled” or “dyslexic”as “reading disabled” or “dyslexic”
A new science based definition --A new science based definition --
SecondarySecondary consequences may include consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.”knowledge.”
Lyon, G.R. & Shaywitz, S.E. (2003). A definition of dyslexia. Lyon, G.R. & Shaywitz, S.E. (2003). A definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 53Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 1-14, 1-14
Temple, 2001, CONB
Visual CortexAuditory
Cortex
Recent Functional Neuroimaging findings on Adults
What have we discovered about the What have we discovered about the effects of remedial and preventive effects of remedial and preventive instruction on brain functioning? instruction on brain functioning?
Magnetic Source ImagingMagnetic Source Imaging
• Detects small bio-
magnetic brain signals
• Provides real-time information about which brain areas are active and when during task performance
Neural Response to Intervention
Does the pattern of brain activation change in response to intervention?
8 children with severe dyslexia (7 to 17)
8 week intense phonologically- based intervention (2 hours a day= up to 80 hours of instruction)
Very large improvements in reading ability
Simos et al., Simos et al., NeurologyNeurology, 2002, 2002
Strong activation Strong activation patternpattern
Weak activation Weak activation patternpattern
Decreased activity Decreased activity in right hemispherein right hemisphere Increased activity in Increased activity in
left hemisphereleft hemisphere
Decreased activity Decreased activity in right hemispherein right hemisphere Increased activity in Increased activity in
left hemisphereleft hemisphere
Early Development of Reading Skills: A Cognitive Neuroscience
ApproachJack M. Fletcher – PI
Students were identified as at risk for reading difficulties in kindergarten
Received one year of intervention in first grade
S#1
S#31
KindergartenKindergarten
Weak activationWeak activation
Strong Strong activationactivation
Kindergarten
First Grade
Left RightAt Risk Reader
Before Before InterventionIntervention
After After InterventionIntervention
Important fact about talent in the Important fact about talent in the phonological language domain:phonological language domain:
It is like most other talents in that it is It is like most other talents in that it is distributed distributed normallynormally in the population in the population
“Phonological talent” is normally distributed in the population
100
50th
85
16th
70
2nd
130
98th
115
84th
Standard Scores
Percentile Ranks
Children can be strong in this talent-like my grandson Andrew
“Phonological ability” is normally distributed in the population
100
50th
85
16th
70
2nd
130
98th
115
84th
Standard Scores
Percentile Ranks
Children can be moderately weak in this talent-like David
David
Each of these kinds of weakness is normally distributed in the population
100
50th
85
16th
70
2nd
130
98th
115
84th
Standard Scores
Percentile Ranks
Serious difficulties-probably require special interventions and a lot of extra support-like Alexis
Special work to develop phonemic awarenessSpecial work to develop phonemic awareness
Learning letter-sound relationshipsLearning letter-sound relationships
Blending sounds into wordsBlending sounds into words
Remember- “Phonics does not have to be Remember- “Phonics does not have to be boring”boring”
Another important fact about talent in the Another important fact about talent in the phonological language domain:phonological language domain:
It is only weakly correlated with broad It is only weakly correlated with broad verbal ability or general intelligenceverbal ability or general intelligence
Phonological Language Ability is not highly Correlated with General Verbal Ability as measured by IQ tests
Verbal Intelligence
Pho
nolo
gica
l A
bilit
y
Low High
High
Low
Dyslexic
Phonological Language Ability is not highly Correlated with General Verbal Ability as measured by IQ tests
Verbal Intelligence
Pho
nolo
gica
l A
bilit
y
Low High
High
Low
Dyslexic
Before we understood what actually Before we understood what actually caused dyslexia, we defined it by caused dyslexia, we defined it by
exclusion: exclusion:
Reading problems in the Reading problems in the absenceabsence of low of low verbal intelligence, cultural differences, verbal intelligence, cultural differences, opportunities to learn, visual or auditory opportunities to learn, visual or auditory
problems, or emotional disturbanceproblems, or emotional disturbance
However, now that we know the fundamental cause However, now that we know the fundamental cause of most dyslexia—we define it by the presence of of most dyslexia—we define it by the presence of weakness in the phonological domain of languageweakness in the phonological domain of language
Children with weaknesses in the phonological Children with weaknesses in the phonological domain-regardless of their level of performance on domain-regardless of their level of performance on a test of general IQ, struggle in early reading for the a test of general IQ, struggle in early reading for the same reason—lack of phonological skillsame reason—lack of phonological skill
