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Dubai, Anyplace: Histories of architecture in the contemporary Middle East

December 16, 2012

Contemporary architecture cannot be limited by geographic or regionalist definitions. In a worldwhere architects and technology are mobile and the modes of communication increasingly

complex, it is difficult to find architecture disconnected from global trends. onetheless, owingto the ambiguous boundaries between styles and references, between patrons and publics, and between architects and corporations, among other such binaries, issues of nationhood, historyand cultural identity continue to play a role in the types of pro!ects underta"en to represent a cityor country#s future. In this essay, I discuss the manner in which architecture in Dubai representsissues specific to this $mirate and to the %iddle $ast, while speculating on its implications to thefield of architectural history more generally. &f primary concern are the multiple histories ofarchitecture itself, from genealogies of the distant past to aspirations for a post'modernist future.

(rchitecture of the )so'called# %iddle $ast, when included in sur*eys of architecturalhistory, is characteri+ed through buildings representati*e of a distant, Islamic, past. onetheless,some of the most exciting examples of modern architecture can also be found in historic cities,

such as Cairo and ehran. In the early years of the twentieth century, $uropean and (mericanarchitects were commissioned to experiment in contexts that appeared to them exceptional, andto actuali+e pro!ects that opened up new hori+ons in their own practices. -or local architects,modern architecture was euated with the west, and historical precedent was often marginali+edin order to create what represented the new and progressi*e. In both cases the ideals ofmodernism were understood through a displacement of context and history, as though the presentitself pro*ided utopian possibilities through which social, economic, and nationalist agendascould be reali+ed. (t the beginning of the twenty first century, architecture continues to ser*e as prophetic and utopian, especially for nations that *iew themsel*es as newcomers to the global political stage.

he case of Dubai pro*ides insights into understanding contemporary architecture in the

/nited (rab $mirates. It also raises uestions significant to other locations in the %iddle $astwhich loo" to the rapid moderni+ation ta"ing place in the ulf region as a template for their ownde*elopment. his emulation ta"es place on the one hand by simply mimic"ing a particular brand of corporate architecture that exemplifies the de*elopment of Dubai, and on the other hand by establishing institutions whose primary goal is commercial, such as luxury malls and hotels.oward the latter goal, $maar roperties, a Dubai'based de*elopment and contraction firm, hasinternational !oint *entures that implement new pro!ects to gi*e the )Dubai effect.# (s its website proclaims, $maar is charting a new course of growth through a two'pronged strategy ofgeographical expansion and business segmentation. 3eplicating its successful business model inDubai, $maar is extending its expertise in creating master'planned communities to internationalmar"ets4.5ith six business segments and more than 60 acti*e companies, $maar has acollecti*e presence in se*eral mar"ets spanning the %iddle $ast, orth (frica, an'(sia, $uropeand orth (merica. he company has established operations in the /nited (rab $mirates, audi(rabia, yria, 7ordan, 8ebanon, $gypt, %orocco, India, a"istan, ur"ey, China, /(, Canadaand /nited 9ingdom.:1 

5hether through direct inter*ention, such as $maar#s, or through more subtle channels,the Dubai aesthetic is one that has permeated se*eral parts of (sia, from ;eirut to hanghai. heimages of prosperity that came to define the de*elopment of the ulf tates through oil wealthand real estate speculation were disseminated through sophisticated mar"eting tactics. <owe*er,

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sometimes, it was simply through the commodities brought bac" by the thousands of migrantwor"ers who helped ma"e the transformation of Dubai, in particular, possible. tories ofo*ernight success were coupled with the abundance of goods to ship bac" home, fromelectronics to cosmetics. Dubai, for wor"ers and *isitors ali"e, represented a giant stage of possibilities measured, howe*er, through the lens of money and commodities. he underbelly of 

this success was, and continues to be, *ast discrepancies in wealth and the dissipation oftraditional cultural mar"ers.2

 umerous words ha*e come to define Dubai#s official image, including economicliberalism, Islam, (rab, moderni+ation and globali+ation. ;efore the 200= economic crash, thecity#s luxury brands and excessi*e commercialism were flaunted in the popular press and inglossy maga+ines as examples of super'modernity, and were presented with a tinge of neo'orientalist *oyeurism.>  In al-Manakh, a publication associated with the research arm of his firm,(%&, 3em 9oolhaas *alori+ed the supposed re*elation of the ulf states and their rapidde*elopment, writing that he ulf is not !ust reconfiguring itself? it is reconfiguring theworld4erhaps the most compelling reason to ta"e the ulf seriously is that its emerging modelof the city is being multiplied in a *ast +one of reduced architectural *isibility that ranges from

%orocco in the 5est, then *ia ur"ey and (+erbai!an to China in the $ast. In each of thecountries of this il" belt, the ulf#s de*elopers operate on a scale that has completely escaped)our# attention.:@  he reiteration of the il" 3oute and the pri*ileging of the 5estern Aour:Bga+e is clearly symptomatic of 9oolhaas# strain of architectural imperialism? howe*er, in the caseof Dubai it is also typical of a mindset for which the region presented a carte blanche forexperimentation.

cholars ha*e critici+ed the rapid de*elopment of the $mirates and the price paid in termsof urbani+ation and loss of traditional forms of sociability. he anthropologist, (hmed 9annawrites of the nostalgia embedded in the identity of modern $mirati#s, longing for a place thatexists more in fictional tales than in historical facts. $thnic difference for example, many ofthe locals are of Iranian extraction plays a ma!or role in creating difference, e*en as the;edouin past is extolled in political rhetoric.6  onetheless, Dubai ser*es as a model for theregion, such that he fusion of neoliberalism with Dubai#s uniue national characteremancipates the city'state from its mere: (rabness, creating in the process an emergent Dubaiidentity both (rab and post'(rab or multinational.:E  (rchitectural pro!ects commissioned by theDubai go*ernment straddle this duality in the manner in which they e*o"e nati*e typologies,Islamic precedent, corporate modernity, and the international style, as ways to represent acountry grappling with issues that ma"e the idea of a nation suspect.

Dubai

Central to Dubai#s identity is the role of history, as interpreted by the $mirati ruling elite. (s inother countries in the region, the central go*ernment of Dubai aims to mo*e beyond geographicand national boundaries while simultaneously drawing hea*ily on indigenous traditions. heseeming paradox is also representati*e of contemporary discourses within the fields ofarchitectural history and practice, which similarly see" to find a balance between local andglobal trends. Indeed architecture pro*ides an important opportunity for the representation ofnationalist ideals that mobili+e the past, present and the future of the country. hus there aremultiple histories at play in representing the modern nation, represented through traditionalforms and international institutions.

