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Dust Bowl

A farmer and his two sons during a dust storm in Cimarron County, Oklahoma,1936. Photo: Arthur Rothstein.

The Dust Bowl or the Dirty Thirties was aperiod of severe dust storms causing majorecological and agricultural damage toAmerican and Canadian prairie lands from1930 to 1936 (in some areas until 1940).The phenomenon was caused by severedrought coupled with decades of extensivefarming without crop rotation, fallow fields,cover crops or other techniques to preventerosion.[1] Deep plowing of the virgintopsoil of the Great Plains had displaced thenatural grasses that normally kept the soil inplace and trapped moisture even duringperiods of drought and high winds.

During the drought of the 1930s, with nonatural anchors to keep the soil in place, itdried, turned to dust, and blew awayeastward and southward in large darkclouds. At times the clouds blackened thesky reaching all the way to East Coast citiessuch as New York and Washington, D.C. Much of the soil ended up deposited in the Atlantic Ocean, carried byprevailing winds which were in part created by the dry and bare soil conditions itself. These immense duststorms—given names such as "Black Blizzards" and "Black Rollers"—often reduced visibility to a few feet (arounda meter). The Dust Bowl affected 100000000 acres (400000 km2), centered on the panhandles of Texas andOklahoma, and adjacent parts of New Mexico, Colorado, and Kansas.[2]

Millions of acres of farmland became useless, and hundreds of thousands of people were forced to leave their homes;many of these families (often known as "Okies", since so many came from Oklahoma) traveled to California andother states, where they found economic conditions little better than those they had left. Owning no land, manytraveled from farm to farm picking fruit and other crops at starvation wages. Author John Steinbeck later wrote TheGrapes of Wrath, which won the Pulitzer Prize, and Of Mice and Men about such people.

Causes

Agricultural and settlement historyDuring early European and American exploration of the Great Plains, the region in which the Dust Bowl occurredwas thought unsuitable for European-style agriculture; indeed, the region was known as the Great American Desert.The lack of surface water and timber made the region less attractive than other areas for pioneer settlement andagriculture. However, following the Civil War, settlement in the area increased, encouraged by the Homestead Act,the transcontinental railroads, and new immigration.[3] [4] An unusually wet period in the Great Plains mistakenly ledsettlers and government to believe that "rain follows the plow" (a popular phrase among real estate promoters) andthat the climate of the region had changed permanently.[5] The initial agricultural endeavors were primarily cattleranching with some cultivation; however, a series of harsh winters beginning in 1886, coupled with overgrazingfollowed by a short drought in 1890, led to an expansion of land under cultivation.

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Continued waves of immigration from Europe brought settlers to the plains at the beginning of the 20th century. Areturn of unusually wet weather confirmed a previously held opinion that the "formerly" semi-arid area could supportlarge-scale agriculture. Technological improvements led to increased automation, which allowed for cultivation onan ever greater scale. World War I increased agricultural prices, which also encouraged farmers to drasticallyincrease cultivation. In the Llano Estacado, farmland area doubled between 1900 and 1920, and land undercultivation more than tripled between 1925 and 1930.[6] Finally, farmers used agricultural practices that encouragederosion[1] . For example, cotton farmers left fields bare over winter months, when winds in the High Plains arehighest, and burned the stubble (as a form of weeding prior to planting), which deprived the soil of organic nutrientsand increased exposure to erosion.This increased exposure to erosion was revealed when a severe drought struck the Great Plains in 1934. The nativegrasses that covered the prairie lands for centuries, holding the soil in place and maintaining its moisture, had beeneliminated by the intensively increased plowing. The drought conditions caused the topsoil to grow dry and friableand it was simply carried away by the wind. The dusty soil aggregated in the air forming immense dust clouds whichfurther prevented rainfall. It was not until the government promoted soil conservation programs that the area slowlybegan to rehabilitate.[7]

Geographic characteristics

A dust storm approaches Stratford, Texas, in1935.

The Dust Bowl area lies principally west of the 100th meridian on theHigh Plains, characterized by plains which vary from rolling in thenorth to flat in the Llano Estacado. Elevation ranges from 2500 feet(760 m) in the east to 6000 feet (1800 m) at the base of the RockyMountains. The area is semi-arid, receiving less than 20 inches(510 mm) of rain annually; this rainfall supports the shortgrass prairiebiome originally present in the area. The region is also prone toextended drought, alternating with unusual wetness of equivalentduration.[8] During wet years, the rich soil provides bountifulagricultural output, but crops fail during dry years. Furthermore, theregion is subject to winds higher than any region except coastal regions.[9]

Drought and dust storms

A dust storm; Spearman, Texas, April 14, 1935.

