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GrahamDuncan

STEVE BIKOS RELIGIOUS CONSCIOUSNESS AND

THOUGH T AND ITS INFLUENCE ON

THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE

TO THE FEDERAL THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY OF

SOUTHERN AFRICA

GrahamDuncanDepartmentofChurchHistoryandChurchLaw,UniversityofPretoria,Pretoria,SouthAfrica

1 HISTORIOGRAPHICAL ISSUES

There is littleactualevidenceofBikosdirectrelationshipwiththeFederalTheological Seminary (FedSem),which hevisitedfrequently. The relationship was not formal, so there are noreferences inminutes, reports, et cetera. Myapproach is notbased on oral history/anecdotal material gathered from inter-views,but thisdoesnotmean thatwecannotconsiderarela-tionshipbetweenBikoandFedsem.Bikoswritingsareamajorsourceofinformationinthisregard. Fedsemhastobeseeninconjunctionwithothertheolo-

gicalinstitutionswithwhichBikohadlinks.Theserelationshipswere not restricted to one level or area of involvement. Forexample,hemayhavetalkedaboutreligiousmattersinasecu-lar context. Therefore it is difficult to separate the religiousdomain from his total commitment. He was an African andviewed life holistically, hence his commitment to the BlackConsciousnessMovement (BCM). This marked a rejection ofWestern dualism which separates the religious and secularaspects of life (Morphew1989:159).Besides,his legacywassoextensivethatitcannoteasilyberestrictedtooneinstitution. FedSemwasachurch institution andBiko had a some-whatnegativeattitudetowardstheinstitutionalchurch.Muchofhiscritiquewasaccurateandenduring,andpartofhis legacy

relates tohow his viewsof the church were integrated in themindsandactionsofFedSemstudents.As hasbeendemon-


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strated (Duncan 2003), education may result in one of twogeneral responses: conformity or resistance. Those dichoto-mousresponseswereevidentatFedSem,whichwastoalargeextent amission establishment.Bikos long-term legacymightbe questioned in light of the limited impact of the church ontransformation in a youngdemocracy.Whilemany institutionsareinthevanguardoftransformation,thechurchoftenappearstobefightingarear-guardactionagainstchange.Andwhenwetalkofthechurchwearetalkingofaninstitution,manyofwhosesenior ministers and current leaders were trained atFedSem

andsimilar institutionsduring the1960sand1970s.However,thisdoesnotdetractfromthefactthatsomeordinandsandlaypeople were deeply influenced byBlackConsciousness (BC)and its soul mate, BlackTheology (BT), and have integratedtheirinsightsintotheirministries.Perhapstheclearestevidenceofthisistheinvolvementoflaypersonsintheworkofministryand the manner inwhichministers became involved in com-munity projects during the apartheid years and beyond as ameansofdemonstratingsolidaritywiththeoppressed,encour-aging them to forgean independent identity and achieve theconsequent dignityandself-respect aschildrenofGod.Manybecamecommunity-oriented rather than congregational minis-ters.

InusingBikoswritingsasasource,weneedtobeawarethathewasnotlivinginasocietythatwassensitivetogenderissues.Consequentlyheconstantlyreferstomaninagenericsense. ThispaperfocusesonwhatIdescribeasBikosreligiousconsciousnessandhowitrelatestovariousaspectsoftheologyandchurchpractice.Iusethetermreligiousinabroadsense,since in African philosophy and religion there is nothing thatfallsoutsideitsambit.


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2 BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS BC)

Bikos approach in his student days (1966-1972) may besummedupasfollows:

Therestirredwithin hisconsciousness thegerm ofanidea.Thiswastoflowerintoastudentmovementwhich conscientised blacks to analyse their socio-politicalconditionbyrecognisingthattheycouldbetheirownliberatorsthroughresistingtheiroppress-

sionwithadifferentmentalattitude.Itwasthisatti-tudethatbecameknownasBlackConsciousness(Wilson1991:23).

BlackconsciousnesstakescognisanceofthedeliberatenessofGods plan in creating black people black (Biko 1987:53).

Interestingly,thisisconsistentwithoneofAZAPOs1aims:to

promoteaninterpretationofreligionasaliberatoryphilosophyrelevanttotheblackstruggle(Maphai1994:130).Further,itisawebofattitudes,beliefsystems,culturalandpoliticalvalues(Maphai1994:131).ForBiko(1987:49),

1 Here I use AZAPO as an example of a political group which co-opted Bikos

thinking.Thiswasby nomenas theonly group.However, AZAPO isparticularlypopularamonguniversitypersonnel,clergy,journalistzsandrelatedprofessionsAZAPO comprisesan intellectualelite in search of aconstitutency,while the PACrepresentsapotentiallypowerfularmywithdisorganisedandquarrellinggeneralsBlackconsciousnesslivesonmoreasanalternativevisionthananorganisationallyactivepoliticalparty(Moodley1991:151).BikotriedtoinitiatedialoguebetweentheANC,PSAC,AZAPO,theUnityMovementandotherpoliticalorganisations(Pityana1991a:255).The politicalflexibility of BCMactivistswasdeliberate a practicaloutgrowthoftheirtheoreticalinclinations,BCMactivistsgravitatedinmanypoliticaldirections (Halisi 1991:101): cfsomeofficials of both AZAPOand BCMA haveattempted to appropriate the legacy of Black Consciousness themselves. Suchattemptsindicateafundamentalfailuretounderstandthatawayoflifecannotbeappropriated. The legacy of Black Consciousness spans the whole politicalspectrum:ANC,PAC,Unity Movement, andmanyindividualsnotaligned to any

particularpoliticalorganisation(Pityanaet al 1991:10).This wasalso evidentatFedSem wherestudentsco-optedBC accordingto theirpolitical inclinations andaffiliations.