Regardless of level of general IQ, these children Regardless of level of general IQ, these children require the same type of explicit and systematic require the same type of explicit and systematic support for the development of early phonemic support for the development of early phonemic reading skills in order to make normal progress in reading skills in order to make normal progress in learning to readlearning to read
One more important fact about talent in One more important fact about talent in the phonological language domain:the phonological language domain:
Children’s ability in this area when they Children’s ability in this area when they come to school is influenced both by come to school is influenced both by
biologically based talent, and by biologically based talent, and by opportunities to learn from their pre-opportunities to learn from their pre-
school environmentschool environment
Children come to school very Children come to school very different from one another in the different from one another in the experience they have had that experience they have had that prepares them for learning to prepares them for learning to
readread
Development of Phonological Development of Phonological SensitivitySensitivity
Cross-sectional study comparing Cross-sectional study comparing the performance of 250 the performance of 250
children from higher income children from higher income families to 170 children from families to 170 children from
lower income families.lower income families.
Children were between two- Children were between two- and five-years of age.and five-years of age.
SES Differences in Phonological SES Differences in Phonological SensitivitySensitivity
Children completed tests of Children completed tests of phonological sensitivity and phonological sensitivity and awareness that assessed their awareness that assessed their ability to identify and blend words, ability to identify and blend words, syllables, onset-rimes, or phonemes.syllables, onset-rimes, or phonemes.
To summarize:To summarize:
Children can come to school weak in Children can come to school weak in phonological ability either because of their phonological ability either because of their biology or their language experiencebiology or their language experience
Regardless of whether they also have Regardless of whether they also have broader weaknesses in verbal ability, both broader weaknesses in verbal ability, both types of children need similar intensive early types of children need similar intensive early reading support in order to prevent reading reading support in order to prevent reading failurefailure
From a recent multi-disciplinary scientific From a recent multi-disciplinary scientific review of the research:review of the research:
““From all these different perspectives, two From all these different perspectives, two inescapable conclusions emerge. The first is that inescapable conclusions emerge. The first is that mastering the alphabetic principle is essential to mastering the alphabetic principle is essential to becoming proficient in the skill of reading….”becoming proficient in the skill of reading….”
and the second is that instructional techniques and the second is that instructional techniques (namely phonics) that teach this principle directly (namely phonics) that teach this principle directly are more effective than those that do not.”are more effective than those that do not.”
Raynor, K., Foorman, B.R., Perfetti, C.A., Pesetsky, D., & Seidenberg, M.S. 2001. Raynor, K., Foorman, B.R., Perfetti, C.A., Pesetsky, D., & Seidenberg, M.S. 2001. How psychological science informs the teaching of reading. How psychological science informs the teaching of reading. Psychological Science Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2:in the Public Interest, 2: 31-73. 31-73.
1. Difficulty learning to 1. Difficulty learning to read wordsread words accurately and fluently accurately and fluently
2. Insufficient vocabulary, general knowledge, and 2. Insufficient vocabulary, general knowledge, and reasoning skills to support reasoning skills to support comprehensioncomprehension of of written languagewritten language
3. Absence or loss of initial 3. Absence or loss of initial motivationmotivation to read, or failure to read, or failure to develop a mature appreciation of the rewards of to develop a mature appreciation of the rewards of reading.reading.
Three potential stumbling blocks to Three potential stumbling blocks to becoming a good readerbecoming a good reader (NRC Report, 1998)(NRC Report, 1998)
The Effects of Weaknesses in Oral Language on Reading Growth
(Hirsch, 1996)
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
Read
ing
Ag
e
Level
Chronological Age
Low Oral Language in Kindergarten
High Oral Language in Kindergarten
5.2 years difference
10
20
30
40
Per
cent
ile o
n te
st o
f O
ral
Voc
ab.