The unusually wet period, which encouraged increased settlement andcultivation in the Great Plains, ended in 1930. This was the year inwhich an extended and severe drought began which caused crops tofail, leaving the plowed fields exposed to wind erosion. The fine soil ofthe Great Plains was easily eroded and carried east by strongcontinental winds.On November 11, 1933, a very strong dust storm stripped topsoil fromdesiccated South Dakota farmlands in just one of a series of bad duststorms that year. Then, beginning on May 9, 1934, a strong two-daydust storm removed massive amounts of Great Plains topsoil in one ofthe worst such storms of the Dust Bowl. The dust clouds blew all theway to Chicago where dirt fell like snow. Two days later, the same storm reached cities in the east, such as Buffalo,Boston, Cleveland, New York City, and Washington, D.C.[10] That winter, red snow fell on New England.

On April 14, 1935, known as "Black Sunday", twenty of the worst "Black Blizzards" occurred throughout the Dust Bowl, causing extensive damage and turning the day to night; witnesses reported that they could not see five feet in

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front of them at certain points.

Human displacementThis catastrophe intensified the economic impact of the Great Depression in the region.

CanadaTwo-thirds of farmers in "Palliser's Triangle", in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan, had to rely on governmentaid. This was due mainly to drought, hail storms, and erratic weather rather than to dust storms as was occurring onthe U.S. Great Plains. Many Canadians fled to urban areas such as Toronto.[11]

U.S.

Buried machinery in a barn lot; Dallas, SouthDakota, May 1936

Dust Bowl conditions fomented an exodus of the displaced fromTexas, Oklahoma, and the surrounding Great Plains to adjacentregions. More than 500,000 Americans were left homeless. 356 houseshad to be torn down after one storm alone.[12] Many Americansmigrated west looking for work. Some residents of the Plains,especially in Kansas and Oklahoma fell ill and died of dust pneumoniaor malnutrition.[13]

The Dust Bowl exodus was the largest migration in American historywithin a short period of time. By 1940, 2.5 million people had movedout of the Plains states; of those, 200,000 moved to California.[14] Withtheir land barren and homes seized in foreclosure, many farm familieswere forced to leave. Migrants left farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas,Colorado and New Mexico, but all were generally referred to as "Okies". The second wave of the Great Migration byAfrican Americans from the South (esp. the states of Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee andTexas) to the North was larger, involving more than 5 million people, but it took place over decades, from 1940 to1970.[15] Also to note the small but influential migration of Mexican-Americans of dust-bowl and poverty strickenareas of Texas (see Tejanos), New Mexico, Arizona and Colorado, as they headed westward to other Hispaniccommunities and farming valleys of California.

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Characteristics of migrantsWhen James N. Gregory examined the Census Bureau statistics as well as other surveys, he discovered somesurprising percentages. For example, in 1939 the Bureau of Agricultural Economics surveyed the occupations ofabout 116,000 families who had arrived in California in the 1930s. It showed that only 43 percent of southwesternerswere doing farm work immediately before they migrated. Nearly one-third of all migrants were professional or whitecollar workers.[16]

U.S. Government response

An Oklahoman boy during a dust storm, 1936

During President Franklin D. Roosevelt's first 100 days in 1933,governmental programs designed to conserve soil and restore theecological balance of the nation were implemented. Interior SecretaryHarold L. Ickes established the Soil Erosion Service in August 1933under Hugh Hammond Bennett. In 1935 it was transferred andreorganized under the Department of Agriculture and renamed the SoilConservation Service. More recently it has been renamed the NaturalResources Conservation Service (NRCS).[17]

Additionally, the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) wascreated after more than six million pigs were slaughtered to stabilizeprices. The pigs went to waste. The FSRC diverted agriculturalcommodities to relief organizations. Apples, beans, canned beef, flour and pork products were distributed throughlocal relief channels. Cotton goods were later included, to clothe the needy.[18]

In 1935, the federal government formed a Drought Relief Service (DRS) to coordinate relief activities. The DRSbought cattle in counties which were designated emergency areas, for $14 to $20 a head. Animals unfit for humanconsumption – more than 50 percent at the beginning of the program – were destroyed. The remaining cattle weregiven to the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) to be used in food distribution to families nationwide.Although it was difficult for farmers to give up their herds, the cattle slaughter program helped many of them avoidbankruptcy. "The government cattle buying program was a God-send to many farmers, as they could not afford tokeep their cattle, and the government paid a better price than they could obtain in local markets."[19]

