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S c h o o l o f B u s i n e s sU n i v e r s i t y o f B a l l a r a t

A Model For Success

Women’s Entrepreneurial and Small Business Activity in Regional Areas

UNIVERSITY of BALLARATHigher Education - Mt Helen Campus

Report prepared for DSRD, Rural Women’s Network, NRE and the City of Ballarat by:

Dr Janice Newton, Dr Lorene Gottschalk and Dr Glenice Wood

2001

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

In a context of a rise in small business and women’s small business in

particular in western economies, and rural decline in Australia and

elsewhere, the fortunes and potential of rural and regional women in small

business appear of vital importance. From June to October 2001 a survey

of 359 women in business, supplemented by group discussions with 49

additional women, was undertaken to establish details on the nature of

women’s involvement in small business in the Western Region of Victoria.

A further aim was to build a model for success. Surveys were distributed

after initial telephone contact and via meetings.

Sample

The sample reflected regional and female small business for the most part.

The majority were Australian born, over 40, with a high school education

and lived with a partner or partner and dependents. One hundred and

sixty-two (44%) asked to be part of a database.

64% aged 30-5091% Australian born8% post graduate qualifications35% did not complete high school86% live with partner/with or without dependents.44% ask to be part of database.

Similarity

There was considerable comparability between the sample and data on

women in small business generally. In relation to a flexible business style

and processes, a preference for face-to-face contact in communication,

word of mouth as the main recognised marketing tool, professional and

personal sources of information, the small number of employees and use

of own savings and banks for start-up, the region was similar to general

studies.

69% employ 1-4 (including self)80% mention ’word of mouth’ as marketing method59% say they receive raw materials from local distributor41% use face to face business communication with experts/specialists94% say staff have some flexibility

Finance was an issue affecting most, both quantitative and qualitative

data revealing continuing instances of gender discrimination by financiers.

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44% women say lack of finance inhibits start up

50% women say lack of finance inhibits operation.

Only half apply for ongoing loan.

On other aspects the sample showed internal homogeneity, for example in

relation to taking a major responsibility for domestic chores, the work

experience gained prior to starting a business and the highlighting of

experience as the best learning tool. The women mostly worked long

hours and over half wished that time to decrease. Sixteen percent

indicated that they made a profit of between $10,000 and $19,999 and

18% indicated that they made no profit. They claimed staff respected their

authority.

46% worked 40-59 hours per week in businessOver half work 20 + hours per week on domestic work54% women want their time in business to decrease98% say staff respect their authority16% made a profit of $10,000-19,00018% made no profit

There were other similarities in relation to technology and uses of

services.

75.5% had access to Internet68% use email60% were aware of Chambers of Commerce . . .

but only 4% stated that they found them useful

Women agreed on their priorities for training in style and content. Those

few women who made use of NEIS were largely very happy with it.

94% want small face to face workshops for training61% want marketing training50% want financial training49% want promotion training

Difference

In spite of some general common experiences, the sample also

demonstrated considerable range and diversity. For example women were

fairly evenly divided over whether they were risk takers or avoiders. Profits

ranged from nil to over $100,000 and turnovers from under $10,000 to

3

over a million. Attitudes to success varied from those wishing only for

subsistence to those wanting ‘world dominance’.

42% risk takers and 55% risk avoiders30% report turnover between $100,000 and $300,000.24% report nil or less than $1000 profit40% report more than $20,000 profit

Some statistically significant differences were found between those who

were sole traders/partner with women and those in partnerships with men.

The former were more educated and concentrated in gender specific

industries such as Personal, Cultural and Property Services and Health.

They had more responsibilities for household tasks but spent less time on

them. They were more reliant on family and friends for unpaid labour and

financial help, less likely to go for operating loans and less likely to be

successful gaining them. Qualitative data revealed continuing instances of

gender discrimination by banks.

Sole/female Partners with male

Education post grad 11% 5% of 16%Industry sector –Farming 15% 85% of 100%

-Personal Services 73% 27% of 100%Start up finance, median $17,000 $45,000

Success

An objective measure of success was made by isolating those who had

three out of the following criteria: profit of $10,000 or more in 2000;

operated business 5 years or more; reported “moderately strong” to

“rapid sales growth”; and reported “business performing well”. One third

of businesses met this criterion of success. Identifying features that may

have contributed to this success proved very difficult as very few

independent variables appeared to affect the dependent variable, success

or lack of it. Those that were statistically significant often applied to only

small numbers in the category.

Subjective understanding of success highlights intrinsic and extrinsic

factors and a difference between those wanting market dominance and

respect, those wanting family subsistence and survival and those wanting

personal achievement, autonomy and esteem. Such variation reflects a

context of both choice and constraint, but there is little evidence in the

survey of peripheral, ‘non employees’.

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Main factors linked with successful third of businessesLiving with a partner5-9 employeesPerception that ‘time’ and ‘size of outlet’ biggest hindranceRecognition of the role of dedicated, friendly staff in business successAdvice from mentor

Conclusions

In spite of some similarities, regional women in small business have a

range of motivations and therefore their needs may differ. Efforts should

be made to both encourage those with a strong ‘enterprise culture’ and to

aid the viability of those whose main aim is to self-employ and subsist.

Whilst the women prefer small face to face workshops, the high access to

internet, the lower success rate of those without a partner at home and

the time constraints of many women, suggest that on line training,

information and communication should be further developed. That 44% of

the survey sample offered to be part of a network/database further

supports this option.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page Number

Executive Summary 2

Acknowledgements 91. Introduction 10

1.1 The Rural Context 101.2 The rise of small business – choice and

constraint 111.3The significance of women in the growth

of small business 121.4 Objectives 13

2. Literature Review 14

2.1 Gender and research 142.2 Individual Characteristics of Business Women 16

2.2.1 Motivation and success 162.2.2 Training and experience 192.2.3 Networking 19

2.3 Institutional discrimination 212.3.1 Banks and finance 212.3.2 The law 22

2.4 The gender division of labour: the nexus between domestic and other work 222.4.1 Industry 232.4.2 Business 232.4.3 Household 24

2.5 Summary 24

3 Methods of Research 26

3.1 The survey 273.2 Group and individual discussions 30

4 Results 31

4.1 Introduction 314.2 Sample Description 31

4.2.1 Age 314.2.2 Ethnicity 324.2.3 Education 324.2.4 Residence 344.2.5 Household unit 354.2.6 Summary of basic demographic data 36

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4.3 Business basic data 364.3.1 Premise location and industry sector 364.3.2 Age of business and how started 394.3.3 Personal/Household income 394.3.4 Employees 404.3.5 Marketing, raw materials 414.3.6 Profit 424.3.7 Sole and partnered 454.3.8 Summary of business basic data 46

4.4 Business themes and issues 464.4.1 Finance 464.4.2 Risk and planning 504.4.3 Perceived hindrances 514.4.4 Business Style 554.4.5 Training and background 594.4.6 Domestic/Family Issues 634.4.7 Time 664.4.8 Indicators of success 68

4.4.8.1 Objective success indicators 684.4.8.2 Subjective success 74

5 Conclusion 80

5.1 Introduction 805.2 Similarities to Women in Small Business

Generally 805.3 Internal Homogeneity 815.4 Differences within the sample 815.5 The Success Model 835.6 Final Comment 83

Appendices 84

Appendix A The survey 84Appendix B List of occupations 100

References 102

List of Tables3.1 Local government area proportional population of

sample and region 294.1 Age structure of sample and Victorian Women’s Small

Business 324.2 Place of birth and ethnicity of sample and region 324.3 Education level of sample by region and Victorian

business women 334.4 Proportion of sample household type compared to

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Western Region 364.5 Sample representation compared to Western Region

female employment by industry sector 384.6 Age of business 394.7 Numbers employed in business 414.8 Source of raw materials and services 414.9 Per annum profit 1999-2000 financial year 424.10 Business ownership structure of sample and Yellow

pages Business Survey 464.11 Reasons for refusal of finance 484.12 Factors hindering business 524.13 Staff management style 584.14 Use of internet by sample and Australian Small

Business 584.15 Use of services by sample 594.16 How lack of training compensated for 614.17 Course Desired by Sample 634.18 Proportion with most responsibility for domestic

Task by business operation 644.19 Sources of unpaid help noted by total numbers

business operation 654.20 Estimation of domestic work in five years by

business operation 674.21 Hours worked in business by business operation 684.22 Preferred time commitment 68

List of Figures

4.1 Highest level of education in sample 334.2 Size of town/area of residence 344.3 Household living arrangements of sample 354.4 Location of business 374.5 Type of business premise 374.6 How business was acquired 394.7 Numbers of employees in business 404.8 Reported Per annum profit 1999-2000 434.9 Turnover 1999-2000 434.10 Reported sales growth 1999-2000 444.11 Percentage of reported export sales 444.12 Self reports of business status compared with

competitors 454.13 Average hours per week on domestic tasks 664.14 Average hours per week put into business 67

8

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many people have helped in this research in terms of their willingness to

attend meetings and to fill out the survey. Special thanks must go to those

busy women who gave their valuable time.