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Blackconsciousnessisinessencetherealisationbytheblackmanoftheneedtorallytogetherwithhisbrothersaroundthecauseoftheiroppressionthe blackness of their skin and to operate as agroupinordertoridthemselvesoftheshacklesthatbindthemtoperpetualservitude.

Regardingissuesofintegration,Bikorejectedwhiteliberalismonthegrounds that such integrationastheypromoted simplyencouraged the development of a small elite of blacks, who

increasinglybecamealienatedfromtheircompatriotsandcouldachievelittleifanythingforthem(Biko1987:19ff.). Blackmeantoppressed(Wilson1991:24),soBCimpliedauniversalisingtendencywhichdefiedthebarriersimposedbyapartheid. From Bikos perspective, then, BC and black moralitymeantunderstanding that the emancipation ofblacks and theliberationofsocietyasawholerequiredtherenaissanceoftheblack intellect. This understanding also entailed developing ablackpoliticalwillwhich, ifnecessary,wouldgenerate amas-sive insurrection, culminating in the overthrow ofwhitesupre-macyandtheusheringinofblackhegemony(Fatton1986:78).However,thiswasnottheprimeaimofBC.Tutu,preachingat

Bikos funeral in 1977 (in Tutu 1994:19), advocated a morepositiveapproach: untilblacksasserted theirhumanityandpersonhood, there was not the remotest chance for recon-ciliationinSouthAfrica.WhileBikoacceptedthepossibleuseofviolence, he did not promote it.Tutuwas referring toalter-native ways of achieving reconciliation,whichby definition isinimicaltotheuseofviolence.3 RELIGIOUS CONSCIOUSNESS

Commontomoststudentideologiesofthedecade[1960s]wasa concern with consciousness, culture, alienation, communityand the dimension of everyday life as the most important

reference for political activity (Halisi 1991:109). Pityana(1991a:254)couldclaimthatBikobuilthispoliticalsystemon


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spiritual foundations spiritual is concrete,holistic,bringingthe fullnessof humanityto bearon thematerialandobjectiveworld. This was because BC envisaged a way of life, anattitude of mind (Pityana 1991a:254). So it had significantreligious implications and Biko held high for our people thehope in human values and the triumph of the human spirit(Pityana1991a:254). Inthefinalanalysis,heunderstoodBlackConsciousnessintermsconsistentwithhisownpersonalsenseofmissionacombinationoftheoreticalhonestyanddevotiontothecauseof

liberation (Halisi 1991:110). Liberation is a unified process;physical liberationcannot bedistinguished frompsychologicalliberation. Liberty was predicated on the power todetermineonesdestiny(Sibisi1991:135).Andsoitcouldbesaid:theBlack Consciousness Movement was surely of God (Tutu2004:ix).4 CRITIQUE OF THE CHURCH

Bikos critique of the institutionalised church is important, notonlyforitsownsakebutforitspotentialtoinfluencestudents,particularlytheologicalstudents. Biko was an Anglican by birth and grew up to be a

nominal Anglican Christian. Steve never denied being anAnglican,andthiswasduechiefly to loyaltytohismother,andtoadmirationofthequalityofherfaith(Stubbs2004:186).Yethewasinquisitiveaboutreligiousmatters(Stubbs2004:176);IlearnttodevelopastrongfaithinGod(lettertoStubbs[1974]2004:193). Hewas educatedat a RomanCatholic college inNatalwherehefoundagoodnumberoftheirteachingseitherunintelligible or unacceptable (Stubbs2004:176). Despite hisstrongnegativeviewsofthechurch,hecontinuedtotakeholycommunion(Stubbs2004:203),thesacramentofintegration. Bikos contribution to both the BCM and critique of thechurchwastoawakenthepeople:first,fromtheirownpsycho-logicaloppressionthroughrecognisingtheirinferioritycomplex;

secondly,fromthephysicaloppressionaccruingoutoflivinginawhiteracistsociety(SASOresolution,Woods1987:161).In


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thisprocessheconsideredthechurchtobecomplicitbecauseitfurtheraddedtotheirinsecuritybyitsinward-directeddefinitionoftheconceptofsinand itsencouragementofthemeaculpaattitude (Stubbs 2004:31). This was a denial of his positiveviewofhumanityinanAfricancontext.AsanAfricanBikowasuncomfortablewiththedoctrineoforiginalsin,whichtohimwaslife-denying rather than life-affirming. That is one purpose ofconscientisation: to provide some kind of hope (Stubbs2004:126) inanotherwisehopelesssituation,a situationcha-racterisedasspiritualpoverty.Thisisthefirsttruthwehave

toacknowledge(Stubbs2004:31),namelytheexistenceof

akindofblackmanwhoismanonlyinform.Thisistheextenttowhichtheprocessofdehumanisationhas advanced the type of black man we havetodayhaslosthismanhood.ReducedtoanobligingshellthefirststepthereforeistomaketheblackmancometohimselfThisiswhatwemeanbyaninward-looking process. This is the definition ofBlackconsciousness(Stubbs2004:3031).