President Roosevelt ordered the Civilian Conservation Corps to plant a huge belt of more than 200 million trees fromCanada to Abilene, Texas to break the wind, hold water in the soil, and hold the soil itself in place. Theadministration also began to educate farmers on soil conservation and anti-erosion techniques, including croprotation, strip farming, contour plowing, terracing, and other improved farming practices.[20] [21] In 1937, the federalgovernment began an aggressive campaign to encourage Dust Bowlers to adopt planting and plowing methods thatconserved the soil. The government paid the reluctant farmers a dollar an acre to practice one of the new methods.By 1938, the massive conservation effort had reduced the amount of blowing soil by 65 percent. Nevertheless, theland failed to yield a decent living. In the fall of 1939, after nearly a decade of dirt and dust, the nearly decade longdrought ended as regular rainfall finally returned to the region.

Lasting consequences

By the time the major drought concluded in the mid 1940s the demographics and political economy of the plains ofthe 100th meridian had fundamentally changed. The out migration of the 1930s and the demands of World War IIemployment outside the region of almost all the male and head-of-household migrating population in the war and inwar-related industries outside of the region permanently removed from these great western plains small-scalesingle-family farming agriculture which had been the origin of the disaster in the first place.

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The families who migrated experienced a permanent, significant increase in their household incomes in the aftermathof the war in their new locations and settings as non-farm workers. This guaranteed that they had no desire to returnto the harrowing poverty of their rural existence as it was, even before the great drought. Advances in agriculture,transportation and agri-business in the post war period further contributed to the collapse in demand for thesmall-scale farming that had taken place in the region. In simple terms, the cost of returning these lands to usefulagricultural production, given the need to protect the delicate soil environment of the region, would have producedwholesale farm product prices that were uncompetitive with prices for products produced elsewhere in the US.

Influence on the artsThe crisis was documented by photographers, musicians, and authors. Many were hired by various U.S. federalagencies during the Great Depression. The Farm Security Administration hired numerous photographers todocument the crisis. This helped the careers of many notable artists, including Dorothea Lange. She captured iconicimages of the storms and migrant families. The work of independent artists, such as folk singer Woody Guthrie andAmerican novelist John Steinbeck, also was influenced by the crises of the Dust Bowl and the Depression.Migrants' leaving the Plains states took their music with them. Oklahoma migrants, in particular, were descendedfrom rural Southerners and transplanted country music to California. Today, the "Bakersfield Sound" describes thisblend, which developed after the migrants brought country music to the city. Their new music inspired aproliferation of country dance halls as far south as Los Angeles.

Future Dust BowlsThe conditions that produced the Dust Bowl of the 1930s can occur again. Some arid regions are being stressed byovergrazing of livestock. Conditions that put China, Africa, and Australia at risk are detailed below.

AfricaThe Sahel region, between the Sahara Desert and the Sudanese savannas, is a transition zone nearly 1,000 kilometerswide across Africa that is particularly prone to devastating droughts. Normally, a few years of drought are relievedby a few rainy years. Since the late 1960s, however, the Sahel has endured extensive and severe drought. When theland is dry, desertification can be caused by overgrazing of cattle, on which the people depend.[22]

AustraliaAustralia's largest river system, the Murray River, is drying up. Crop yields have dropped drastically after sevenyears of drought.[23] Australia had a major dust storm in 2009.

ChinaIn 2007, the WorldChanging web site stated that China was turning productive land into desert at the rate of onemillion acres per year, which has produced huge sandstorms. The population of grazing animals had quadrupledsince the 1960s, with overgrazing contributing to desertification. The government tries to reduce overgrazing byresettling traditional herders to villages.[24]

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United States of AmericaA 1°C (1.8°F) rise in global temperatures due to the effects of global warming could turn much of the semi-aridAmerican Midwest into a shrub-steppe, likely starting with an area near the Sand Hills in Nebraska, severelyimpacting food supplies and exports from the American breadbasket.[25]

See also• 1936 North American heat wave• Rain follows the plow• The Plow That Broke the Plains• Timeline of environmental events• Great Plains Shelterbelt• Natural disaster• Desertification• Ogallala Aquifer• Palliser's Triangle