Thanks must especially be given to the members of the Steering

Committee for their encouragement, enthusiasm and practical advice:

Linette Penhall, (DSRD Ballarat), Fiona Davey (City of Ballarat), Dr Mandy

Charman, (NRE); Alice Dwelly (DSRD) and to Kathy Coultas (DSRD) for

instigating support for the project.

Neroli Sawyer undertook the survey data entry and helped greatly with

analysis. Jill Blee and Leanne Spain gave clerical support and telephoned

potential respondents. Kara Hodgson, School of Business helped with

formatting of the report and Monika Heim with management of finances.

Council staff in the ten Local Government areas were very helpful

providing maps, community and business lists and setting up meeting

venues. Other people have helped give out surveys or alerted those who

may have been interested in being part of the research include Pauline

Fort (BRACE), John Maguire and Dot Carpenter (Ballarat); Bev Blaskett,

(Gordon) Dennis Witmitz, (Executive Officer, Horsham and District

Commerce Association, Horsham), Mary Ashdown (Hepburn), Joan Bennett

(Nhill); Karen Beggs (Willaura); Liz Brooks (St Arnaud); Karen Chambers

(Ararat), Judy Dahlke (Stawell); Jenny Ellender (Daylesford); Lavergne

Evans (Nhill); Geoffrey Gray (Pyrenees); Margaret Hill (CWA Horsham);

Donna Lindner (Dimboola); Kay Macaulay (AIG); Joe McLelland (CEC

Rainbow); Michelle Morrow (Moorabool); Jen Murray (Central Highlands

Rural Counselling Service); Jo Postlethwaite (St Arnaud); Rosemary

Robertson (Bacchus Marsh Village); Jodie Ryan (Ballarat DSRD); Jenny

Stewart (Warracknabeal); and Mark Troeth (CEC Nhill).

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1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Rural Context

Australia has experienced over the last few decades significant rural

decline. The proportion of the population who lived in rural areas had

declined to about 14% in the 1970s but the 1996 census saw this drop

again. Nearly two and a half million Australians live in towns with

populations between 1000 and 19,999, but a third of these towns lost

population between 1986 and 1996. The young in particular are the ones

to leave (McKenzie, 1995; AusStat., 1999c, 1999d).

The roots of regional decline in Australia stem from a number of factors,

but significant shifts in the competitiveness of the agricultural sector and

the nature of the farm as an institution have played an important role.

Industry restructuring as well as social, economic and technological

changes are contributing causes. The turnovers for main agricultural

products such as sheep, cattle and grain have declined and the number of

agricultural operations reduced. In 1999 the ABS reported that a fifth of

farm businesses reported a turnover of less than $50,000 (AusStat.,

1999c; ABS, 1999a). The Australian Social Trends report on small towns

highlights this situation.

People in declining towns risk losing their savings, livelihood and support systems as they confront the break-up of their community, loss of jobs, deteriorating infrastructure and declining property values. (The concomitant closure of services such as hospitals, schools, shops and banks have) a direct impact on the health and well-being of remaining residents (but can also have a less direct psychological impact on the whole community) (AusStats., 1999d).

Although under stress, the family farm persists and is still the dominant

form of agricultural production in Australia. Governments are reliant on

the farm household to take up the slack when there are market variations.

The rural crisis has given women opportunities to contribute to off and on

farm income (Rickson & Daniels, 1999, pp.235-240). Participation by rural

women in the paid workforce, as a response to rural decline has been

noted increasingly over the last 20 years, but real hope for rural

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turnaround lies elsewhere, in the growth of new business ventures.

Appreciation of another economic trend, that relating to small business, is

therefore vital.

1.2 The Rise of Small Business – Choice and

Constraint

There is increasing international evidence that the growth of small

business is a key strategy in the restructuring and revitalisation of older

capitalist economies currently underway. In most advanced countries the

self-employed and small employers are increasing in number and in

economic importance. Small business through the 1980s and 1990s in

Australia appeared to be on a strong growth trajectory. In the fifteen years

to 1998-9 employment from small business had risen 59%, accounting for

3.1 million people or 47% of the private sector workforce1 (Carter, 1993,

p.148; Collins, Gibson, Alcorso, Castles & Tait, 1995, pp.15-17, pp.98-99;

Baines & Wheelock, 1998; AusStats., 8127.1 1998; AusStats., 8127.1

1999a).

There are two sides to this trend. One is the optimistic espousal of

‘enterprise culture’. This term is associated with a ‘regeneration of values

associated with the freedom to work for oneself and to emerge from

dependency on the state, from public sector industries as well as from

welfare provisions’ (Allen & Truman, 1993, pp.1-2). The growth of the

small firm that is able to be flexible, to specialize on small runs, to adapt

quickly to technological change has been seen by some to be a sign of a

new post-fordist era of work and industry.

The other side to the growth of small business may be more to do with

constraint rather than choice and this may be a sign of recession, or at

least of an employment trend leading to core and periphery sectors of the

economy (Wheelock, 1992, p.151; Deery, Plowman, Walsh & Brown, 2001;

Bradley, Erickson, Stephenson & Williams, 2000).

1 Victoria at 3.1% growth over this period was the second lowest growing State and Territory in Australia. By 1999 it was apparent that this situation had slowed with growth in the numbers of small businesses slowing to 2% after a 15 year average growth rate of 3.7%. The slow down was accounted for by businesses that did not employ anyone rather than those which had employees, as the latter still increased by 4.2% (AusStats. 8127.0, 1999a).

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Growth in home work, termed ‘outwork’ in Australia, the dependence and

subjection of small scale businesses to large scale economic organisations,

and the proliferation of outsourcing and privatisation has contributed to a

growth of small business pushed into existence rather than responding to

a drive to be entrepreneurial. These new forms of employment are often

termed the ‘peripheral economy’. Many new jobs are what can be termed

‘non-standard employment’ and much of the new self-employment is

marked by insecurity. Much of this can be termed ‘non-employment’, as

workers often provide the same service to the organisation that previously

employed them, albeit on a subcontracting basis. To term them as

‘capitalist entrepreneurs is highly misleading’ as the labour intensification

involved allows ‘few resources for productivity-enhancing investment’

(Rainbird, 1991, p.214. See also Allen & Truman, 1993, p.7; Bradley,

Erickson, Stephenson & Williams, 2000, pp.51-70; TCFU, 1995; Deery, et

al, 2001, p.73).

1.3 The Significance of Women in Growth of Small

Business.

Over the last 50 years the proportion of women in the workforce has

grown at more than twice the rate of men, so a growth in numbers

involved in small business is not unexpected. Recent decades have seen a

faster growth rate of women in business in Britain, USA and Australia than

the rates for male businesses (Moore, 1999). In Britain women now

account for 25% of all the self-employed although it must be

acknowledged that this reduces to only 16% of all full time self-employed

(Carter, 1993, p.149). In the USA growth rates have been spectacular.

Employment by women-owned companies has increased at double the

general national rate (Kuratko & Hodgetts, 1998, p.14, p.18). In Australia

while the number of business operators between 1995 and 1997 increased

overall by 4.8%, female business operators increased more dramatically

by 9%. (AusStats. 8127.1 1998).2 Over the decade 1987 to 1997 the

average annual growth rate was 3%, one and a half times the growth rate

for male businesses (ABS, 1997). The Yellow Pages Small Business Index

2 In the most recent ABS survey, for the first time the number of female operators has declined, in spite of an increase in small business operators overall (AusStats. 8127.1, 1999b). Interestingly this decline did not take place in Victoria and concerned women in business with a man, rather than sole female operators (ABS. 1999c, pp.6-7).