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Dubai, along with se*en other shay"hdoms, was a protectorate of ;ritain until 1FE1,when it became part of the federation "nown as the /nited (rab $mirates.=  ince the 1FE0s, oilwealth has defined rapid progress and de*elopment in this region of the ersian ulf. he$mirates are comprised of Dubai, har!ah, 3as al'9aimah, -u!airah, (!man, /mm al'Gawain,and the capital of the federation (bu Dhabi. $ach of the $mirates, as the name implies, is a

monarchy, in which the leader of (bu Dhabi, currently hay"h 9halifa bin Hayed al'ayhan,acts as the resident of the /($ and that of Dubai, currently hay"h %uhammad bin 3ashid al'%a"htoum, is the rime %inister. he al'%a"htoum family has ruled o*er Dubai since 1=>> andis closely associated with and in*ested in its de*elopment. he city is among the least endowedof the $mirates, howe*er, until the global economic crisis of 200=, it was second only tohanghai as the world#s largest construction site.

i*en the ethnic and tribal alliances that ma"e up the /($, the idea of a national identityis complicated by the need to conform to collecti*e historical and cultural norms. In this paper,I discuss fi*e examples of architecture in Dubai that was commissioned by the go*ernment todescribe particular themes of identity and history? they comprise of a mosue, a museum, anational ban", the first freehold construction, and what is currently the world#s tallest building.

hese types are typical of what may be considered a global imaginary based on corporatearchitectural culture? in the case of Dubai, as this imaginary merges with issues of religion andresidency. (ll the pro!ects ma"e apparent the complex representations underta"en by this$mirate to construct an ideali+ed past, while pro!ecting a utopian future. In so doing, what isre*ealed are not the particularities of architecture in Dubai alone, but the contingencies ofarchitectural modernism in the new millennium.

(nonymity defines Dubai, whether *iewed in its emergent s"yline of stylish high'rises,or etched on the faces of the hundreds of thousands of migrant wor"ers that build them.Coexisting in this thri*ing cosmopolis are the $mirati elite, their indentured ser*ants, prostitutesand merchants. $mirati society is extremely compartmentali+ed? whereas li*es intersect inse*eral ways, primarily in educational and professional setting, "inship plays a "ey role in themanners in which (rab $miratis sociali+e. 8i"e other ulf states, Dubai is neither an autocracynor a democracy, but rather an ethnocracy.:F  uch fragmented ties in a multiethnic andmultinational state raise difficulties when it comes to creating a national identity. -or example,who are the users and audiences for the public buildings, whose history is being e*o"ed 5hatappears to define Dubai is the speed at which the city has de*eloped and the o*ernment#sresponse in creating public spaces that reinforce its aspirations toward becoming a global city.10 uch a characteri+ation reuires nuanced and detailed analyses that study particular examples,which in turn re*eal the multifaceted goals of the $mirate, and the complex issue of place andidentity in this ulf state.

he heterogeneity of the population is reflected in the multiplicity of Dubai#sarchitectural imprintJ shanties, *illas, s"yscrapers, malls, wild'life reser*es, and expatriateencla*es familiar components of a large city in any part of the world. he social conseuencesof these segregated communities are without doubt. It is a stri"ing statistic that only se*enteen percent of the population in Dubai is $mirati with the largest group of residents being migrantwor"ers from outh and outheast (sia.11  his remar"able number points to a complexrelationship between power and identity, and ma"es us uestion the role of the built en*ironmentis such contexts. /rbanists and anthropologists ali"e ha*e critici+ed the attention paid byarchitects and the media to grandiose architectural pro!ects which appear to ignore the issues oflabor and migrancy that are central to Dubai#s de*elopment.12  hey rightly point to the

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responsibility for critici+ing and holding responsible the patrons and architects for ensuring therights and well'being of the multitudes of immigrants who li*e in sualor and without any legalrights in the /($. hus when loo"ing at specific nationalist pro!ects, as this essay will do, it iscrucial to be mindful of the ethical repercussions. Ket the goal here is not to dismiss thehistorical significance of architecture in Dubai owing to these issues, but rather to place it within

the broader context of politics and representation.

Constructing an Imperial Past

Dubai is currently home to the tallest building and the largest enclosed mall in the world. %uchhas been written about the )global# nature of Dubai#s de*elopment, but less attention has beengi*en to the place of religion and culture in the $mirati national imaginary. he ma!ority of$miratis are unni %uslims, and the go*ernment of Dubai adheres to the %ali"i school of !urisprudence. <owe*er, se*eral $miratis originally from the coastal areas of Iran comprise thetwenty two percent hi a population. he city is thus dotted with mosues, the urban landscapeʻ

 punctuated with domes and minarets. Complementary to the image of commercialismdisseminated in foreign media, the $mirates is a deeply traditionalist society, in which religion

 plays are large role in daily life.

1>

  $ach neighborhood of Dubai, for example, has a localmosue, often pri*ately financed with go*ernment subsidy. he design and location of themosues reflects the constituency for whom it was built. -or example, the Iranian <ospital and%osue are located in the a';ada neighborhood, one of the oldest areas in the city. he two buildings are ad!acent to each other, re*eted in bric" and tilewor". he mosue, e*en more thanthe hospital, gi*es the impression of being directly imported from Iran, with its minarets anddome embellished with intricate mosics reminiscent of afa*id architecture. earby is theIranian Consulate, with its ma!estic gateways meant to e*o"e the Ga!ar architecture of ehran.

he 7umeirah %osue, howe*er, is the recogni+able state mosue of Dubai, completed in1FEF. It was commissioned by the ruler of Dubai at the time, hay"h 3ashid bin aeed al'%a"htoum and built by an $gyptian construction company, <ega+y $ngineering Consultancy.1@ he mosue is located between the old financial center of the city and the exclusi*e touristencla*e of 7umeriah ;each. he mosue is *isible from the main highway and ser*es as a prominent landmar" in and around the area. he building is clad in yellow'pin" sandstone, withtwo tall minarets and a prominent dome that are elaborately car*ed in deep relief. Calligraphic panels are inserted o*er doorways and windows, whereas the ornamental car*ing on the minaretsand dome is abstracted and geometric. he forms are reminiscent of medie*al %amlu"architecture, with its intricate, patterned stone car*ings.

he stylistic connection is clear and deliberate, not only because the engineers gi*en thedesign commission were $gyptian. he %amlu" dynasty holds great meaning for the new (rabrulers in the ulf, who see in these (rab conuerors the precursors to &ttoman and $uropeanrule o*er the region. (lthough according to the $nglish *ersion of the Dubai City website the7umeriah %osue is built in the medie*al -atimid tradition 4and 4is a tribute to modernIslamic architecture,:1 the (rabic language site does not mention any stylistic affinities.(ccording to the engineer in charge of the construction the reason for this omission is that the-atimids represent a hiLi dynasty, something that would be problematic in the staunchly unni$mirate.16  he audiences for the (rabic and $nglish commentary are different, but difficult todefine. he sparse presence of $miratis in public spaces such as the 7umeirah mosue meansthat the (rabic commentary is most li"ely also meant for expatriate, %uslim, *isitors who do,indeed, ma"e up the bul" of the clientele of the mosue during prayer hours.