Integraltothisisaninnerprocessofself-discernmentandself-awareness.

Bikos critique of the church was penetrating. While hehadnoquarrelwithChristianityassuch,hewastroubledbyitsmanifestationasChurch-ianity,whichIdefineasover-concen-trationonthechurchasaninstitutionratherthanonChrist,itssourceandend.Hewastroubledbythepervasiveinfluenceofthechurch:

1 It makesChristianitytoomuch ofa turn the

othercheekreligionwhilstaddressingitselftoadestitutepeople.

2 It is stunted with bureaucracy and institu-tionalisation.

3 Itmanifestsinitsstructuresatacitacceptance

ofthesystemi.e.whiteequalsvalue.


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4 Itislimitedbytoomuchspecialisation(Stubbs2004:63).

This was a church which emphasised a false spirituality,becauseitkeptpeopleinbondage.Therefore,concludedBiko,therewasaneedtodealwiththeproblemofcontrolinchurchesandtopaygreaterattentiontoBlackTheology. Abasicproblemwasthe churchs wayof dichotomisingeverything,particularlypoliticsandreligion, incontradistinctiontotheholisticAfricanworldview.Manyyoungblackstrainingfor

the ministry seemed to accept this simplistic approach ratheruncritically,eventhedehumanisinganddemoralisingeffectsofapartheid.This related to thedualisticmindset thatdominatedtheWestern theology theywere taught.Not surprisingly,Bikoadopted amore humanistic approach, for the institutionalisedchurch seemed tobemore successful atpropagating such adualistic mindset than at swelling its own numbers. It wascertainlynotfulfillinganintegratingfunction.Thiswasthechal-lengeofferedbySPROCAS2,aprojectoftheChristianInstituteand the SACC, to work out projects to promote justice andpeace.OneresultwasthelaunchingofBlackCommunityPro-grammes (BCP), in which Biko was intimately involved(Ramphele 1995:66). According to Ramphele (1995:213),

developmentbecamea toolfor conscientisingandorganisingoppressedpeople.The valueofcommunitydevelopmentpro-jects was that they were symbols of hope to lift them out ofdespair and to empower them to liberate themselves(Ramphele 1991:157). Hence community programmes had adualpurpose:toimprovetheactuallivingconditionsofsufferingpeopleandtoliberatethemfromadebilitatingmentalattitude.Here the church had proved deficient.While it oftenpresentsitselfastheonly(static)constant(thechurchofourparentsandforebears)inadynamicsociety,thiscontradictstheimageofadynamicchurchastheproductandagentoftheHolySpirit. Bikosviewson obedience to God had serious implica-tionsforhisviewofthechurch:TotherevolutionarytheChurch

isanti-progressandthereforeanti-Godswishesbecause longago the Church itself decided to accept the motto white is


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value (Stubbs 2004:241). Choosing the word revolutionarydistances him from the practice of the Church and seems toenable him the freedom to pursue obedience to ultimateconscienceasopposedtoapersonsownconscience(Wilson1991:44). ItisimportanttodistinguishBikosuseofthetermchurchfrom the term denominations, since he sometimes uses thetwointerchangeably;hewascertainlyopposedtotheeffectsofdenominationalism(Stubbs2004:237).Healsoquestionedtheneedfororganisedworship.Theonlyvalueofchurcheswasa

limited role of being man-made institutions attempting toorganise into units thosewho worship God (Biko, in Stubbs2004:239). The problemwas that [c]hurches have tended tocomplicatereligionandtheologyandtomakeitamattertobeunderstood by specialists, namely priests (Biko, in Stubbs2004:238).ThisimplieddenialoftheReformedprincipleofthepriesthoodofallbelievers.Itmadethemexclusiveandalmostlike secret (Gnostic?) societies. The locus of truth is furthercomplicated by denominationalism. Biko resolves this in theway hediscerned truth as beingdependent on my ability toincorporatemyverticalrelationshipwithGodintothehorizontalrelationships with my fellow men; in my ability to pursuemyultimatepurposeonearthwhichistodogood(Biko,inStubbs

2004:238). A recurrent theme inBikos thinking is relatingonboththehorizontalandtheverticallevels.Suchrelationshipsbydefinitiondidnotrequireaformalinstitutionlikethechurch,ashorizontalrelationscouldberealisedinothersocialgroupings.Thiswas evident inhis openness topeople: Theparties andshebeening,apart from beingan important antidote tohis in-tenselifestyle,alsoprovidedtheforum,theaccesstoavarietyof people he might otherwise not have met [cf. Jesus ofNazareth](Wilson1991:37).Forhimthevalueofthechurchisthatitprovidesaplaceforoccasionalreaffirmationoftraditionalmoralconvictions.Thisissomethingofacontradiction,forinhisview it was these verymoral convictions that kept people inbondage.However, for many people the church was a signi-

ficantsource ofcomfortand strength tocontinue,even if thatwaslinkedtomaintenanceofthestatusquo.


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TothisdateblackpeoplefindnomessageforthemintheBiblesimplybecauseourministersarestilltoobusywith moral trivialities They constantly urgethe people to find fault in themselves and by sodoing detract from the essence of the struggle inwhich the people are involved (Biko, in Stubbs2004:33-34).