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(1996) found that women played a sole (6%) or leading role (7%) in only

13% of businesses but claimed they shared a leading role in another 19%.

Businesses run by women have also been reported to be more viable than

male operated businesses (Sykes, 1989). Women owned businesses thus

represent the fastest growing segments of small business.

In rural areas, too, women are increasingly the drivers of new

entrepreneurial ventures. Such ventures either enhance household income

through vertical diversification, value adding to rural commodity products,

or horizontally through the development of new ventures not related to

the agricultural supply chain (Walsh-Martin, 1998; ABC Landline, 1997,

1998, 1999; O'Brien, 1991).

At the same time that the growth in women’s business has been noted the

significance of small family business for ethnic minority groups has also

come under scrutiny. Researchers into ethnic family business have

observed the reliance on the unpaid labour of women and children; a

gendered division of labour in the business; and motivations to take up

small business arising as much from discrimination in the general labour

market, as from a desire to be an entrepreneur (Phizacklea & Ram, 1996,

p.332-337; Collins, Gibson, Alcorso, Castles & Tair, 1995). Such issues are

worth bearing in mind for understanding women in small business

generally.

1.4 Objectives

In regional and rural Australia, the situation of rural decline and the

decreased importance of ‘standard’ agricultural products, suggests the

necessity of looking at the scope for small business and small business by

women in particular, as a path towards greater viability and sustainability

of regional and rural Australia. Before such a path can be followed a

thorough understanding of the nature of women and small business must

be obtained. The objective of this research is to clarify the nature of

regional business in Victoria and thus develop and refine a model for

success for female entrepreneurs within a rural/regional context. The

above discussion locates this phenomenon within a broader western

economic framework, which reveals two dimensions to the marked growth

of small business (choice and constraint).

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2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Gender and Research

In the world of business and economics generally much research has been

uninformed by a gender perspective. It has been acknowledged for some

time that women’s participation in agriculture, in particular, has remained

under recognized (See Alston, 1991; James, 1989; McKenzie 1996).

Despite apparent equal legal status and significant labour contribution

women are often not noticed. Coming from this history where the labour of

farm women has been termed invisible, the last few decades have seen

change in that women are registering their involvement.

Recorded farm employment has changed from a ratio of 1 female to 10

males to one to three. National Forums call for women’s perspectives on

future direction and farm productivity and so on. Current research on

income diversification and pluriactivity on farms demonstrates the strong

involvement of women in these activities and augurs well for greater

visibility of gender issues for rural women on farms (Alston, 1991; James,

1989; Rickson & Daniels, 1999, p.237; Cullinen, 2001). Family farming,

although declining, is still the most predominant form of farming in

Australia (Voyce, 1993), so can be gainfully included in general

understandings of small business.

Invisibility of women in agriculture has not been an isolated instance of

gender blindness. Gender dimensions are often neglected in generic

business research as well. Serious academic research into small business

has followed its revival in the economies of the west and most of the

research until now has, in effect, concentrated on male-owned businesses.

Those studies that have concentrated on women specifically have come

up with a range of common themes. A focus on women alone in business

and a failure to cover the many women in business with their husbands

and to ask comparable family related questions of men, detracts from the

generalisability of such studies (Allen & Truman, 1993, p.1; Carter, 1993,

p.149; Baines & Wheelock, 1998, p.18).

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For instance men in Australia have been reported as leading the push for

more flexible working hours, as they want to spend more time with their

families, but this is not a question asked in business research.

Furthermore, some of the variables suggested for gender difference in

business have not been tested with men, for example the impact of life

cycle stage and the reason that credit was given or refused by banks

(Allen & Truman, 1993, pp.12-13).

A few studies now are suggesting that both sexes sometimes define and

sometimes blur boundaries between family and business and that men,

too, have non-economic goals for business (Baines & Wheelock, 1998,

pp.18-19). There has been some acceptance that, aside from motivation

and start up barriers, few significant differences exist between male and

female operated companies (Carter, 1993, p.149). For example, Johnson

and Storey (1993) compare demographic profiles and find more

similarities than differences. Kallenberg & Leicht (1991) in relation to the

'how' of entrepreneurship, in terms of their start-up and mode of operating

over time, suggest that gender does not make a difference (Stevenson &

Jarrillo, 1990). However, debate persists over this issue (Miner, 1997;

Langan, Fox & Roth, 1995).

Detailed comparative studies are beginning to test the assumption of

gender difference more rigorously, but for some features there is general

agreement that there is difference. Women’s businesses are smaller,

younger, take fewer risks and derive lower earnings (Loscocco & Leicht,

2000, pp.2-3; Soutar & Still, 2000). Empirical studies suggest that new

ventures, run by women, have very different growth, cash flow and

survival characteristics to businesses run by men (Still, 1988; Sykes,

1989).

As it stands, the following issues appear to have substantive support for

gender differences: individual characteristics such as motivation and

notions of success; institutional factors such as banking and legal practice

and social structural constraints arising out of a gender division of labour.

The following section will address these issues.

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2.2 Individual Characteristics Of Business Women

2.2.1 Motivation and Success

Attempts to isolate factors leading to success have historically been

difficult. An Australian case study looking at success factors in small to

medium enterprises involved in high technology, concluded that

strength of the partnership between two (male) founding members,

based on trust and respect was most significant (Warren & Hutchison,

2000). Such a finding may have implications for understandings of

small family business. Most studies, however, focus on individual

motivations and perceptions of success and they also problematise

both the definition of success as well as the characteristics that might

be associated with it (Marlow & Strange, 1994).

Gilligan, a feminist psychologist, says that a defining feature of

women’s business is the ‘intimate integration between the business

and the social’ (cited in Baines & Wheelock, 1998, p.18). Self-

employment is as much a life strategy as a business strategy

(Richardson & Hartshorn, 1993; Moore, 1999). It can be a household

response to the effects of economic restructuring on a peripheral

labour market’ (Wheelock, 1997, p.163). Many studies suggest that

women’s motivations are different to those of men and also that their

views of success may differ (eg. Moore, 1999; Still & Timms 2000).

Some authors have even argued that women have a fear of success

(Horner 1972). However, Marlow and Strange (1994) argue that

definitions of success traditionally used in small business research, like

profitability and turnover are inappropriate to the study of many

ventures and what should be taken into account is what the original

motivations and aims are. They argue that a major aim of many

women is to reconcile the competing demands of waged and domestic

labour and that if they manage to achieve this by undertaking

business ownership, they have been successful. This discussion has

led to debate about typology of female entrepreneurship.

Goffee and Scase’s (1985) typology of female entrepreneurs

recognises the classic entrepreneur committed to individualism and

self-reliance and others committed to traditional, often subservient,

16

gender roles. Recognition of difference within females is sound but a

finer understanding requires further qualification. Business can change

the woman as much as the woman changing the business and

superficial similarities in, for example, commitment to independence,

can mean different things at different stages in a woman’s life cycle

(Carter, 1993, pp.153-4).

An American study that measured business growth in relation to family

circumstances found that sole mothers were ‘driven’ as much as

breadwinning males by the need to provide (Loscocco & Leicht, 1993).

This finding may not transfer too well to a British or Australian context

where there is more state aid for sole parents and less expectation

that mothers should find paid work to support their children. A British

study (Baines & Wheelock, 1998) suggests that of family businesses

categorised by chief concerns and motivations, only one of four types

aimed for the business growth expected by government policy makers.

Furthermore, this ‘Achievement’ type was more likely than other types

to use human resources beyond the family.

Various scholars have attempted ideal types or continuums to

categorise motivation to engage in small business. ‘Men have been

found to put more emphasis on economic goals than women;

alternatively women have been found to sacrifice some economic

performance in favour of social goals such as increased customer

satisfaction and work/family balance’ (Souter & Still, 2000, pp.9-10).