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here are two primary entrances of the mosue, one facing the busy 7umeirah 3oad, andthe other facing a par"ing lot in a uiet neighborhood. he main faMade is that in the bac",through which the worshippers enter the mosue. (bo*e the doorways is an epigraphic panel,with a Gur#anic *erse written in bright green paint. It reads, he mosues of (llah shall be*isited and maintained by such as belie*e in (llah and the 8ast Day, establish regular prayers,

and practice regular charity, and fear none Aat allB except (llah. It is they who are expected to beon true guidance ASurah al-Tawba AFBJ 1=B.: he *erse is one to be expected on a mosue, gi*enits didactic nature extolling %uslims to care for their spaces of worship, pray regularly and gi*ealms. he *erse that precedes it, howe*er, which is not inscribed here, nonetheless gi*es a better idea about the contexts of the 7umeirah %osue. It is not for such as !oin gods with (llah to*isit or maintain the mosues of (llah while they witness against their own souls to infidelity.he wor"s of such bear no fruitJ in -ire shall they dwell ASurah al-TawbaJ 1EB.:1E he message of these *erses is clear the mosue is a place for %uslims, and it is their responsibility to protectand guard it from non'belie*ers. Indeed, the interior of the prayer hall is adorned with theNictory *erse, Surah al-Fath A@=B, which begins, Nerily 5e ha*e granted thee a manifestNictory,: and continues to reiterate the power of (llah and of Islam. <istorically, this *erse is

uite common, and found in contexts where state and theological powers are merged in order tosignal the o*erlay of Di*ine and earthly authority. Its use in the context of a national symbol is,thus, most appropriate.

he difference between %uslims and those of other faiths is one "eenly felt in Dubai andone reiterated in the architecture and uses of the 7umeirah %osue. other panels in the mosueare common prayers written, li"e the entrance *erse, in a clear and extremely legible scriptaccessible to anyone able to read (rabic, ersian, or /rdu, namely the numerous (rabs, Iranians,and a"istanis that also call Dubai their home.

he function of the mosue as a prayer site is maintained, and yet the 7umeirah %osuealso expands the parameters of Islamic practice. he mosue is home to the hei"h %ohammedCentre for Cultural /nderstanding which organi+es tours aimed at promoting culturalunderstanding and first'hand experience as an insight to the Islamic religion.: 1=  During set timesduring the day, guides bring tourists to the mosue. (t these times, the doors of the 7umeirah%osue are opened unli"e other mosues in the city to non'%uslims. he 7umeirah %osuerepresents what may be the only *iew of Islam many tourists in Dubai may get, gi*en thesegregated social norms. In its willingness to engage or at least in*ite a con*ersation with people of other faiths, the hei"h %ohammed Centre for Cultural /nderstanding presents amoderate *ersion of Islam perhaps as a correcti*e to the more common images of *iolence anddiscrimination that ha*e come to dominate the 5estern media.

he 7umeirah mosue monumentali+es history not as a conceptual term alone, but also asan aesthetic style that can ground belief and identity. he mosue is an ideal type fordisseminating cultural and religious *alues, and for framing them historically through the use ofstylistic references. <ega+y $ngineering Consultancy, the designers and builders of the 7umeirah%osue were also responsible for another iconic mosue in Dubai, the ;asta"iya %osue in ;urDubai.1F  his building is in the old ;asta"iya neighborhood and conforms to a more pared'downsilhouette than the 7umeirah %osue. he building is a simple white structure, with pointedarches announcing the entrance. ( single minaret and dome mar" its designation as a mosue.;oth are typical of a mid'twentieth'century amalgam of stylesJ the minaret is a suare pillar,topped with a co*ered balcony that loo"s from afar li"e an aerial %ughal pa*ilion. he dome, incontrast, appears to be settling towards the earth, its roof a flattened hemisphere, again inspired

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 by Indian architecture. /nli"e the 7umeriah %osue, the style of the ;asta"iya %osue is a pastiche of styles and references, in "eeping with the pri*ately'funded mosues throughout the$mirates.

he manner in which the 7umeirah %osue monumentali+es its historical referencesthrough precise uotation, points to the patrons# recognition of *erisimilitude as a potent resource

in creating a national imaginary. In this case, historical architecture pro*ides an archeology offorms, in which buildings act as repositories of "nowledge that refer to particular historicale*ents as well as geographical locations. In Dubai, the past does not har" bac" to the history ofthe $mirates, which were until the middle of the twentieth century modest maritimecommunities, but to distant moments in a history defined by a particular understanding of (rab:identity, with an emphasis on imperial and monarchial authority. In such a conceptuali+ation,(rabic language connects -atimid Cairo to /mayyad pain and, ultimately if anachronistically,to the /nited (rab $mirates.

In addition to neo'%amlu" structures, such as the 7umeirah %osue, a"heel ropertiesAa de*elopment corporation owned by a member of the %a"htoum familyB has built one of thelargest malls in the world, with a uniuely themed en*ironment that is designed to reflect the

uniue combination of *arious heritages and cosmopolitan lifestyle that is the *ery essence ofDubai.:20  he mall is themed on the world tra*els of Ibn ;attuta A1>0@'1>EEB, a %oroccanwriter who documented his famous tra*els from orth (frica to China, including pain, Iran,and India. he Ibn ;attuta %all in Dubai celebrates this rihla Atra*elB, by dedicating differentgeographic themes for each of the six sections of the sprawling building. hey are distinguished physically, and each court reflects specific architectural styles from (ndalusia, unisia, $gypt,Iran, India and China. /nli"e themed par"s and hotels in $urope and the /nited tates, whichsimulate buildings simply through *isual uotation, the Ibn ;attuta %all replicates the expensi*ematerial and the high uality of their craftsmanship, as well.21 

In the emphasis on detailing, both the mall and mosue ma"e e*ident the economicwealth of Dubai, e*en as the simple recycling of styles spea"s to a certain imaginati*e po*erty.hus, 7umeirah %osue may be *iewed as another example of post'modern historicism, with its"itsch references that parody the *ery past they appear to *alori+e. Ket that is clearly not theintention of either the builder or the patron. Instead, their goal appears to be to mine the past as asource of inspiration, for the architecture as well as the nation which the $mirates are trying toconstruct.