Bibliography• Donald Worster, Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930's. Oxford University Press (1979).• Woody Guthrie, The (Nearly) Complete Collection of Woody Guthrie Folk Songs, Ludlow Music, New York

(1963).• Alan Lomax, Woody Guthrie, Pete Seeger, Hard-Hitting Songs for Hard-Hit People, Oak Publications, New

York (1967).• C. Vann Woodward, The Origins of the New South, Louisiana State University Press (1967).• The Worst Hard Time: The Untold Story of Those Who Survived the Great American Dust Bowl, Timothy Egan,

Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, 2006, hardcover. ISBN 0-618-34697-X.• Survival in the Storm: The Dust Bowl Diary of Grace Edwards, Dalhart, Texas, 1935, Katelan Janke, Scholastic

(September 2002). ISBN 0-439-21599-4.• Out of the Dust, Karen Hesse, Scholastic Signature. New York First Edition, 1997, hardcover (paperback January

1999). ISBN 0-590-37125-8.

External links• NASA Explains "Dust Bowl" Drought [26]

• The Dust Bowl photo collection [27]

• The Dust Bowl [28] (EH.Net Encyclopedia)• Black Sunday, April 14, 1935, Dodge City, KS [29]

• The Bibliography of Aeolian Research [30]

• Surviving the Dust Bowl, Black Sunday (April 14, 1935) [31]

• Voices from the Dust Bowl: The Charles L. Todd and Robert Sonkin Migrant Worker Collection, 1940–1941 [32]

Library of Congress, American Folklife Center Online collection of archival sound recordings, photographs, andmanuscripts

• Youtube Video: "The Great Depression, Displaced Mountaineers in Shenandoah National Park, and the CivilianConservation Corps (C.C.C.)" [33]

• Farming in the 1930s [34] (Wessels Living History Farm)• Flash: Out of the Dust [35] (The Modesto Bee)

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• Africa Data Dissemination Service [36], part of the Famine Early Warning Systems Network, U.S. GeologicalService

• Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Dust Bowl [37]

References[1] "Drought: A Paleo Perspective – 20th Century Drought" (http:/ / www. ncdc. noaa. gov/ paleo/ drought/ drght_history. html). National

Climatic Data Center. . Retrieved 2009-04-05.[2] Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509514-6.[3] "The Great Plains: from dust to dust" (http:/ / www. planning. org/ 25anniversary/ planning/ 1987dec. htm). Planning Magazine. December

1987. . Retrieved December 6, 2007.[4] Regions at Risk: a comparison of threatened environments (http:/ / www. unu. edu/ unupress/ unupbooks/ uu14re/ uu14re00. htm). United

Nations University Press. 1995. . Retrieved December 6, 2007.[5] Drought in the Dust Bowl Years (http:/ / www. drought. unl. edu/ whatis/ dustbowl. htm). National Drought Mitigation Center. 2006. .

Retrieved December 6, 2007.[6] Regions at Risk: a comparison of threatened environments (http:/ / www. unu. edu/ unupress/ unupbooks/ uu14re/ uu14re0n. htm#6. the ilano

estacado of the american southern high plains). United Nations University Press. 1995. . Retrieved December 6, 2008.[7] "The American Experience: Surviving The Dust Bowl: People & Events: The Drought" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ amex/ dustbowl/

peopleevents/ pandeAMEX06. html). PBS. . Retrieved 2008-12-29.[8] "A History of Drought in Colorado: lessons learned and what lies ahead" (http:/ / ccc. atmos. colostate. edu/ pdfs/ ahistoryofdrought. pdf)

(PDF). Colorado Water Resources Research Institute. February 2000. . Retrieved December 6, 2007.[9] "A Report of the Great Plains Area Drought Committee" (http:/ / newdeal. feri. org/ hopkins/ hop27. htm). Hopkins Papers, Franklin D.

Roosevelt Library. August 27, 1936. . Retrieved December 6, 2007.[10] Stock, Catherine McNicol (1992). Main Street in Crisis: The Great Depression and the Old Middle Class on the Northern Plains, p. 24.