New research notes the significance of push factors or constraints

‘forcing’ women to take up the small business option (Still & Timms,

2000). The cruder dichotomies of male entrepreneur money-makers

versus female social lifestyle workers have been superceded by

models which recognise heterogeneity within the sexes. Goffee and

Scase (1985) constructed a 4 way typology on the basis of the

different combinations of two variables: commitment to traditional

gender roles and commitment to entrepreneurial values. There is also

a two way model which differentiates between the ‘opportunist’ and

the ‘craftsperson’, or Gray’s three way model differentiating between

concerns with money, lifestyle or safety. Baines & Wheelock (1998)

built on this latter model recognising four sets of concerns and

17

priorities in their data on male, female and mixed operated micro

businesses from the south-east and north east of England.

The four motivations and concerns are: survival and security; business

intrinsic; creative; and achievement. The ‘survival/security group

characteristically struggle to achieve livelihood in the face of very

limited choices and may suffer from the dependency on larger more

powerful organisations. Those concerned primarily with survival

worked long and often inconvenient hours. Relying on one’s own

labour was a stress rather than a freedom and the financial rewards

were precarious (Baines & Wheelock, 1998, pp.25-6).

The second category entitled ‘business intrinsic’ embraced most of the

British sample. These were the people who gained satisfaction from

being their own boss and from having some choice over whom to work

for and when. There was an overwhelming desire for independence

and reluctance to seek help from outside agencies.

The new category proposed by Baines and Wheelock (1998) was

termed ‘Creative’: these businesses evinced the desire to be

recognised by peers for the quality of their work. This group were

more positive about involving their spouses in the business, but had

difficulty employing others. They were more likely to be located in the

arts and media.

Those driven by ‘Achievement’ wanted wealth, recognition and the

opportunity to have influence. They were the only group whose values

approximated the enterprise criteria set by the British small business

policy makers. This group fitted ‘classic’ entrepreneur personality

types and tended to have conflict and tension with spouses as well as

employees. They were less likely to embed their ‘economic behaviour

in social relations with their immediate family’ but more likely to be

‘energetic users of non family networks’ (Baines & Wheelock, 1998,

p.30).

Models of success and motivation have moved from simple gendered

dichotomies to more complex understandings, across and within the

sexes. A range of priorities, from household survival to classic

18

entrepreneurial drive, operates among small, family and micro

businesses but it seems likely that women may be associated with

more of those motivations not representing the ‘classical

entrepreneur’ .

2.2.2 Training and Experience

It is often argued (Baines & Wheelock, 1998, p.31; Carter, 1993, p.152;

Loscocco & Leicht, 1993, p.7; Boden & Nucci, 1997) that women in

small business lack the knowledge, experience and training of men. In

Britain and the US, men have been more likely to have work

experience and/or education related to their present venture. In

husband and wife businesses, women sometimes struggle to perform

tasks for which they are not trained.

Such shortcomings in training and experience could be related to the

‘lack of confidence’, ‘lack of credibility’ and ‘failure to be treated

seriously’ found among women in Canadian and British studies cited

by Carter (1993, p.151). There are suggestions that, given the time

constraints and domestic commitments of women, they should have

training courses well away from these responsibilities ‘to allow the

time and space for women to re-assess realistically their existing

obligations and the taking on of new ones’ (Allen & Truman, 1993,

p.10). Given that spouse support is vital for survival in many family

businesses, Baines and Wheelock (1998, p.31) suggest that there

could be benefits in offering joint training to husbands and wives.

While women partner their husbands in business they are probably

more likely to be working away from their gendered experience and

therefore, unless they are able to access relevant training, more likely

to be restricted in role and authority to make decisions as a

consequence. Gaining skills and knowledge depends to a large extent

on access to formal and informal business networks.

2.2.3 Networking

Kaur and Hayden find that a crucial factor in the difficult process of

starting a new enterprise is ‘an ongoing support network . . . that

provides professional help and advice staffed by those with the

19

knowledge and skills relevant in the industry, from sources of raw

materials through to its markets’ (cited in Allen & Truman, 1993, p.11).

Baines and Wheelock (1998) in their British study attempted to

measure the significance of networks and associations beyond the

family and found that while nominal membership of organisations such

as Chambers of Commerce was high (nearly 40%), there was a lack of

enthusiasm for such bodies compared with the high value placed on

‘loosely linked groups, often composed of other owners and small

businesses and of colleagues known through former employment’.

They were valued for practical advice and moral support. As stated,

the practice of calling upon people outside the business and family

was associated with a positive attitude to business growth (1998,

p.22).

Networking has been recognized as something women do strongly on

the social, relationship plane (Moore, 1999), but deficiencies on the

business and professional level have been noted. Some have been

addressed with the establishment of government-aided networks (Still

& Timms, 2000, p.4) including the Rural Women’s Network and

Professional and Business Women’s Network. These go some way to

compensate for women’s lack of links with male-dominated

professional organisations and community bodies like Rotary and

Chambers of Commerce, but younger professional women at least are

now ‘aggressively networking in the male domain’ (Still, 1993, p.174).

A recent comparative study of 1000 businesses in Western Australia

found that women sought more information sources at start up than

men and while accountants were the most important source for both,

women relied more on immediate family and friends and colleagues

than did men (Soutar & Still, 2000). The significance of kinship,

household and friendship ties was also apparent in Baines and

Wheelock’s major British study (1998, p.17). Family members give

substantial practical and moral help and a family tradition of business

ownership can also be significant (Baines & Wheelock, 1998, p.17,

p.21; Allen & Truman, 1993, p.9).

20

While networking socially is recognized as being quite strong among

women, it is the style and content of the network that may

differentiate women from men. If the focus of business women is on

family, friends and colleagues, it is possible that they will not obtain

the professional and relevant help that has been associated with

growth and objective success. While networking has been presented

as an individual characteristic, it involves links with institutions.

Another theme in general studies on women in small business

concerns institutional discrimination.

2.3 Institutional Discrimination

Institutional discrimination can be seen as a result of a culture of prejudice

or a result of policies and procedures within the institution.

2.3.1 Banks and Finance

Many of the gendered barriers associated with start up are put down to

problems receiving finance. Previous studies have found difficulties in

accessing capital and credit. Lack of capital forces the women to rely more

on their own labour and efficiency and is cited as one of the reasons the

businesses of women start and remain small (Allen & Truman, 1993, p.8;

Sykes, 1989).

Agencies like banks are generally geared to the perceived needs of men.

The procedural criteria they apply make it more difficult for women to set

up a business (Sykes, 1989; Koper, 1993). Australian small

businesswomen have knowledge of prejudice and discrimination, but in a

recent major study (Yellow Pages, 1996) they did not link this to their own

circumstances. Although there was recognition of prejudice against

women in small business operations and a lack of sympathy from banks,

the women rarely acknowledged being personally affected by this (1996,

p.1). It could be surmised that mainly sole operator females would be

affected by such prejudice, whether it be personal or structural. A

resistance to making personal complaints may be associated with a

reaction to what some women see as a ‘welfare’ approach to woman as

‘victim’ (Still & Timms, 2000, p.4). For those with a focus on achievement

goals it seems likely that a strong ideology of individualism and

commitment to the idea that the self has considerable scope for action,

21

would also act against recognition of institutional discrimination and

structural constraints.

2.3.2 The Law

The most noted form of legal institutional discrimination relates to family

farm businesses. Patterns of inheritance and the modification of the

Family Law Act (to avoid dissolution of property after divorce), operate to

continue a patriarchal structure. Women in such small businesses may be

born into a business and lack knowledge on whether they are to have a

future role in it (Bowen, 1995), or may marry into a situation where they

are regarded as a conduit to the next generation and transfer of the farm

may be delayed decades until a daughter-in-law ‘settles in’ (Voyce, 1993).

Such women lack a resource and power base from which to conduct the

business in the equal manner to which many aspire.

2.4 The Gender Division of Labour: The Nexus

Between Domestic and Other Work

At the wider social level there are economic structures and patterned

arrangements relating to the gender division of labour, that have endured

for decades and some even for centuries. Despite the fact that women are

entering the paid workforce in greater numbers, with women in Australia

now making up 43% of the paid workforce (ABS, 1999d), it has been

reported that women continue to take a larger share of domestic

responsibilities (eg. Burton, 1991; Davidson & Cooper, 1992; Parker &

Fagenson, 1994; Pringle & Tudhope, 1996; Still & Timms, 2000, p.7).