Heritage Reimagined and Reclaimed

he rise of nationalism in the nineteenth century coincided with the rise in significance of publicmuseums. In the $uropean context, they were closely associated with colonial forms of rule, setup to display not only national treasures but the spoils of conuest.22  In countries such as ur"ey,the national museum ser*ed as a medium to learn about ancient histories through thearcheological disco*eries of the nineteenth century and to preser*e the immediate past in the

context of rapid moderni+ation.2>  (ncient history would pro*ide the iconography ofindigenousness that was deployed in architecture and the arts of the early twentieth century.2@ raditional arts were similarly employed to further the goals of nationalism, pro*iding a unifyingculture for the newly'formed citi+ens and their representati*e go*ernments. he )in*ention oftradition,# a phrase coined by $ric <obsbawm and erence 3anger, meant that a new narrati*e separate from dynastic or religious histories was created to formali+e the rituals and processesassociated with nationhood in the twentieth century.2  hus, the national museum came tofruition with the need for institutional buildings commemorating statehood.

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(rchitecture was a "ey component of nationalist pro!ects of the twentieth century, notonly because of the new institutions that came into being, such as museums and uni*ersities, but because the buildings were designed with particular stylistic and iconographic lin"ed the pastwith the present. -or example, the entrance to the Iran ;astan (rcheological %useum in ehran,designed by (ndrO oddard and %axime iroux and completed in 1F>F was in the form of the

arch of the asanian palace at Ctesiphon pointing to the pre'Islamic archeological finds housedinside while also ac"nowledging the importance of Iran#s pre'Islamic past. In a related mannerolder structures once belonging to monarchial regimes were reno*ated to cohere with newrepublican ideals. ( prime of example of such a functional and ideological transfer is thetransformation of the op"api palace, built in the fifteen century and home to se*eral generationsof &ttoman ultans. In 1F2@, following the end of the empire and the establishment of theur"ish 3epublic in 1F21, the palace became a museum housing the memory of ur"ey#simperial past.

he /nited (rab $mirates are latecomers to the league of modern nations, retainingmonarchial and tribal allegiances that are, nonetheless, complemented by bureaucraticgo*ernmental institutions. he context of nationhood is complicated further by the di*erse and

heterogeneous society that calls Dubai, in particular, home. onetheless, the go*ernment ofDubai has seen fit to promote the history of the city'state as one that is significant, and necessaryof preser*ation. oward that end, the old al'-ahidi fort, which had been the original residence of the ruling al'%a"htoum family when they mo*ed from (bu Dhabi in 1=>>, was designated ashistorical site and national monument in 1FE1.26  he fort was constructed in 1EFF near to theDubai Cree", and was initially used as a defensi*e fortification against neighboring tribes.

he fort is belie*ed to be the oldest extant building in the city, and is located in the old;asta"iya neighborhood in ;ur Dubai, close to the *ibrant commercial and, until the area wasmoderni+ed in the late twentieth century, residential area. earby is (bra ou", named after theconstant water taxi traffic that brings *isitors and tourists ali"e, and connects the area to the restof the city. earby is the rand -riday mosue, situated in an area that is )preser*ed#aggressi*ely to maintain the authentic character to old Dubai. 8ow storied mud bric" buildingsare pac"ed together in narrow streets, their wind towers Abādgīr B punctuating the s"yline. hearchitecture is closely related to that of many towns along this area of the Indian &cean, fromIran to a"istan, and points to the cosmopolitan trading past of Dubai.

(l -ahidi fort was repurposed in 1FE1 as a heritage site, but it was not until 1FF thatmodern galleries and display areas were built within the museum. he walls of the fort containshards of coral and shells mixed in the mud, and their distressed loo" is preser*ed in order toe*o"e a sense of its history. he al'-ahidi fort is now encircled by an exterior wall that ser*es asa buffer between the busy thoroughfare that abuts it and the historic site. he massi*e toweranchors one side of it and on another side is a large dhow AboatB that acts as an outdoor sculptureas well as large signage for the museum. he entrance to the museum is flan"ed by cannons,reminding the *isitor of the defensi*e purpose of the building.

$xhibits are displayed in the courtyard of the fort, such weaponry and defensi*etechnology, which is shown in rooms. ( small, wooden, barasti house has been recreated inwood, showing how the *illagers traditionally li*ed before Dubai#s moderni+ation period. (tanother corner, a grand, modern stairway leads down to the basement le*el of the museum wherenumerous dioramas ha*e been assembled. he *isitors are guided on a precise route startingwith Dubai ast and resent,: a presentation of the city#s de*elopment o*er time. he firstsection focuses on archeological disco*eries in the region and continues with atural

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henomena.: $n*ironments are created to simulate the desert at night and an oasis by day, bothdisplaying the natural beauty of the region. he largest section is de*oted to an )underwater#exhibit of marine life, which not only shows the flora and fauna of the ersian ulf, but the pearlfishers who were li"ely the first inhabitants of Dubai.

utting the )original# inhabitants of the /nited (rab $mirates on par with the nati*e

animals and *egetation is a trope in many natural history museums. 5hile it spea"s of a colonialmindset, it is a practice that has come to define nationalist intentions as well.2E he importantgi*en to nati*e people and to the land upon which they li*e creates, what ;enedict (nderson hascalled, imagined communities: of people united not by tribes or political ideologies, but by the*ery fact of belonging to the country.2=  his narrati*e of indigenousness, that is, an identityrelated to the land, is aimed directly at constructing a nationalist history. <owe*er, the history presented is an intangible one, lost to the *agaries of oil wealth and its conseuential rapidde*elopment.