This is an anomaly for black people, for [w]e believe in the

inherentgoodnessofman(Biko, inStubbs2004:46).It is toosimplisticaview,however,fortoomanyblackpeoplefoundthechurchgavethemthepowertogoon.ConstantlyfindingfaultwiththemselvesisintegraltotheReformeddoctrineofthefall.DifferentiationisevidentlyneededbetweensuchamindsetandlivingunderanimmoralregimejustifiedbythatsameReformedtradition.ButBikoiscorrectwhenhemaintainsthatthechurchmust rather preach that it is a sin to allow oneself to beoppressed(Biko,inStubbs2004:34).Hefurtherclaimed:

It was the missionaries who confused our peoplewith their new religion They further went on topreach a theologyof the existence ofhell, scaring

ourfathersandmotherswithstoriesabout burningineternalflamesandgnashingofteethandgrindingofbone.Thiscoldreligionwasstrangetousbutourfore-fathersweresufficientlyscaredoftheunknownpending anger to believe that it was worth a try.Down went our cultural values! (Biko, in Stubbs2004:49).

Thisgavewayintimetoacultureofdefiance. The church as an institution had historically aided andabetted the establishment, justification and practice of apart-heid,boththeoreticallyandtheologically(cf.Cochrane1987):

theproblemwiththeblackchurcheswasthattheyhad uncritically swallowed the racist doctrines of


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whiteChristianmissionariesAndbydirectingtheattentionofblackChristians to pettysinswhatBiko termed petty morals white theologyprevented them from comprehending a largerperspectiveonsin[i.e.]asystemofevil,astructuralmatrixinwhichwhiteslordedthemselvesabovetheblack majority they gave support to apartheid,instead of witnessing and struggling against it(Hopkins1991:195).

Bikochallengedwhitesmonopolyofpowerinchurchleadershipthrough control of resources, decision making, worship andChristian education. Therefore for him the church was irrele-vant. ThepersonofadogmatisedChrist,then,posedaproblemfor his sceptical mind: his belief in Christ is somewhat prag-matic:MyGodifIhavetoviewChristassuchissocon-servatively interpreted at times that I find him foreign to me(Biko,inStubbs2004:239).InordertoacceptChristasauthen-tic,Bikohad torejectthechurchandwhatitstoodfor,butnotChristhimself.ForBikotheresolutionofthisdilemmawasBlackTheology,becauseitwasapracticaltheologyofhope.AttheheartofBlackTheologyis theperceptionthatJesusbelonged

historicallyinasituationofoppression(Stubbs2004:240).Theresolutionwasfoundintotalliberationofbody,mindandspirit.Thus the coreofhis belief abouthatred was grounded in thespiritofforgiveness,whichaimedat theliberationnotonlyoftheoppressedbutalsooftheoppressor,andpresupposesnotonlythattheoppressorcanbebroughttoastateofrepentancefor what he has done, but also that at that moment he isembraced,andsoliberatedbytheforgivenessextendedtohimbytheoppressed(Stubbs2004:242;cf.Volf1996). Whatever his non-belief in the Christ of the historicchurchesinhisstyleofleadershipStevebecameanauthentic(if unconscious) disciple of Jesus of Nazareth (Stubbs2004:218).Hehadaqualityofcompassionthesufferingwith

that is thewords truemeaning, the compassion thatwas thedrivingforceinChristsministry(Stubbs2004:218).


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Biko had an alternative vision of the church in SouthAfrica.DwightHopkins(1991)hasmappedout itsparameters.First,ablackGodmustspeaktotheblackchurch:

BCtriedtopresentapositiveapproachtothepain,suffering and anger of black people Black Con-sciousness Gods positive will to end apartheidandforgeanewhumanityneededtoreplacewhitetheologyandawhiteGodwith blacktheologyandthe black God in the South African churches

(Hopkins1991:196).ThoseformedinGodsimageareblack,andblackisbeautifulandsharesGodsvaluesandtraditions.AblackGodispoliticalin nature. Black Theology requires a fresh interpretation ofScripture other than crude submission to divinely ordainedauthority.Rather it is a sin to allow oneself to be oppressed(Biko 1986:31) (cf. Rom 13 with Luke 4:16ff, Rev. 13, Matt.25:31ff).Therewasaneedforanewbiblicalhermeneuticsfromtheperspectiveofpovertyandoppression. Second,weconsiderthenatureofGodsrelationshipwiththe creation of a new humanity. God created blacks (Biko1986:49). Therefore there is an authority higher than white

churches,andtobeablackChristianmeanswitnessingsoasto fulfil Gods intentional will for black humanity (Hopkins1991:198). [B]lack Christians should live their lives fully andfighttocreateanewsocietyonearthwheretheycouldbeafreehumanity, foreshadowing the liberated nature of Gods king-dom(Hopkins1991:198). Third, Jesus needs to be radically represented as amilitantfighterwhodedicatedhislifetodefendingtheinterestsof his fathers temple (Hopkins 1991:198). Black TheologyseekstorelateGodandChristoncemoretotheblackmanandhisdailyproblems(Biko1986:94). Fourth,thisleadstotheexistentialquestion:whatdoesitmeantobehuman?Heretheneedistoenculturatetraditional