An understanding of domestic household labour both prefigures and

follows an understanding of the division of labour in industry sectors and

in business enterprises (Marlow & Strange, 1994, p.181). The lower

financial reward associated with work seen as feminine, domestic or linked

to the nature of women, factors back into the continuation of a system in

which women remain primarily responsible for domestic work. If they earn

less in a female type job or business employment in the paid economy, it

becomes more likely that it is in a household’s interest to prioritise the

(male) work that can bring a bigger income and leave household

responsibilities to the woman. If they earn less in wage labour they are

22

more financially constrained with the scale of their new business initiatives

(Boden & Nucci, 1997, p.1). In the following discussion the division of

labour across industry sectors; the division of labour within small business;

and the division of labour within the household are discussed, in relation

to the need to recognise the specific needs of women in small business.

2.4.1 Industry

Western labour markets are defined by horizontal segregation in that

women predominate in a few sectors. These sectors are often outgrowths

of the support and service work that may go on in a household. The types

of business which women are in reflect the traditional female labour

market segregation and location. Throughout the world women are more

likely to be found in food production, nutrition, health and child care.

Women predominate in non-standard employment sectors. Some scholars

believe that most income differences for women in small business can be

attributed to organisational, occupational and industrial segregation

(Loscocco & Leicht, 1993, p.2, p.19; Carter, 1993, p.150; Allen & Truman,

1993, p.9; Deery et al., 2001).

The industries in which there are high proportions of women relative to

men in Australia are Education (61%); Health and Community Services

(55%); Personal and Other Services (52%); Accommodation, Cafes and

Restaurants (48%); and Cultural and Recreational Services (43%). The

industries most women work in with their own business are the retail trade

and property and business services (ABS 1301.0, 1997b).

2.4.2 Business

Within shared businesses a gendered division of labour persists. Past

studies of the division of labour in farm businesses see women as

undertaking book-keeping and accounting roles whilst males are dominant

in labour management and capital issues (Craig, c1990; Rickson & Daniels,

1999).

Unpaid support in small business where the wife may or may not be a

partner, can also follow such gender lines, women typically working in a

clerical, service or support capacity. ‘Symmetrical partnerships were rare’

(Baines & Wheelock, 1998, pp.21-24).

23

Talk of equality in business operations is not always matched by

empirically proven equality in decision making over serious issues. For

example, Queensland farm women had more say on ‘inside’ issues than

broader general issues concerning farming and the environment,

according to Rickson and Daniels, 1999, p.244.

2.4.3 Household

Studies of rural women testify to the resilience of gendered responsibilities

for household tasks (Dempsy, 1992). Shelton and Firestone in 1989

estimated that 8% of the gender gap in general US earnings was a direct

result of women’s greater domestic burden. They spend more time per

week on domestic work and take the main responsibility for care giving to

dependent children (Loscocco & Leicht, 1993; Allen & Truman, 1993, p.9).

Carter (1993, p.151) claims that many women feel guilt and role conflict

due to difficulties meeting business and family obligations. Involvement of

women in small business is often underwritten by the need to reconcile the

competing demands of waged and domestic labour (Marlow & Strange,

1992, p.182). Domestic responsibilities restrict time and mobility but we

cannot assume that business is always subordinate to family (Allen &

Truman, 1993, p.9).

While industry sector may structurally disadvantage a sole female

operator, the division of labour within family farms and other ‘husband

and wife’ operated businesses may detract from true equal understanding

and ability to make strategic decisions. The division of labour in the

household is possibly the most important structural disadvantage for all

women involved with business.

2.5 Summary

Female invisibility and gender blindness have marked earlier studies of

women in farming and other small businesses. Current debate about the

level of difference and similarity between men and women in business is

hampered by a lack of truly comparative data linking business with family

and social aspects. Women’s businesses though are smaller, younger and

take lower earnings. While women in these businesses appear to vary

from men’s businesses in motivations and notions of success, they can

24

also be differentiated by motivational categories such as ‘survival and

security’ and ‘achievement’, that cross male and female businesses.

Women in business lack training, relevant experience and involvement in

business and professional networks. Institutional discrimination appears to

persist in terms of divorce and inheritance factors for agricultural

businesses and access to finance through banks for business generally. A

gendered division of labour in which women remain primarily responsible

for domestic tasks and in which they are still associated with ‘feminine’

work in the general labour market, underpins an involvement in business

that reflects this ‘horizontal segregation’ and sees the persistence of a

separation of tasks within businesses. Such separation may provide a

basis for a lack of true equality in strategic decision-making in shared

partnerships.

Regional and rural contexts for current developments for women in small

business should take into account the issues discussed above. In

ascertaining the nature of small business in the Western Region notions of

choice and constraint and a critical appreciation of ideas and measures of

success are central. In the following section the Methodology sets out the

rationale for the current research and clarifies the methods used to

address the above issues.

25

3 METHODS OF RESEARCH

Multiple research techniques were used to gain an understanding of the

situation that could furnish both objective descriptive statistics of the

current situation, enabling the charting of simple correlations, as well as

providing more qualitative insight into the passions and concerns of the

women involved in enterprise throughout the region. Multiple research

methods, also referred to as triangulation (Reinharz, 1992, p.197) allow for

creative research designs and increase the richness of the findings because

the subject is investigated from a number of different approaches (Reinharz,

1992). Through the use of such methods, understanding of the respondents’

perception of reality is likely to be increased, thus the validity of the findings

is increased.

Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in this project. This

approach is supported by Toby Jayaratne (1983, p.140) who, though aware

of the restrictions of positivistic methods, also advocates the use of both

qualitative and quantitative research methods, believing that such an

approach is more effective in developing and explicating theory. While

quantitative methods can provide a wealth of facts about a phenomena, the

additional qualitative methods allow exploration of reasons for, and feelings

that led to, a phenomena, as well as feelings about a phenomena (Jayaratne,

1983:140). The qualitative approach focuses on meaning, rather than

measurement, of social phenomena (Hussey & Hussey, 1997:53). Qualitative

research embraces:

the importance of establishing rapport between the researcher and the

subject;

the need for the researcher to value and respect the subject’s view of

their own reality; and

for the subject’s own words to be used in the subsequent written report.

(Hussey & Hussey, 1997, p.53).

This research was conducted using a combination of questionnaires and

interviews. The central research tool for the former was an extensive

questionnaire and for the latter eleven meetings were held throughout the

region and note was taken of telephone conversations with potential

survey respondents throughout the period of data gathering.

26

The focus group interviews had a dual purpose. The first group in Ballarat

enabled the piloting of the questionnaire and some minor improvements

to be made. For the other ten group interviews, personal contact with

regional centres and women’s groups in the context of holding group

discussions promoted a more thorough distribution of questionnaires,

more thoughtful and considered responses, as well as more reliable

returns. The data from the focus group interview/discussions add a deeper

dimension, another layer of information which can ‘validate and refine’

questionnaire responses (Reinharz 1992, 201).

Ethics approval for the research was granted through the Human Research

Ethics Committee of University of Ballarat on June 7, 2001.

3.1 The Survey

The survey (See Appendix A) was designed by the researchers between

March and April, modified after a steering committee meeting in May 11,

and piloted by two women from Southwestern and Northwestern Victoria

who responded to a media release. In order to have a more thorough

critique, it was piloted again by women at the first focus group in Ballarat

June 15.

The population of participants for the survey consisted of all adult, female

small businesses (employing less than 20 effective full time workers),

which were either sole operated or consisting of partnerships with men or

women, in the Western Region. The Western Region consists of 10 Local

Government areas: Rural City of Ararat, City of Ballarat, Hepburn Shire

Council, Hindmarsh Shire Council, Horsham Rural City Council, Moorabool

Shire Council, Northern Grampians Shire Council, Pyrenees Shire Council,

West Wimmera Shire Council, and Yarriambiack Shire Council.

The sample of 359 was drawn through two major means: a general

snowballing database for a mail out following an introductory phone call,

and a series of advertised meetings in Ballarat, Beaufort, Ararat, Stawell,

Horsham, Dimboola, Warracknabeal, Nhill, Edenhope, Willaura and

Daylesford. The limited time available to women for meetings and the

small number at the meetings meant that greater effort had to be applied

to direct phone calling of lists, ‘subcontracting’ lots of surveys to helpful

27

community members and finally, to creating targeted lists through the

Yellow Pages Directory.