he Dubai %unicipality has tried to preser*e the character of the neighborhood of al'-ahidi fort and ;asti"iya with the construction of the rand %osue, a large space for the -ridaycongregational prayers. In addition, commerce in the &ld ou", or mar"et place, is carried on in

ways that ma"e it an appealing destination for tourists and residents ali"e. he traditionalneighborhood of ;asta"iya is now considered a heritage site and se*eral buildings there ha*e been con*erted into galleries and other public use. In utili+ing a rather hea*y hand in terms of preser*ation, the go*ernment has inad*ertently caused the area to lose some of its *ibrancy? atthe end of the day, the shops and galleries close and ;asta"iya becomes an empty shell, de*oidof life. 8i"e the ational %useum that has occupies the old al'-ahidi fort, ;asta"iya has becomesimply an exhibit, fro+en in time.2F

A Capitalist Modernity

(cti*ating the past through historic reference is an oft'repeated method in the dissemination ofnationalist ideology. In the architectural context of Dubai, that is achie*ed through the neo'%amlu" style of the 7umeirah %osue, one of the most important landmar"s in the city e*enthough there was little historical relationship between the %amlu"s and this region of the ersianulf. imilarly, institutions li"e the Dubai ational %useum, housed in the al'-ahidi fort, helpcreate an image of the city#s physical past, preser*ed and exhibited for consumption by nati*es,expatriate s, and tourists ali"e. 5here does the modern history of Dubai belong in such anation'building agenda It cannot be reduced, as it sometimes is, to the simple fact of oildisco*ery and wealth, which has led to the exuberant and unsustainable growth that the entireulf region has experienced. In the 1FF0s the $mirate was experimenting with free trade and aliberal mar"et economy which encouraged in*estment and de*elopment. (lthough oil production was still a central form of wealth production, already in 1F= the 7ebel (li -ree Honewas established to bring foreign capital and industry to the $mirate.>0

he commercial +one along the Dubai Cree" echoes the historic pice ou" nearby,where Iranian immigrants own shops in a traditional co*ered mar"etplace, selling e*erythingfrom Chinese exports to spices from all o*er (sia. (t another end of the Cree" is the famedold ou", where *isitors floc" to barter and sell gold sold by merchants from India to audi(rabia. he waterfront bustles with acti*ity, with immigrant wor"ers loading and unloadinglarge boats tra*eling along the Indian &cean.>1  (longside the modest abra water taxis, twenty'foot yachts idle along the doc"s, while large, refurbished dhows  the traditional mode oftransportation now ta"e tours up and down the Cree".

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De*elopment of the Dubai Cree" maintained the historical trading and commercialcharacter of the area, with the construction of the ational ;an" of Dubai in 1FEF, designed bythe ;ritish architectural firm 7ohn 3. <arris and artners A73<B.  >2  he architect had beenin*ited by hai"h 3ashid bin aeed al'%a"htoum in 1F60 to help de*elop a master plan forDubai. In 1F66 oil was disco*ered in Dubai, which prompted the ruler to commission <arris to

design the tallest s"yscraper in the (rab world at the time, the Dubai 5orld rade Center, whichwas inaugurated by Gueen $li+abeth II in 1FEF.>>  he monument went into construction !ust asthe 5orld rade Center owers were being completed in ew Kor" City. he ational ;an" ofDubai, in contrast to the towering D5C, is a typical, two'storey ban" building, with itsconcrete structure and functional programing.  &ther national ban"s were built along the DubaiCree", such as the corporate head office of the ;ritish ;an" of the %iddle $ast designed by73< and the ;an" %elli of Iran, the national ban" of the Islamic 3epublic of Iran. In thismanner, Dubai was established as a ban"ing center, whose presence on the world stage wasundisputable. he Dubai Cree", li"e the hei"h Hayed 3oad thoroughfare that runs through theheart of the city and on which the Dubai 5orld rade Center was built Aas the first high'rise buildingB, symboli+es the trading history of this ulf state and its commercial aspirations.

erhaps one of the most important symbols of Dubai#s mercantile pedigree is $mirates ;D, designed by the /ruguayan architect, Carlos &tt in consultation with the multi'national &33 group in 1FFE.>@  &n one side of this tall multistory building, located directly on theDubai Cree", is the Dubai Chamber of Commerce and Industry and on the other side, theheraton Dubai Cree" <otel and ower.> (s it states on $mirates ;D#s website, Currently,more than =,000 employees from o*er 0 nationalities are employed by $mirates ;D, ma"ingit one of the largest and most culturally di*ersified employers in the /($. (s a ational ban"ingchampion, $mirates ;D is an ambassador of economic and social progress for the entire /($to the world.:>6  he ban" thus embraces the cosmopolitan and commerce'dri*en +eitgeist of thecity. imilarly cosmopolitan was the architect of $mirates ;D, Carlos &tt, who was trained atthe /ni*ersity of <awaii, with offices at the time in GuObec, oronto, hanghai, Dubai and%onte*ideo.>E 

(ccording to Carlos &tt#s website, he headuarters of the ational ;an" of Dubai is animagery of the dhow, a regional boat centuries old used in the Indian &cean, and theestablishment of Dubai as a mar"et place. Its cur*ed curtain wall represents the billowing sail,supported by two granite columns. he base of the building, the ban"ing hall, is clad in greenglass representing the water and its roof of aluminum, the hull of the boat.:>= he design is thusmeant, according to the architect, to signal a local reality by abstracting the forms of the)centuries'old# dhow, and creating analogies with the sails, the water, and so on. uch ahistoricalreferences ha*e often been utili+ed by foreign architects building in the %iddle $ast, in particular the ulf. wo examples from audi (rabia are useful to consider. -irst, -rei &tto#sIntercontinental <otel and Conference Centre in %a""ah, built in 1FE@, is a tensile structure thatis meant to be a synthesis of ad*anced structural techniues and re*i*ed local artistic traditionsthat had become almost extinct.:>F  imilarly, the <a!! erminal built in 7eddah by "idmore,&wings and %errill in 1F=2, has a roof structure in the form of multiple tents, their white can*as pulled taut, as though against dessert winds. uch literal abstraction is not uniue to the %iddle$ast, gi*en such famed examples as the ydney &pera <ouse, in (ustralia, designed by 7orn/t+on in 1FE and completed in 1FE>. he opera house is located on ydney harbor, and its roof of formed as a series of o*erlapping shells, e*o"ing the white, billowing sails of a boat. In allthese examples, primordial forms are meant to e*o"e a sense of timelessness, choosing simple