AfricanreligiousvaluesintocontemporaryChristianheritage;torespect the individualin-community: inallwedowealways


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placeman first and henceall our action is usually joint com-munity-orientedactionratherthantheindividualismwhichisthehallmarkofthecapitalistapproach(Biko1986:42).Thisentailschallengingcapitalismasanexploitiveeconomicsystem. Finally, the question must be considered: who doestheology?Itisnotaspecialistactivity.ItisworshipofGodinacomprehensivesense,theworkofthepeopleofGod(leitourgia)emerging from the daily struggle of suffering people. It is apopularasopposedtoaspecialistactivity.BCwasanimpor-tant component ofBlackTheology. As blackpastors and lay

peoplerubshoulderswithittheybegintoaskquestionsandwebelieve that they are going to find answers themselves(Mofokeng 1986:123). It was an innovative approach andallowed amove away from the specialisation of the ordainedministrythatBikoobjectedto. ItisthedutyofallblackpriestsandministersofreligiontosaveChristianitybyadoptingBlackTheologysapproachandtherebyoncemoreunitingtheblackmanwithhisGod(Biko,inStubbs2004:104).Thatistosay,itseekstorelateGodandChristoncemoretotheblackmanandhisdailyproblemsanddoesnotclaimtobeatheologyofabsolutesItseekstobringbackGod to the blackmanand to the truthand reality ofhissituation (Biko, in Stubbs 2004:104). Biko constantly talks

aboutanabsenceofabundantlife(Biko,inStubbs2004:122),asenseofinsecuritywhichispartofa feelingofincomplete-ness (Biko, in Stubbs 2004:124) [from the BPC-SASO trial,May1976]. This God had to be restored to black people, for themissionaries haddenied them theirGodandoffered in returnthewhiteconceptionofdivinity.YetBikoclaims:

WealsobelievedinoneGod,wehadourowncom-munity of saints through whom we related to ourGod,andwedidnotfinditcompatiblewithourwayof life toworshipGod in isolation from the variousaspects of our lives. Hence worship was not a

specialised function that found expression once aweekinasecludedbuilding,butratheritfeaturedin


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our wars, our beer drinking, our dances and ourcustoms ingeneralwetook itforgrantedthatallpeopleatdeathjoinedthecommunityofsaintsandtherefore merited our respect (Biko, in Stubbs2004:102-103).

Apart frombelieving inGodascreatorandsourceofwisdom,powerandlove,BikoconceivedofGodasthesourceofhumanconscience:Godhaslaidformancertainbasiclawsthatmustgovern interactionbetweenmanandman,manand nature at

large.TheselawsIseeasinscribedintheultimateconscienceofeachlivingmortal(Biko,inStubbs2004:236-237).Thiswentbeyondhumanconscience,forahumanmaydullhissensitivitytohisownconscienceandhencebecomehard,cruel,evil,badetc.But intrinsicallysomewhere inhim there isalways some-thingthattellshimheiswrong.ThisisthenhisawarenessoftheunexpressedandunwrittenlawsthatGodhaslaiddowntoregulatehumanbehaviour(Biko,inStubbs2002:237).ToBikothisrelatedtoobediencetoGod(Biko,inStubbs2004:241). Stubbs (2004:240) suggests that Biko found in BlackTheologya paradigm of spiritual praxis in the contemplationand imitationof the blackChrist.All thisprovidesa basis forBlackTheology(BT).


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5 BIKOS THEOLOGY?

Bikowasnotanacademictheologian,thatisaspecialist,yethecouldanddidtheologise,forhebelieveditwastheChristianstasktothinktheologically,evenifnotinaformalsense. The relationship between BC and BT was that ofsoulmateswalkingtogetherintheongoingstruggleofblacklibera-tion (Goba 1986:3; cf. 1986a:63); parallel movements botharisingfromblackexperience.Theybothattempttoarticulateawayofengaginginastruggleforliberationwhichtakesserious-

ly the existential experience of beingoppressed in the SouthAfricancontext(Goba1986a:61). WhatisclearisthatSouthAfricanBlackTheologydrewheavily from Bikos black consciousness philosophy (Vellem2007:3). In itsdefiningmoments therefore, it is imperative tograspthefactthatBlackTheologyharnessedBlackConscious-nessphilosophytodefineaparticularconsciousnessthatcouldbeusedtoliberateblackmassesfromtheirinferioritycomplex(Vellem2007:4). Bikohimselfreflectedon theologicalissuesandhewascommonlyseenamongtheologicalstudents. It issafe toinferthat his consciousness and spirituality are two sidesof thesamecoin(Vellem2007:288-289).ThecoalescenceofBCand