University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0807846899.[11] ""The Dust Bowl"" (http:/ / history. cbc. ca/ history/ ?MIval=EpisContent. html& lang=E& series_id_1& episode_id=13& chapter_id=1&

page_id=2). CBC. . Retrieved 2007-03-11.[12] "First Measured Century: Interview:James Gregory" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ fmc/ interviews/ gregory. htm). PBS. . Retrieved 2007-03-11.[13] "Surviving the Dust Bowl" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ americanexperience/ dustbowl/ transcript/ 2/ ). 1998. . Retrieved October 20,

2009.[14] Worster, Donald (1979). Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930's. Oxford University Press.[15] "In Motion: African American Migration Experience, The Second Great Migration" (http:/ / www. inmotionaame. org/ migrations/ topic.

cfm?migration=9& topic=1). . Retrieved 2007-03-18.[16] Gregory, N. James. 1991. American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture in California. Oxford University Press.[17] Steiner, Frederick (2008). The Living Landscape, Second Edition: An Ecological Approach to Landscape Planning, p. 188. Island Press.

ISBN 1597263966.[18] "The American Experience / Surviving the Dust Bowl / Timeline" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ amex/ dustbowl/ timeline/ ). .[19] Monthly Catalog, United States Public Documents, By United States Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing

Office, Published by G.P.O., 1938[20] Federal Writers' Project. Texas. Writers' Program (Tex.): Writers' Program Texas. p. 16.[21] Buchanan, James Shannon. Chronicles of Oklahoma. Oklahoma Historical Society. p. 224.[22] Schmidt, Laurie J., "From the Dust Bowl to the Sahel" (http:/ / earthobservatory. nasa. gov/ Features/ DustBowl/ ), NASA Earth

Observatory, 2001-05-18, accessed 2008-07-23[23] Macdonald, Nancy. "Water Fights" (http:/ / www2. macleans. ca/ tag/ dustbowl/ ), Maclean's.ca, 2009 July 6, accessed 2009 July 25[24] Hvistendahl, Mara. "Revitalizing China's Dust Bowl" (http:/ / www. worldchanging. com/ archives/ 007386. html), 2007-10-08, accessed

2009-07-25[25] Lynas, Mark (2007). "One Degree". Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet. Fourth Estate. pp. 358.[26] http:/ / www. gsfc. nasa. gov/ topstory/ 2004/ 0319dustbowl. html[27] http:/ / www. weru. ksu. edu/ new_weru/ multimedia/ dustbowl/ dustbowlpics. html[28] http:/ / eh. net/ encyclopedia/ ?article=Cunfer. DustBowl[29] http:/ / www. kansashistory. us/ dustbowl. html[30] http:/ / www. lbk. ars. usda. gov/ wewc/ biblio/ bar. htm[31] http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ amex/ dustbowl/ peopleevents/ pandeAMEX07. html[32] http:/ / hdl. loc. gov/ loc. afc/ collafc. af000011[33] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=2jvbTwxdbvE[34] http:/ / www. livinghistoryfarm. org/ farminginthe30s/ water_02. html[35] http:/ / www. modbee. com/ outofthedust[36] http:/ / earlywarning. usgs. gov/ adds/

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[37] http:/ / digital. library. okstate. edu/ encyclopedia/ entries/ D/ DU011. html

Article Sources and Contributors 9

Article Sources and ContributorsDust Bowl  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=376368286  Contributors: (jarbarf), 2004-12-29T22:45Z, 2D, 4twenty42o, 5 albert square, 7, A Raider Like Indiana, A SofterAnswer, A8UDI, ABF, AVand, Acroterion, Addshore, After Midnight, Agathman, AgentPeppermint, AgnosticPreachersKid, Ahoerstemeier, Airplaneman, Aitias, Ajlp1, Ajraddatz, AlanLiefting, Alan012, Alansohn, Ale jrb, AlexTJones, AlexiusHoratius, Alfredo Molina, Ali, Ali K, Allen4names, Allstarecho, AmEx intern, Americanfreedom, AndonicO, Andrew c,AndromedaRoach, Andy M. 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Farmer walking in dust storm Cimarron County Oklahoma2.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Farmer_walking_in_dust_storm_Cimarron_County_Oklahoma2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: GerardM, Infrogmation, Mvuijlst, 2anonymous editsImage:Dust-storm-Texas-1935.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dust-storm-Texas-1935.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bidgee, Epimethius,Infrogmation, Leaflet, Saperaud, 2 anonymous editsImage:Wea01422.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wea01422.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Bevo at en.wikipediaImage:Dust Bowl - Dallas, South Dakota 1936.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dust_Bowl_-_Dallas,_South_Dakota_1936.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Sloan (?)File:Oklahoman boy during the Dust Bowl era.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oklahoman_boy_during_the_Dust_Bowl_era.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Arthur Rothstein, for the Farm Security Administration. Original uploader was AgnosticPreachersKid at en.wikipedia

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