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allusions o*er complex stylistic or historical references. ;oth audi (rabia and (ustralia wereon the margins of great empires, with important cities that thri*ed on commerce and trade fortheir existence. In the eyes of the architects imported to help build national institutions in thetwentieth century Ali"e ban"s, opera houses, and airportsB, these countries lac"ed monumentalarchitecture. hus, there was seen a need to go beyond history, to timeless naturalist tropes of

wa*es and sails and use them as sources of inspiration for ma"ing iconic buildings. Ket, in truth,these abstract forms could be deployed in any location, from %iami to %uscat.he form of the Dubai ational ;an" e*o"es something more than the sails and hull of

the dhow or the colors of the sea. he forms and material are abstracted to the degree that onemight not recogni+e the references, especially if remo*ed from its maritime context. Indeed, theinspiration for $mirates D; may be found in the pages of boo"s on modern architecture,especially of the so'called international style: that was popular in the /nited tates and $uropein the middle of the twentieth century.@0  he style, *alori+ed by the li"es of <enry'3ussell<itchcoc" and hilip 7ohnson in the early twentieth century, came to exemplify modernarchitecture, with its clean lines and lac" of referential ornamentation. It also represented, bymid'century, (merican corporate culture, through the commission of such iconic buildings as the

eagram ;uilding in ew Kor" City, home of (merican capitalist culture at its pea".he glass curtain wall of $mirates D; clearly reflects the international style, and can beformally related to the earliest s"yscrapers e*er built. ( more direct reference is that of the 8e*er <ouse in ew Kor", designed by ordon ;unshaft for &% A"idmore &wings and %errillB in1F2, with its tower and slab typology. @1 In the year of its construction, the ;ritish architectwrote, hese buildings do for modern commercialism what the medie*al churches did forliturgy or the ;aroue palace for monarchy. hat is, they do not merely answer specific functionswhich is implicit in all good building. hey answer a deeper social need. ;y their beauty theygi*e both pleasure and dignity to those whose life is spent in them.:@2  -or (t"inson, as for builders and patrons around the globe, (merican corporate architecture pro*ided a new *ision of post'war success and prosperity. he social need that was satisfied was deeply embedded incapitalist culture, one handily appropriated by the newly wealthy ulf monarchies, such as thoseof the $mirates. hus $mirates D; is e*ocati*e of, in a *ery fundamental way, the history ofmodern architecture itself.

!yscraper Dreams

3eferences to twentieth'century (merican corporate architecture, in particular thes"yscraper, are the norm in Dubai as elsewhere in (sia.@>  ( literal example may be found in theform of the al'9a+im owers, situated on the hai"h Hayed 3oad as it leads out of the city center toward (bu Dhabi. he towers were designed by the architectural and engineering firm, atonal$ngineering ;ureau A$DB and completed in 200= at a cost of ($D 6>0 million. $ach towercomprises of > floors of mixed residential and commercial space, and has been designed inimitation of the Chrysler building in ew Kor" City.

he Chrysler ;uilding has inspired many reinterpretations of its iconic form, with thecascading sunburst patterns of the crown, from hiladelphia to ehran. In Dubai,unsurprisingly, it is not only replicated but also multiplied as not one, but two identical towers.<owe*er, here the roof structure is reduced to a space frame, outlining the design of theornamental crown, but not its intricate details. <owe*er, li"e the original stainless steelsuperstructure, it is using through the latest technology in this case computer generatedframing. 8ocated on the busy thoroughfare, the al'9a+im towers perform thus as architectural

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signage, *isible from the Dubai %arina to the rade Center. hey uote the ew Kor" landmar",while become landmar"s in their own right, in terms of design as well as political significance.In 2002, Dubai became the first of the $mirates to offer freehold property to foreign'bornresidents. /ntil that time, all land ownership was in the hands of the ulf Coast Countries and/($ nationals, but with the burgeoning tourist economy of Dubai, the change to free hold was

seen as an economically and socially *iable mo*e.he s"yscraper har"s bac" to the early years of the twentieth century, with architectural practice embracing modernity and its own autonomy. he Chrysler ;uilding was designed by5illiam *an (len and completed in 1F>0, at the height of the reat Depression in the /nitedtates. hereafter, it has come to not only symboli+e one of the most wealthy and cosmopolitancities in the world, but also the industrial and capitalist culture that is signified in the *ery nameof the building. he al'9a+im owers call to mind thus the paradoxical optimism of the interwar years, and the utopian imaginings of modern architecture.

(rtists and architects in the early twentieth century rendered the s"yscraper within thecontext of a heroic if sometimes apocalyptic urban en*ironment, where technological ad*ancesga*e rise to the impossible scaling of heights.@@  If one is to ta"e seriously the contention that the

rulers of Dubai dreamed of ma"ing the city the financial capital of the world one day, it is nosurprise that its urban iconography utili+es the *ertical ambitions embodied in the s"yscraper.he ;ur! 9halifa, formerly the ;ur! Dubai, actuali+ed their ambitions while also paying homageto the history of the s"yscraper itself.

he ;ur! 9halifa is named in honor of hay"h 9halifa bin Hayid (l ahyan, theresident of the /nited (rab $mirates. It is owned by $maar roperties, who hired (drianmith Aat the time a principal at "idmore, &wings, and %errill in ChicagoB to design thes"yscraper, which was inaugurated in 2010. (t =2= meters Aapproximately 2,E1E feetB, the building is currently the tallest building in the world, and comprises of hotel and residentialsuites, corporate offices, and obser*ation dec"s with expansi*e *iews of the ersian ulf and the(rabian desert. he concept of the building is stated on its websiteJ %ore than !ust the worldPstallest building, ;ur! 9halifa is an unprecedented example of international cooperation, symbolic beacon of progress, and an emblem of the new, dynamic and prosperous %iddle $ast. It is alsotangible proof of DubaiPs growing role in a changing world. In fewer than >0 years, this city hastransformed itself from a regional centre to a global one. his success was not based on oilreser*es, but on reser*es of human talent, ingenuity and initiati*e. ;ur! 9halifa embodies that*ision.:@

;ur! 9halifa thus symboli+es all that Dubai, as a global city, aspires to be? namely, atechnocratic and progressi*e beacon, in an otherwise troublesome region. <owe*er, thatde*elopment comes with high costs in terms of the social and en*ironmental compromises thatha*e been made by the $mirati elite. Interestingly, &%#s design for ;ur! 9halifa reminds manyof -ran" 8loyd 5right#s 1F6 drawings for a %ile <igh ower, a pro!ect ne*er built but oftenstudied. 8i"e the ;ur! 9halifa, the foundations of the %ile <igh ower are splayed out tomaximi+e its stability, and the floors are set bac" as it the tower ascends such that it culminatesin a fine needle on top. here is, howe*er, a paradoxical 5right was famously antagonist tourban li*ing, building some of his iconic buildings in natural landscapes. (s one author wrote,5right despised the commercial world and its representation in the s"yscraper city. he city oftowers was not, to 5right, a tenable answer to centrali+ation.:@6  <is design of the %ile <ighower may be seen as a critiue of corporate culture through the imaginings of an austere andhubristic modernity. Niewing ;ur! 9halifa through such a critiue calls into uestion the

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exuberant positi*ism expressed by its builders, e*en as it points to the *isionary and utopiandreams of modern architects since at least the past one hundred years.