BT is clear in Bikos thinking and acting, for he never dif-ferentiated between issues of consciousness and theology:SteveBikowasnota scholarof religionnorwasheatrainedmoralphilosopher.Whathewasreflectingwasreceivedwisdomfromhiscommunity,whichaffordedhimthetoolstopresentamoral critique of the church and of the political system thatunderminedthe inherentdignityofpeople.Pityana(1991:145)claimsthat Biko failed topresentacritiqueofthe religionheespousedanddidnotunderstanditinitsdynamicmetanarrativeexpression.Theremaybesomedoubtastohowmuchofthatprimalreligiononecancaptureinthemodernworld.Thismaywellbetrue,rememberingthatBikowasneitheratrainedphilo-sophernoratheologian;further,heneversetouttoarticulatea

definitivetheologicalposition.Thereisasenseinwhichhehad


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assimilateda latent formofAnglicanism, fromwhichhe couldnottotallydissociatehimself. But his approach was inclusive. Biko also strategicallysituated his version of black consciousness philosophy in ahumanist framework. From its inception black consciousnessphilosophy had a humanist emphasis, which allowed thedevelopment of a theological counterpart: Biko asserts thatblacks believe in the inherentgoodnessofman and criticisesthemissionaries for having scared blacks with their stories ofhell (Morphew1989:152). Sin is rather sourced in evil social

institutions.TheblackcaucusoftheUniversityChristianMove-mentgavebirthtoBlackTheology,thereligiouscomplementofblackconsciousnessphilosophy. Black TheologyencouragedblackSouthAfricanstoreinterprettheChristianfaithinthelightofthespecificrealitiesoftheirsituation(Halisi1991:103).Butitwent further,seeking to do awaywith spiritualpovertyof theblack people and affirms that Christianity is an adaptablereligion that fits in with the cultural situation of the people towhomit isimparted (Biko,inStubbs2004:34);it isa human-centredsociety(Biko,inStubbs2004:45)whereallcommonlyshared(Biko,inStubbs2004:46). AlthoughBikomightbe describedasa theologian fromandwiththemassesofblackpeople,hewouldhaverepudiated

thattitle,becauseitdesignatedaspecialist

andoneofBilosmaincritiquesof the churchwas its specialisation.Henever

gotboggeddowninrigiddoctrinalortheologicalcategoriesorwroteelaborate treatises. He immersedhimself in issues per-taining to the very life and death of the community. For himexperienceofandtalkaboutGodarosefrompracticalactivitiesamong the suffering victims of apartheid and theirmovementtowards liberation. As he argued: Black theology is asituational interpretation of Christianity. It seeks to relate thepresent-dayblackman toGodwithin the givencontextof theblackmans suffering and his attempts to get out of it (Biko1987:59). In short, Biko began to radically interpret oldChristian concepts from the perspective of Black Conscious-

ness(Hopkins1991:194).


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Consequently we reject Hopkinss (1991:199) assertion

that Biko [h]oned2 a Black Theology for the liberation move-

mentinSouthAfrica,althoughhecertainlyshedanewpers-pectiveonChristiandiscourseandpractice inhisnative land(Hopkins1991:199).Butherewemustrememberthathismainreligious interlocutors were white male ordained expatriates,that is, the specialists atwhom hegenerally looked askance(DavidRussellandAelredStubbs)!Partof hisdistinctivecon-tributiontoecclesiologywashisabilitytodiscernthedifferencebetween false and authentic Christianity: During his life he

called on black religious leaders within the struggle againstapartheid to adopt a true understanding of authentic Chris-tianity(Hopkins1991:199;cf.Webster1982:61).Thisraisesacriticalquestion,becausesomemighthavearguedthattheydidhave suchanunderstanding,althoughtheymayhaveworkedwith a different hermeneutics from that of the BT paradigm.However,Bikowasfirminhiscommitment:notonlydidthelimited presence of Black Theology in the churches retardChristian participation in the movement for justice, but thevictoryoftheentireliberationprocesshingedontheexistenceof a black theological faith (Hopkins 1991:199). Yet is thisnecessarily true?Wasit onlythosewhohadbeenexposedtoandengagedinBCandBTwhowereauthenticallyinvolvedin

thestruggleagainstapartheid?6 BIKO AND FEDSEM

PerhapsitisappropriatetobeginwithBikosinvolvementwithstudents in higher education. Biko became amember of theUniversity Christian Movement (UCM), which was formed in1967(Kretzschmar1986:61):

The University Christian Movement is a religiousgroup concerning itselfwithecumenicaltopics andmodernisation of the archaic Christian religious

2 To use the term honed implies a sharpening of his theology to a degree of

sophisticationthatwasnotappropriatetoBikostheologicaldevelopment.


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practice.Italsoconcernsitselfwithapracticalappli-cationofChristianprinciplesinan immoral societyliketheSouthAfricanone(Biko,inStubbs2004:15).

It played a significant role in the formation ofSASO in 1968.ThisresultedfromBikoscallforablackstudentorganisation:

there was tremendous response from variouscampuses in the country. I can remember servingon the SRC of the Federal Theological Seminary

andhowimportantthechallengewasforus.Itwasimportantbecauseitchallengedustofocusonourblack identity and its relationship to the struggle.One can safely say that the emergence of BlackConsciousnessinthelatesixtiesrepresentedakindof a political reawakening in the country (Goba1986a:62).