Local Government areas were contacted to provide maps of the

boundaries for the regions and lists of social groups. Some initial contacts

were made through the CWA but were found to be of limited use because

of the lack of women involved in business in the groups. Advertisements

were also placed in the Rural Women’s Network magazine however, and

unexpectedly, there was minimal response.

The Western Region’s DSRD Women in Business list was used as a starting

point to invite women to attend the first focus group and pilot of the

survey, then was further used as a data base to telephone to ask

permission to send surveys. The Rural Women’s Network and Australian

Industries Group provided useful short lists of contacts. Other council

areas were able to provide lists of all businesses in the area though some

were considerably out of date. Some councils were able to direct the

researchers to key women in the community with local knowledge of

businesses. The sample was thus recruited through contact with Council,

Social & Economic Development officers, women's groups, traders'

associations, State and Regional Development, Western Region, and

advertisements in the Rural Women's Network, a CWA conference, a

Quilters website and the Australian Federation of Business and

Professional Women’s Network.

Every effort was made to reach as many women in business as possible.

For example a worker at the National Enterprise Incentive Scheme posted

45 surveys to those who had completed NEIS business courses at Ballarat.

A contact in Horsham distributed two questionnaires to 50 businesses,

(100 in total) hoping each one would pass the second questionnaire on to

an appropriate person. A contact in Edenhope National Resources and

Environment agreed to take 10 surveys to send out, three contacts took

bulk surveys to distribute in Edenhope (10), Nhill (50) and Rainbow (15).

The Council worker in Ballan arranged for 100 surveys to be given out at

meetings in Ballan and Bacchus Marsh. Contacts in Ballarat distributed by

hand to Gordon businesses (Moorabool), and to Zonta (15) and

Soroptomist (10) meetings in Ballarat.

28

To further enhance the number of respondents, hand deliveries and pick

ups were made to businesses in Sturt St Ballarat, East Ballarat,

Sebastopol, Buninyong, Mt. Pleasant and Daylesford during the weeks

September 17-28th

In September and October, two research assistants were hired to do

intensive phone calling in the Hepburn, Northern Grampians, Ballarat and

Moorabool local government areas once again for the purpose of

increasing the number of survey participants. In October 19 and 20 th

advertisements were run in the Wimmera Mail Times and Ballarat Courier

respectively but both newspapers failed to make use of editorial copy

provided. The Daylesford Advocate and The Glenlyon ran both

advertisements and editorials.

In terms of population of the Western Region, the Local Government areas

varied immensely in size. Where possible some effort was made to

replicate in locations of businesses in the sample, the population

proportions of the differing Local Government Areas. The following table

sets out this comparison.

Table 3.1 Local Government Area Proportional Population of Sample and Region

Local Government Area Sample proportion of Business locations (%)

(n358)

Population proportion

(%)Ararat 6.7 6.2Ballarat 32.5 43Hepburn 11.5 7.6Hindmarsh 5.5 3.7Horsham 8.4 9.6Moorabool 6 12.5Northern Grampians 12.4 6.9Pyrenees 3.3 3.8West Wimmera 5.7 2.8Yarriambiack 6 4.4

NB 2.1% of sample businesses locations were outside of the region. This occurred particularly when a business was in multiple locations.

There was more success in meeting targets in the less populated, areas as

well as the Stawell (Northern Grampians) and Daylesford (Hepburn) areas,

as a result of access to extensive listings. Poorer returns for Horsham and

Moorabool can be linked to an over-reliance on intermediaries and bulk

deliveries rather than intensive phone calling. A return rate of 34% was

achieved overall for usable surveys (1 failed to meet the criteria and

29

another 9 were received too late for data entry.) The data were entered

and analysed using SSPS software, the social science package for

statistical analysis.

3.2 Group and Individual Discussions

The Ballarat Focus Group Meeting was held on June 15 in the Board Room

of the Victorian Business Centre Ballarat, and small meetings were held in

Council rooms at Beaufort, Ararat, Stawell, Horsham, Warracknabeal, Nhill

and Edenhope. Other meetings were held in the Dimboola Footwear

premises and the Willaura Hotel between July 9 and 13. A final group

meeting was held at in the Hepburn Council Chambers at Daylesford on

September 17. A total of 49 women were involved in these meetings.

Additionally some informal conversations were held while delivering

surveys in the main streets of towns such as Warracknabeal, Stawell,

Willaura, Daylesford and Ballarat.

Individual discussions were held by telephone, face to face and email

throughout the period of the research and some effort has been made to

include these understandings in our analysis.

30

4 RESULTS

4.1 Introduction

The results section of the report is divided into three main parts: a

description of the sample, basic data on the businesses and business

themes and issues. Qualitative data is integrated with the quantitative

data and comparisons made with regional demographic data from the

appropriate Statistical Subdivisions from the 1996 Census (ABS) and the

1999 ABS study Characteristics of Small Business where appropriate. In

the final section on themes and issues, the elements of business

experience and practice are cross-tabulated with the structure of the

business ownership and with measures of business success.

In this report the categories have been collapsed into two. The first

category combines women as sole operators and women in partnership

with a woman. The second category combines women in partnerships with

men irregardless of whether they take a leading role or are in a shared

leading role. The majority of women in partnerships with men claimed to

have a shared leading role with their male partners. Women took a leading

role in only 6.7% of businesses. It is important then to recognise a

potential influence by male partners in the women’s attitudes and

experiences. Because of this potential the experiences of women in

business on their own and the experiences of women in partnership with

men are discussed separately in this report where it is deemed important

for this distinction to be made.

4.2 Sample Description

In this section the age, ethnicity, education, residence and household

structure of the sample population are described and compared with

regional and/or Victorian characteristics.

4.2.1 Age

The sample held a large proportion of older women, seventy percent being

over 40 years old. Similarities to the Victorian demographics in the 1999

ABS survey on Small Business (ABS 8127.0, 1999) are apparent.

31

Table 4.1 Age Structure of Sample and Victorian Women’s

Small Business

Age range Sample % ABS % 1999Under 30 6.7 7.5 Between 30 and 50 63.8 66.2 Over 50 29.5 26.4

4.2.2 Ethnicity

The sample were almost all Australian born (90.5%) of whom 0.6%

were Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander. Of the 9.5% born overseas,

none used a language other than English in their business dealings.

One hundred percent of the sample therefore used English as their

language for business. In the Western Region as a whole in 1996

97.1% used English at home (ABS, 1996.)

Table 4.2 Place Of Birth And Ethnicity Of Sample And Region.

Sample % Western Region %Overseas born 9.5 7.6Aboriginal/Torres Strait Islanders 0.6 0.7NB. Statistics derived from 1996 Census, ABS 2901.0 Statistical Subdivisions of North and South Wimmera, Ballarat City, Western and Eastern Central Highlands. ABS 2000.

Although typical of the region itself this aspect is less reflective of the

Victorian small business population as a whole that had in 1999, 28%

overseas born female owners (ABS 8127.0, 1999, p28). This study

should not therefore be generalised to the wider Victorian situation in

relation to issues affecting non-English speaking background.

4.2.3 Education

Over half the sample had gone no further than high school, a situation

certainly affected by the age of the sample. The following pie chart

demonstrates the proportions of the variously qualified women.

32

Figure 4.1 Highest Level Of Education In Sample

5.6%

7.5%

20.9%

8.1%

22.8%

35.1%

currently studying

post graduate

degree or diploma

vocational

high school

high incomplete

This study sample was less well-educated than Victorian business

women as a whole but there are more women with degrees and post

graduate qualifications than women in the region generally. These

were more likely to be held by sole operators or women in partnership

with other women. Table 4.3 sets out this comparison.

Table 4.3 Education Level of Sample By Region and Victorian Business Women (Per cent).*

Sample

Total

Sole & female

partner.

With male

partner.