(t the beginning of the twenty first century, the age of the singular architectural *isionand the uniue masterpiece may well be coming to an end. uggenheim %useums designed by-ran" ehry are multiplied all o*er the globe, from ;arcelona to (bu Dhabi and as iconic wor"s

of modernism, such as the Chrysler ;uilding, are e*o"ed in cities as seemingly di*erse ashiladelphia, ehran, and now Dubai. Indeed, it is important to note that concepts such as )local#or )identity# are far from static.

Dubai#s architecture intersects with history in important and complex ways, from constructing anideali+ed Islamic past, displaying an indigenous ethnology, or building a prophetic modernistfuture. $xamples such as those considered here highlight the transregional and transhistoricaltrends that define architecture, religion, and statehood in this $mirate in particular, but in thecontemporary %iddle $ast in general. 5hat is at sta"e in all cases is the issue of history,whether in terms of global corporate design or the local heritage industry as concei*ed throughnationalist pro!ects. uch an intellection pro*ides important insights into the regenerati*e nature

of contemporary architectural practice, which *iews modernism as a wor" in progress? that pic"sup references and re'uses them in creati*e ways? and that celebrates the historical significance ofits own ma"ing. If we expand that notion, we could say that Dubai#s primary engagement is withmodernity in a manner that is clearly not limited by geographic or national boundaries. 3ather,this *ersion of modernity is and continues to be a shared prospect, with its anxieties as well as its possibilities.

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1 httpJQQwww.emaar.comQindex.aspxpageRabout. (ccessed o*ember 1F, 2012.2 (hmed 9anna, SS> ee for example, %i"e Da*is, and, -ear, and %oney in Dubai,: Evil Paradises: Dreamworlds of neoliberalism,edited by %i"e Da*is and Daniel ;ertrand %on", Aew Kor"J ew ressJ Distributed by 5.5. orton T Co., 200EB?;oris ;rorman 7ensen, Dubai: Dnami!s of bingo urbanism, ACopenhagen J he (rchitectural ublishe , 200EB.B@ 3em 9ollhaas, :8ast Chance: in "l-Manakh, editors, &le ;ouman, %itra 9houbrou, 3em 9oolhaas, AetherlandsJtichting (rchis, c200EB? E. <e bac"trac"ed in DubaiJ -rom !udgment to analysis,: his comments at the har!ah

;iennial in %arch, 2011. httpJQQoma.euQlecturesQdubai'from'!udgment'to'analysis. In appearing to mo*e the criticism poured on architects such as himself in the wa"e of the 200= economic crash, he appears to put the burden on )analysis#and )scientific# solutions, which is ironically couched in neo'colonialist rhetoric. ( criticism of 9oolhaas is gi*en in 3ichard 8acayo, he architecture of (utocracy,: ime, A%ayQ7une 200=BJ >'E?6.6 (hmed 9anna, he Nanished Nillage,: Dubai: The !it as !or#oration, A%inneapolis J /ni*ersity of %innesotaress, 2011B.E (hmed 9anna, %a"ing Cadres of the City'Corporation:J Cultural identity politics in neoliberal Dubai,: S 211.= -or a comprehensi*e discussion of Dubai#s history and de*elopment, see Christopher %. Da*idson, Dubai$ The

vulnerabilit of su!!ess, Aew Kor"J Columbia /ni*ersity ress, 200=B.F (hmed 9anna, Dubai? >0.10 Kasser $lsheshtawy, Dubai: %ehind an urban s#e!ta!le, A8ondonJ 3outledge, 2010B.11 SS fixU (s of 1FF=, 1EV of the population of the emirate was made up of &"E nationals. (pproximately =V of theexpatriate population Aand E1V of the emiratePs total populationB was (sian, chiefly Indian A1VB, a"istani A16VB,;angladeshi AFVB and -ilipino A>VB. (bout >V of the total population of Dubai was categori+ed as W5esternW. (uarter of the population howe*er reportedly traces their origins to neighboring Iran. In addition, 16V of the populationAor 2==,000 personsB li*ed in collecti*e labour accommodation were not identified by ethnicity or nationality, but werethought to be primarily (sian.12 uch as 8acayo, or"in, Kasser $lsheshtawy, Dubai' ((1> $ach of the $mirates has different religious boundaries? for example, whereas as Dubai has relati*ely loose alcoholconsumption laws, (bu Dhabi prohibits alcohol consumption.1@ ( brief o*er*iew of hay"h 3ashi#d patronage is gi*en in hirley 9ay, 3ichness of tyle in /($ %osues,:(bdelba"i %ohamed Ibrahim, ed.,  "lam al-%ina, ACairoJ Center for lanning and (rchitectural tudies, 1FFFB? 6'FQ21.1 httpJQQwww.dubaicity.comQ5hatXtoXseeXinXdubaiQ7umeirah'%osue.htm. his is the official city guide, promoted by