Thiswasbecausetherewasadearthofblackleadership,majorpolitical organisations having been banned. A significantnumber ofblack studentsleftUCM (becauseit wasperceivedas being too liberal), following the SASO breakaway fromNUSAS, to establish the Black Theology movement which

representeda theological response to the challenge ofBlackConsciousness (Goba1986a:62). In 1973Biko was banned,alongwithagroupofSASOleaders.Subsequently(31January1975-16December1976)hestoodtrialinwhatbecameknownas the BPC-SASO Trial, the Trial of Black Consciousness(Stubbs2004:201). Bikohad a particularinterest in thetrainingof theologystudents,fortheywereseenasdestinedtoplayacollaborativerole in the apartheid state and its Bantustans (Buthelezi1991:112). However, the other side of the coin was that aspotential leaders in the communities they would be called toserve they could be significant interlocutors of a BC and BTperspective. The impact of BCM produced tangible results,

evidencedbythechangein traditionallyconservativeattitudesofblackministersof religion five old students ofStPeters


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(Anglican) Theological College have been or are currentlybanned or detained. This would have been unimaginable tenyears earlier (Stubbs 2004:58). This was not confined to StPetersstudents;it wasa recurrent feature inFesdems entirehistory!IfwecompareittotheNgangelizweincident(tobedis-cussed below),wesee the involvementofPresbyterian,Con-gregationalistandMethodiststudents. Various theological colleges, including Fedsem, wereinvolvedinSASO.SabeloNtwasa,aFedsemstudent,becamethe first organiser of the UCMs Black Theology project. He

published the papers read at the first conference in 1972,Essays in Black Consciousness (Nel 1994:140-141). FedsemwasoneofthevenuesforBlackTheologyseminars. BikovisitedFedsemonnumerousoccasions,interaliatoencouragethegrowthofSASOatFortHareandtheSeminary(Stubbs2004:179).Asaraciallyseparatebody,SASOseemedto contradict all that Fedsem stood for, namely a resoluteoppositiontoapartheidinallitsmanifestations,andpositivelyaChristianwitness tonon-racialbrotherhood andreconciliation(Stubbs 2004:179). This contrasts with Fort Hares positiveresponse,whichappearedtoconformtoapartheidpolicy.Thisdifferential approach even caused confusion among the Fed-semstudentbody(Stubbs2004:179).YetSASOgrewevenat

Fedsem. A white lecturer (Stubbs 2004:211) was actuallyconvertedtoBCandwelcomedthecomingintobeingofSASOand its ascendancy on the Seminary campus. St PetersCollege was made available for the SASO formation schoolin1972. SASO had a transforming effect on relationshipsbetween theblackandso-called colouredpopulations.TheseweretensionswhichhadcertainlycausedtensionsatourAliceSeminary this was not only indicative of newmood in theyoungColoured community, but a significant achievement ofnon-ethnicblacksolidarity(Stubbs2004:220). In1968,BikowasinvitedtospeakatFortHareUCM.Hechallenged students to adopt the entire university as theirresponsibility,thatishechallengedallstafftoseetheconnec-

tionbetweenstudentresponsibilityandsocialconcerns(Wilson1991:24[emphasismine]).


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Anumberof relatedpointscanberaisedregardingBikosinvolvementwithFedsemanditsrelationshipwithBCandBT.Stubbs(2004:182)recountsanincidentin1971,whenhefoundBiko in the seminary common room as usual the centre ofattention. In all the main black educational centres of thecountryStevehadattainedanalmostmessianicstatus(Stubbs2004:184).Thismaybeasomewhatidealisedpicture,forBikowasnotaloneinbeingregardedasa leader:hewasoneofanumberofcharismaticstudentswhoattractedafollowing,espe-ciallyamongyounger,moreimpressionablestudents.

AparticularcontributionofFedsemtoBlackTheologywasitsproductionofscholarsandteachersofhighcalibrefromitsearliest days. They includedSimonGqubule,Desmond Tutu,Sigqibo Dwane, Khoza Mgojo, Bonganjalo Goba, CecilNgcokovaneandTinyikoMaluleke.ItshouldbenotedthatthesenamesrepresentdifferentstagesinthedevelopmentofBT. Fedsems emphasis in practical theology on communityinvolvementaswell aschurch/congregational work derived inpartfromBikosthinking. FedsemprovidedBikowithamentor,FrAelredStubbsoftheAnglicanCommunityoftheResurrection,StPetersCollege(Wilson1991:20). A particular instanceof Bikos involvementwith Fedsem

occurred after the expropriation of Fedsems Alice campus.Within a few days of Fedsems arrival at Umtata in 1975,Heroes Day was commemorated on 24 March,3 when thevictims of the 1960Sharpeville massacre were remembered.SomestudentsarrangedacommemorativeserviceintheBantuPresbyterian Church in the nearby township of Ngangelizwe.TheyhadapproachedtheRevGTVika,ministeroftheconger-gation, for permission to hold the service. Vika4 warned thestudentsoftheneedtobesensitivetothepoliticalsituationandagreed on the understanding that this was to be an official

3 Wilkinson(1992:318)iswronginhisdatingoftheincidentwhenhe claimsittook

placeafteracoupleofmonths.4

A leading member of Matanzimas Transkei National Independence Party,Moderator of the Bantu Presbyterian Church (a founding member church ofFedsem),andchairmanofStColumbiascollegecouncil.