Per
cent
ile o
n te
st o
f O
ral
Voc
ab.
50
60
Kinder.Kinder. 11stst 22ndnd 33rdrd
Percentile scores on Peabody of Percentile scores on Peabody of 29,000 students in RF schools 29,000 students in RF schools
32 3237
34
Bottom 20%
89 12
Median Percentile
12
Bringing Bringing Words to LifeWords to Life
Isabel BeckIsabel Beck
M. McKeownM. McKeown
L. KucanL. Kucan
Guilford PressGuilford Press
Big ideas from “Bringing Words to Life”Big ideas from “Bringing Words to Life”
First-grade children from higher SES groups know First-grade children from higher SES groups know about twice as many words as lower SES childrenabout twice as many words as lower SES children
Poor children, who enter school with vocabulary Poor children, who enter school with vocabulary deficiencies have a particularly difficult time deficiencies have a particularly difficult time learning words from “context”learning words from “context”
Research has discovered much more powerful Research has discovered much more powerful ways of teaching vocabulary than are typically ways of teaching vocabulary than are typically used in classrooms – used in classrooms – generalization to reading generalization to reading comprehensioncomprehensionA “robust” approach to vocabulary instruction A “robust” approach to vocabulary instruction involves directly explaining the meanings of involves directly explaining the meanings of words along with thought-provoking, playful, words along with thought-provoking, playful, interactive follow-up.interactive follow-up.
Four Critical Elements for More Robust Four Critical Elements for More Robust Vocabulary InstructionVocabulary Instruction
Select the right words to teach – Tier 2 wordsSelect the right words to teach – Tier 2 words
Develop child-friendly definitions for these wordsDevelop child-friendly definitions for these words
Engage children in interesting, challenging, Engage children in interesting, challenging, playful activities in which they learn to access the playful activities in which they learn to access the meanings of words in multiple contextsmeanings of words in multiple contexts
Find a way to devote more time during the day to Find a way to devote more time during the day to vocabulary instructionvocabulary instruction
absurd fortunate ridiculous
And we haven’t yet mentioned motivation…And we haven’t yet mentioned motivation…
Detailed studies of effective teachers document that they are Detailed studies of effective teachers document that they are powerful motivators:powerful motivators:
““Basically, we found that engaging primary-grades teachers do Basically, we found that engaging primary-grades teachers do something every minute of every hour of every school day to something every minute of every hour of every school day to motivate their students, using every conceivable motivational motivate their students, using every conceivable motivational mechanism to do so---from praising specific accomplishments mechanism to do so---from praising specific accomplishments to reminding students how well they perform when they try to to reminding students how well they perform when they try to encouraging constructive possible selves (e.g., imagining encouraging constructive possible selves (e.g., imagining themselves going to college). themselves going to college). Pressley, 2004Pressley, 2004
Lets talk about motivation a moment…Lets talk about motivation a moment…
Detailed studies of effective teachers document that they are Detailed studies of effective teachers document that they are powerful motivators:powerful motivators:
““Less engaging teachers actually do much to Less engaging teachers actually do much to undermineundermine student motivation, including, for example, establishing a student motivation, including, for example, establishing a negative tone in the class, placing great emphasis on extrinsic negative tone in the class, placing great emphasis on extrinsic rewards, calling attention to weak performances by students, rewards, calling attention to weak performances by students, providing ineffective or unclear feedback, and fostering providing ineffective or unclear feedback, and fostering competition among students. Engaging teachers never teach competition among students. Engaging teachers never teach in ways that undermine students’ motivation. in ways that undermine students’ motivation. Pressley, 2004Pressley, 2004
A final concluding thought….A final concluding thought….
There is no question but that “leaving no There is no question but that “leaving no child behind in reading” is going to be a child behind in reading” is going to be a significant challenge…significant challenge…
It will involve professional development for It will involve professional development for teachers, school reorganization, careful teachers, school reorganization, careful assessments, and a relentless focus on the assessments, and a relentless focus on the individual needs of every child…individual needs of every child…
But, its not the most difficult thing we could But, its not the most difficult thing we could be faced with…be faced with…
Consider this task for example…Consider this task for example…