Western Region

Vic. Small Business Women

Did not finish High School

35 27 39 45 -

Completed High School

23 24 23 30 46

Basic or Skilled Vocational

8 8 8 8 16

Degree or Diploma

21 22 20 10 34

Post Graduate 8 11 5 2 -Currently studying

6 8 5 5 -

* Data on Western Region is adapted from Statistical Subdivision East and West Central Highlands, North and South Wimmera and Ballarat data (ABS 2901.0, 2000). B12 categories 16 years and under for ‘Age left School’ are taken as ‘Did Not Complete High School’, 17-18 are taken as Completed High School’, and Still at School for ‘studying’. For B17 data on qualifications, higher degree and post graduate diploma are merged for ‘Completed Post graduate’, Bachelor Degree and Undergraduate Diploma are merged for ‘Completed Degree or Diploma’ and Associate Diploma, Skilled Vocational and Basic Vocational are merged for Completed basic or Skilled training’. Victorian small business data from ABS 1999b.

33

4.2.4 Residence

The pie chart Figure 4.2 Sets out the size of the towns in which survey

respondents resided. The biggest proportions are living in Ballarat (the

only town greater than 20,000) or in small towns between 1000-9999,

but a sizable proportion of 18.2% lived in rural towns or areas with

fewer than 500 people.

Figure 4.2 Size Of Town/Area Of Residence of Sample

1.9%

1.7%

26.5%

9.7%

32.0%

10.3%

17.8%

Missing entries

bi-local

over 20000

10000-19999

1000-9999

500-999

less than 500

Two of the towns in the Western Region have been identified as

experiencing a population decline of over 10% between 1986 and

1996 (Ararat 14% and Beaufort 13.3%), so the reality for some of our

sample is a declining local market (AusStat, 1999d). About a third of

Australia’s small towns have been experiencing a decline, mostly in

inland areas. Such people ‘risk losing their savings, livelihood and

support systems as they confront the break up of their community,

loss of jobs, deteriorating infrastructure and declining property values’

(ABS Australian Social Trends 1998, pp.1-7).

Of the 48.8% of the Australian population who live in towns of less

than 500,000 population (ABS Social Trends 1998) 31.9% live in towns

of under 20,000 (cf sample 71.3%) and 10.9% in towns/areas of less

than 1000 (sample 28.7%). So the sample may be seen as

representing a more rural and small town demographic profile than

general ‘non-city’ Australia.

34

4.2.5 Household Unit

The household unit structures represented by Figure 4.3 reveal that

85.8% of the sample lived with a partner or with partner and

dependents. This contrasts with the proportions of family/household

types in the region in that there are fewer living alone and fewer living

without partners. The age and life cycle of the women in the sample

goes some way to explaining this, but it may also be an indication of a

feature of business women and families.

Figure 4.3 Household Living Arrangements of Sample

2.5%

4.2%

42.3%43.5%

7.5%

other

no partner & deps

partner and depspartner

alone

Victoria has a slower expected population growth than Australia as a

whole. However one household type, female lone person, is projected

to increase by between 51% and 86% between 1996 and 2021 (ABS

Demography 3311.2, 1999). Not all of this anticipated growth is due

to the ageing population and differing mortality rates between men

and women. Greater numbers of women will never marry or have

children (Australian Women’s Year Book, 4124.0, 1997). The fertility

rate of the region is 1.9 (Central Highlands) and 2 (Wimmera)

compared to the Victorian average of 1.7 (ABS 3311.2, 1999) which

may also have a bearing on future household types and regional

differences in family size.

35

Table 4.4 Proportions of Sample Household Type Compared to

Western Region (Percent)

Family Household Type Sample Western Region

Living Alone 7.5 13.3Living With Partner 43.5 19.4Living with partner &

Dependents 42.3 54.2Living without partner,

with Dependents 4.2 5.7Other 2.5 7.3

Source: ABS 2000, 2901.0

4.2.6 Summary Of Basic Demographic Data

Descriptive frequencies on the characteristics of the survey sample

reveal that a typical respondent was an Australian-born woman, over

40 years old, living with her partner, with or without dependents. She

had a high school education and was likely to live in Ballarat or in a

town of 1000-9999 people. In relation to age the sample reflects small

business women generally but in ethnicity it reflects the Western

region rather than Victorian small business in general. In education the

sample differed from Victorian data, with lower qualifications but were

still higher qualifications overall than for the rest of the population in

the region. The sample lives in smaller and more rural areas than non -

city Australia as a whole and two of the major towns have experienced

significant population decline. In addition, the present sample is more

likely to live with a partner and no dependents, than others in the

region.

4.3 Business Basic Data

4.3.1 Premise Location And Industry Sector

Figures 4.4 and 4.5 indicate the type of business premise and where this

premise was located. Most business premises were shops/galleries but

there were also a significant percentage with a home office or a town

office or factory. A music teacher had an academy and a horse-riding

business made use of a bush shed. Most businesses were in towns smaller

than 10,000, in the town over 20,000 (Ballarat), or at home.

Figure 4.4 Location of Business

36

otherfarm

20,000 +

between 11-20,000

town less 10,000

home residence

Pe

rce

nt

40

30

20

10

0

The following Table shows the proportional representation of the different

industry sectors in the sample compared with the proportions of female

employees in those same industries in the western region.

Figure 4.5 Type of Business Premises

academy

bush shed

motel b&b

farmtown office/factory

home shed/studio

shop or gallery

home office

desk at home

Pe

rce

nt

50

40

30

20

10

0

The following table compared the sample representation with the industry

sector employment of Western Region females.

37

Table 4.5 Sample Representation Compared to Western Region Female Employment in Industry Sector

Industry Sector Sample Female Business % (n 359)

Western Region Female Employment % (n 28,377)*

Mining 0 0.2Manufacturing 12.5 8.6Construction 2.2 1.5Wholesale 1.7 2.7Retail 34.3 18.2Accommodation 16.4 6.5Transport 1.1 1.5Communications 2.5 1.3Finance/Insurance 0.3 3.5Property Services 5.3 6.1Education 0.6 12.3Health and Community Services 4.7 22.9Cultural and Recreational 3.1 2.1Personal & other 8.1 4.1Agriculture 7.2 8.3

*Statistics derived from 1996 Census, ABS 2901.0 Statistical Subdivisions of North and South Wimmera, Ballarat City, Western and Eastern Central Highlands. ABS 2000. Electricity, Gas merged with Business and Property Services.

All industry sectors except mining were therefore covered.

Understandably employment in Health and Community Services and in

Education, embracing as they do government employed teachers and

nurses, are less represented by women in small business, while retail,

accommodation/cafes and personal services are more significant.

Appendix A lists all occupations alphabetically and reveals the

continuing significance of a gender structured labour force. Whether

the business was sole/female or partnered with a male also made a

difference. For example those in partnership with males dominated in

Construction (100%), Transport and Storage (100%), Farming and

Agriculture (85%), Accommodation and Cafes (83%) and

Manufacturing (76%). Sole women or women in business with another

woman were more significant in Personal and Other Services (73%),

Cultural and Recreational Services (73%), Health and Community

Services (59%) and Property and Business Services (53%).

4.3.2 Age Of Business And How Started

38

Table 4.6 Age of Business

Years business owned

%

Up to 5 years 44

6-10 years 24

11-20 years 20

21 years or more 12

A little less than half the businesses (44%) were less than five years

old, a finding parallel with that for Victoria in the ABS study of Small

Business (8127.0, 2000 p.39). Mean years held was 12 years.

Figure 4.6 demonstrates that most women (55%) either started the

business themselves or purchased it as a going concern (38.5%).

Figure 4.6 How Business was Acquired

1.7%

1.1%

.8%

37.9%

.3%

4.2%

54.0%

Missing entries

takeover partnership

obtain a franchise

buy going concern

began direct selling

inherit

start business

4.3.3 Personal/Household Income

Three quarters of the sample (75.2%) claimed that the business was

the principal source of their personal income and a little less than two

thirds (63.6%) stated that it was also the main source of their

household income. The businesses surveyed were therefore generally

perceived as much more important than ‘pin money’.

39

There was a significant difference noted between the respondents who

answered the above question affirmatively, and their profile (2 39.70,

df = 1, p = <.001). Seventy six per cent (n = 167) of respondents (n

= 221) who said that the business was the main source of household

income were partnered with men, compared with 24% (n = 54) of

sole/female operators. Understandably, there is a significant

relationship between whether business is the main source of family

income, and whether the respondent is partnered with a male or is a

sole operator/female partnership.