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Seminary service. The Seminary authorities supported theserviceontheunderstandingthattheRevVikaknewallaboutitandtheBantuPresbyterianChurchsupportedit (AB2414B5.7,CPSAArchives,WCLWilliamCullenLibrary,Wits).Theserviceitselfwasuneventfulandconformedtotheorderofanordinarychurchservice.Followingtheservicethestudentsdistributedaleaflet, published some years earlier bySASO and the BPC,entitled On the way to Sharpeville. The document was apredominantlyhistoricalsurveyofpastevents,butit includedatrenchant critique of homelands policy. While the Seminary

community was oblivious of these events, the Transkeiangovernmenthadbeentimeouslyinformedaboutit. On 7 April the chief minister made a statement in thehouseofassemblytotheeffectthattheFedsemstudentshadcome to Umtata not to learn, but to engender ill feeling be-tweenblacksandwhitesintheTranskeiandtoincitepeopletochange by revolution (Daily Dispatch, 9 April 1975). TheapparentsourceofhisconcernwastheSASO/BPCdocument,but itwas anoutdatedstatement.However, itwas enough tosuggestaLeftistpoliticalmotive.Hesaid:

Im satisfied that themeeting heldatNgangelizweundertheguiseofreligionwasnothingelsethana

political meeting It is chiefly as a result of thismeetingthatthesegentlemenhavecometoUmtatawith the specific purpose of disrupting peace andquietintheTranskei(DailyDispatch,9April1975).

Thestudentsrespondedthattheyhadnointentionofoffendingthegovernmentorincitingarevolt.Thismaywellhavebeenadisingenuous response, for the group of students who hadspearheadedthisactivism[and]wereworkingverycloselywithSteveBiko.AtthetimeoftheNgangelizweincidentBikowasunderhousearrest and couldnot travel,having beenbannedalongwithagroupofSASOleadersin1973.Notingthepoten-tial seriousness of this development, however, he broke his

banningorderand travelled toUmtata tomeet the groupandstrongly criticised theexcessively aggressive andprovocative


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mannerinwhichstudentshaddealtwiththepolice.Hefeltthattheirbehaviourwasunbecomingforstudentministers.Heurgedthe group touse methods of protest that weremore befittingmen of the cloth (Letter, Mdlalose to Duncan, 2 December2004,personalcorrespondence).Mosala(Villa-Vicencio1993:213)confirmsthis:

He told us that black consciousness was moreimportant than any of us, arguing that short-term

victories needed to be weighed against long-termgoals.Hedemandedthatfor thesakeof theBlackConsciousness Movementwewere to go back tothe campus, and not alienate the others on thecampusmerelybecausewethoughtwewereright.

Bikoadoptedthispositiondespitehisnegativeattitudetohome-lands(Biko, inStubbs 2004:88-95).Hehad onceproclaimed:Downwithhomelands!(Biko1987:66).ThisbecameknownastheBuntingvilleincident(Minute838.c,SpecialSeminaryCoun-cil,S4142/22/7/75,11June1975).Itmustberememberedthattheincidenttookplacesome timebefore theBPC-SASOtrial,theTrialofBlackConsciousness,from31January1975to16

December1976 (Stubbs2004:201).Significantly, some of theradicalstudentsinvolvedinthisincidenthavebecomethemostconservativeministersintheirowndenominations. DisciplineforBikowasallimportantandthemannerthestudentshandledthisentireincidentindicatedaseriouslackofdiscipline,whichcouldpotentiallydamage theBCM.TheBPCadoptedanearlychurchattitude towardsdiscipline:a studentwho made a statement under interrogation was no longertrusted: they [members ofBCM] and their colleagueswerethosewhosufferedfromtheconsequencesofsuchlapses.Onewas back in the atmosphere of the early persecuted Church,thatminglingofexhilaratingcommunionandrigorousdiscipline;one deadly sin after baptismal rebirth, and you were out!

(Stubbs2004:205).


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7 CONCLUSION

Bikoslegacyinfusedblackswithaspiritualfibre,amettleandafightingspirit.Itistheinnersoul-forceseentobeinvincible(Pityana1991a:255). BCbroughtanewrayofhope,anewcommitmenttothestruggleforliberation.Itsimpactwasnotjustfeltinthevariousblack campuses, but also in the various black seminaries(Goba1986a:62). CertainlyBikoscritiqueofthechurchisbothpenetrating

and devastating in the light of his philosophyand spirituality.Looking at his legacy, itmight be concluded that little of hisphilosophyhasbeenincorporatedintothemindsandactionsofthose who were influenced by him. In apartheid society thechurch was an outstandingwitness to liberation in the fullestsenseof the word,although some chose toalign themselvesfirmlywiththoseinpower.EvenwhentheSouthAfricanCouncilofChurchesinitiatedtheStandingfortheTruthcampaignmanychurch members were vilified for seeking to destabilise thestatusquoinbothchurchandsociety.Inpost-apartheidSouthAfricansocietythechurchisoftenconsideredto lagfarbehindsecularinstitutionswhenitcomestotransformation.Onesourceof these dichotomous responses is the churchs lack of self-

criticism;itisoftenuncriticalofsociety,whereasquestioningisoneof thebasic tenets of theBCM. Perhaps this is not sur-prising when denominations seem unable to tolerate andintegratecriticalthinkersveryeasily,choosingrathertomargi-naliseoreliminatethemaltogether. However, the Fedsem spirit was not daunted. In thewriters experience in the late 1980s and early 1990s formerFedsem students, by then ministers in congregations, werecollaboratingincommunityprojectswhenitwasstilldifficultforthemtodosoataninstitutionalchurchlevel.Thissituationhasnotchangedmarkedly,andmay havedeterioratedsomewhat.HenceIwouldconcludethatBikoslegacyisasrelevantforthechurchoftodayasitwasthirtytofortyyearsago.


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