the o*ernment of Dubai Department of ourism T Commerce %ar"eting. (ccessed o*ember 22, 2012.16 Inter*iew with %r. ami SS, S, December, 200=. hat the engineer designing and building the mosue himselfconflates two *ery different styles and periods is surprising, if not unexpected, gi*en the lac" of awareness mostarchitects and designers ha*e of architectural history in many de*eloping countries.1E ranslation from Kusaf )(li, httpJQQwww.uranexplorer.com. 1= httpJQQwww.dubaicity.comQ5hatXtoXseeXinXdubaiQ7umeirah'%osue.htm.1F ( foundation panel at the entrance attributes the construction to the engineers (bd al'%oi+ <usayn and %uhammadal'%ahdi <i!a+i, Cairo Dubai (bu Dhabi, dated 1@1>Q1FF6.20 httpJQQwww.dubaicity.comQdubai'ibn'battuta'mall'dubaiQ. (ccessed o*ember 2F, 2012.21 -or a sociological comparison of 8as Negas and Dubai, see <ei"o chmid, $conomy of -ascinationJ Dubai and 8asNegas as $xamples of hemed /rban 8andscapes AY"onomie der -as+inationJ Dubai und 8as Negas als ;eispielethematisch ins+enierter tadtlandschaftenB, Erdkunde , ;d. 60, <. @ A&ct. ' Dec., 2006BJ >@6'>61.22 he literature on the rise of museums is too extensi*e to itemi+e here, but among the earliest studies were byanthropologists such as 7ames Clifford, &n Collecting (rt and Culture,: in The Predi!ament of )ulture ACambridgeJ<ar*ard /ni*ersity ress, 1F==B, 21'1? (nnie $. Coombes, %useums and the -ormation of ational and CulturalIdentities,: *+ford "rt ,ournal , Nol. 11, o. 2 A1F==BJ E'6=.2> 5endy %. 9. haw, Possessors and Possessed: Museums "r!haeolog and the .isuali/ation of 0istor in the 1ate

*ttoman Em#ire A;er"eleyJ /ni*ersity of California ress, 200>B.2@ &n the issue of architecture and politics in the early twentieth century, see 9ishwar 3i+*i and andy Isenstadt,%odern (rchitecture and the %iddle $astJ he burdens of representation,: Modernism and the Middle East:

 "r!hite!ture and #oliti!s in the twentieth !entur, eds. . Isenstadt and 9. 3i+*i AeattleJ /ni*ersity of 5ashingtonress, 200=B.2 $ric <obsbawm and erence 3anger he In*ention of tradition, ACambridge? ew Kor"J Cambridge /ni*ersity ress,1FF2B.26 hirley 9ay and Dariush Handi, "r!hite!tural 0eritage of the 2ulf , ADubai, /($J %oti*ate ub., 1FF1B, =2? D!amel

;oussaa, ( -uture to the astJ he case of -aree! al';asta"ia in Dubai, /($.: Pro!eedings of the Seminar for "rabianStudies, Nol. >6, apers from the thirty'ninth meeting of the eminar for (rabian tudies held in 8ondon, 21'2> 7uly200 A2006BJ 12'1>=? 12E.2E Coombes, etc. SSS

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2= ;enedict 3. (nderson, 3magined )ommunities: reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism, A8ondon J Nerso,1F=>B,2F In a recent boo", Kasser $lsheshtawy focuses on the forgotten neighborhoods and by extension, the ex'patriotresidents, of Dubai. In areas, such as atwa, migrant wor"ers li*ed within what the author has termed an )urban"aleidoscope.# uch sites are now also undergoing gentrification and the original blue'collar population is replaced byyoung residents, longing for a semblance of authenticity in an otherwise seemingly banal city. Kasser $lhestawy,

 Dubai: %ehind an urban s#e!ta!le, A8ondon? ew Kor"J 3outledge, 2010B.>0

 Da*idson, Dubai, 11@.>1 his part of eastern Dubai is also "nown as Deira, and was the old downtown of the city.>2 he first ban" to be set up in Dubai was the Imperial ;an" of Iran, in 1F@=. Its name soon changed to the ;ritish;an" of Iran to the ;ritish ;an" of the %iddle $ast. he first ational ;an" of Dubai was established in the 1F60s.Da*idson, Dubai, FE'F=.>> Donald <awley, The Emirates: 4itness to a metamor#hosis, AorwichJ %ichael 3ussell, 200EB? 1=.>@ he original home for this building was the Dubai ational ;an". ince its merger with $mirates ;an" in 200E, the$mirates D; is the largest ban"ing group in the %iddle $ast. he current chairman is hei"h (hmed ;in aeed (l%a"toum. httpJQQwww.emiratesnbd.comQenQabout$mirates;D, accessed December 10, 2012.> he DCCI building was designed by i""en e""ei in 1FF.>6 httpJQQwww.emiratesnbd.comQenQabout$mirates;DQindex.cfm? accessed December =, 2012.>E ;efore being commissioned to build in the /($, he designed the &pOra ;astille in aris in 1F=E. $mile 7. ;iasini8es rands ro!etsJ (n o*er*iew,: 5S" ,ournal , Nol. 1>F, o. @21 A(ugustQeptember 1FF1BJ 61'E0? 66. eealso the architect#s inter*iew by $mma anguinetti, D06J $l (ruitecto,: Dossier: 5evisita )ultural %imestral ,Niernes, 1@ de Diciembre De 200E. httpJQQwww.re*istadossier.com.uyQcontentQ*iewQ1EQE1Q .(ccessed December 10, 2012.>= httpJQQ200.12@.202.1FQottQott.html accessed &ctober 12, 200=. o longer accessible.>F httpJQQarchnet.orgQlibraryQsitesQone'site.!spsiteXidR10=.  (ccessed December 10, 2012.@0 he paradigmatic boo" introducing International tyle was <enry'3ussell <itchcoc", 7r. and hilip 7ohnson,The 3nternational Stle: "r!hite!ture sin!e 6788, A ew Kor"J 5.5. orton T Company, c1F>2B.@1 his comparison has been noted by imon lynn, httpJQQwww.galins"y.comQbuildingsQnbdQindex.htm. (ccessedDecember 12, 2012. -or a recent discussion of 8e*er <ouse and the eagram ;uilding, see -elicity D. cott, (n(rmy of oldiers or a %eadow,: ,ournal of the So!iet of "r!hite!tural 0istorians, Nol. E0, o. > Aeptember 2011BJ>>0'>>.@2 -ello (t"inson, he (rchitecture of (merican Commerce,: Pers#e!ta, Nol. 1, Aummer, 1F2BJ@6'@F? @F.@>

 -or example, the etronas ower in 9uala 8umpur A1FF=B, hanghai 5orld -inancial Center A200=B, aipei 101A200@B, etc.@@ he drawings of <ugh -erris Ad. 1F62B were particularly inspirational. ee for example, <ugh -erriss, he metropolisof tomorrow, Aew Kor", I. 5ashburn, 1F2FB.@ httpJQQwww.bur!"halifa.aeQlanguageQen'usQthe'towerQ*ision.aspx. (ccessed December 1@, 2012.@6 %ichael %ostoller, he owers of -ran" 8loyd 5right,: 7ournal of (rchitectural $ducation, Nol. >=, o. 2 A5inter,1F=BJ 1>'1E? 1E.