4.3.4 Employees

The mean number of people employed by the small businesses,

including the owner/s was 5, though the standard deviation at 7

showed considerable range. The effective full time employees, also

including the owners was 3.13 with a smaller standard deviation of

3.65. The 359 businesses surveyed were providing employment then

for almost 1800 people in the region. 3

Figure 4.7 Numbers of Employees in Businesses

3 As the survey was designed to include up to 20 full time employees it differed from the 1999 ABS research which in the absence of effective full time statistics, based its calculations on total employees. employment

40

Table 4.7 Numbers Employed in Businesses

Numbers employed %

1-4 69

5-9 19

10-19 8.4

20+ 3.6

4.3.5 Marketing, Raw Materials

The major means of acquiring raw materials were through local

distributors (58.6%) and deliveries from Melbourne (56.7%), though

interstate deliveries and self-drive from Melbourne were also used by

around a third of the respondents. The supply of services was more

localised with almost two thirds acquiring them through local

distributors. Self drive and deliveries from Melbourne were also

important. The following table outlines the various sources of raw

materials and services.

Table 4.8 Source of Raw Materials and Services

Source Raw Materials %

Services%

Local Distributor 59 64Delivered from Melbourne 57 34Interstate 34 17Self-drive Melbourne 29 24Carrier to nearest town 23 15Mail Order 19 15Overseas 8 4Intermediaries 7 9Major regional centre 2 2

Marketing and advertising by word of mouth (80%) was the most

commonly reported method used but newspapers (50%), fliers (41%),

shop fronts (42%) and existing personal relationships (40%) all

featured prominently. Internet (17%) and television (12%) were used

by a smaller minority.

Marketing strategies also included more innovative methods such as

combining farm stay with craft workshops. One respondent

commented “Some of the customers came on the farm stay for ‘teddy

41

weekends’ . These visitors tried to complete their craft project during

their weekend stay, so they had on hand advice.”

A woman who dealt in produce and saddlery talked about the

customers’ positive response to the smell of leather, hay and feed in

the store. Other women noted the potential for aroma to attract

custom, as in the well-known baker of north-eastern Victoria who piped

the smell of baking bread to the front of the shop.

A manufacturing firm that sells nationally rather than locally wanted to

move into international markets but did not fit the criteria for export

help, (understood to include $500,000 turnover and 3 years of export

experience). Furthermore they found it difficult to get a secure patent

for their product and already someone had copied and was selling.

“We now travel around at field days and take orders.”

4.3.6 Profit

More than a fifth of the respondents failed to complete questions on

profit and turnover but, of those who did, the category ‘did not make a

profit’ was the largest. The low response on this question could

indicate a resistance to revealing information they regarded as

personal and confidential.

Table 4.9 Per Annum Profit 1999-2000 Financial Year

Frequency Valid PercentN = 280

Valid no profit 49 17.5 Less than $1,000 18 6.4 $1,000-$4,999 28 10.0 $5,000-$9,999 26 9.3 $10,000-19,999 46 16.4 $20,000-29,999 33 11.8 $30,000-49,999 31 11.1 $50,000-74,999 26 9.3 $75,000-99,999 10 3.6 $100,000+ 13 4.6 Total 280 100.0 Missing System 79 Total 359

Figure 4.8 reveals that 39% claimed a profit of between $10,000 and

$50,000, 43% claiming less than $10,000 profit.

42

Figure 4.8 Reported Per Annum Profit 1999-2000

22.0%

3.6%

2.8%

7.2%

8.6%

9.2%

12.8%

7.2%

7.8%

5.0%

13.6%Missing entries

$100,000+

$75,000-99,999

$50,000-74,999

$30,000-49,999

$20,000-29,999

$10,000-19,999

$5,000-$9,999

$1,000-$4,999

less than $1,000

no profit

Figure 4.9 indicates that the most commonly reported response was a

turnover of $100,000-300,000.

Figure 4.9 Turnover 1999-2000

1,000,000+

500,000-$999,999

300,000-$499,999

$100,000-$299,999

$50,000-$99,999

$20,000-$49,999

$10,000-$19,999

$0-$9,999

Pe

rce

nt

40

30

20

10

0

Figures 4.10 And 4.11 indicate reported sales growth and percentage

of export sales. Almost a half reported that their growth was

moderately strong or rapid and, given that 164 did not reply to the

question on export sales and 87% of those who did reply, had ‘none’, it

can be argued that this aspect was not important to most businesses.

43

Figure 4.10 Reported Sales Growth 1999-2000

18.1%

7.2%

36.5%

26.2%

12.0%Missing entries

rapid (25%+)

mod strong (10-24%)

low (< 10%)

nil or declining

Figure 4.11 sets out the reported export sales of the sample.

Figure 4.11 Percentage of Reported Export Sales

45.7%

2.2%

.8%

1.1%

3.1%

47.1%

Missing entries

40%+

20-39%

10-19%

1-9%

0%

The following Pie chart reveals that a large majority of respondents

report themselves as keeping up or performing well in comparison to

their competitors.

44

Figure 4.12 Self Reports of Business Status Compared to

Competitors

2.8%

3.6%

1.1%

8.1%

34.8%

49.6%

Missing

not applicable

surviving

struggling

keeping up

growing/perf well

Given the number of missing responses and reasonably significant

numbers who reported no or low profits, in contrast to positive self

reports of ‘growing moderately strongly’ and ‘performing well’, it is

somewhat difficult to come to a definite conclusion about how the

businesses were faring in reality. Up to half appear quite optimistic

and positive.

4.3.7 Sole And Partnered

In defining the categories ‘sole operator’; ‘in partnership with

female/s’, ‘in partnership with male/s, shared leading role’ and ‘in

partnership with male/s, leading role’ the survey followed the Yellow

Pages Small Business Index, Special Report (1996, p.1). Table 4.10

Sets out the ownership proportions of the sample in comparison to the

Yellow Pages survey. This research sample has more sole operators

and fewer women who play a leading role when in business with a

male than the yellow pages survey. A little less than two thirds of the

sample are in partnership with a male.

45

Table 4.10 Business Ownership Structure of Sample and Yellow Pages Survey

Category of Ownership Sample % Yellow Pages Survey % Sole Operator 33.6 15In partnership with female/s 3 3In partnership with male/s

shared leading role 56 59In partnership with male/s 6.7 22

leading role

4.3.8 Summary Of Business Basic Data

Of the businesses surveyed a third were sole operated and most of the

rest involved partnerships with men. Most were in shops, offices, factories

or private homes in small towns or Ballarat. The business women had a

similar engagement in female industrial sectors except that there were

more in retail, accommodation and personal services and less in education

and health. Almost half the businesses were quite recent and most started

or purchased their business rather than inheriting them. Income from the

business was an important source of personal and household finance. The

mean effective number of full time employees in the businesses was

three. Local distributors were most important for raw materials and

services and the most important form of advertising was ‘word of mouth’.

Almost half of those who responded to questions on profit were optimistic

about the state of their business. In terms of comparisons with wider

surveys the Western Region businesses from the sample were younger

and more likely to be sole operated.

4.4 Business Themes And Issues

4.4.1 Finance

Start up finance ranged from a few hundred dollars to a million dollars

with 62% of responses starting with less than $50,000. The same

proportion used their own money, with 50% also using banks.

A Mann-Whitney Test of independent samples indicated that there is a

significant difference between the amount of ‘start-up’ finance and the

“profile” of the respondent ( 5583, p <.001). The amount of start up

finance where businesses were operated on a partnership with a male (n

46

= 155) was significantly higher (median = $45,000) compared to those in

sole/female operation (n = 102), (median $17,500).

Sixty percent of respondents were dependent on loans and 50%, at least

partially, upon their own savings. This was a common situation for those

women who preferred to avoid risk.

For those women who preferred to avoid risk a typical comment was,

I had no trouble with finance as I started the business with my own savings and the bank knew my partners from growing up in the town. I would not like the pressure of paying back so much if I had borrowed to begin.

Those who borrowed for start up finance usually used the money to buy or

build the business though in a number of cases it was used for stock and

tools and equipment as well. Of some interest were those who gained

money from father (8%), mother (5%) and those who sold assets (9%) to

gain money.

There is a significant relationship between respondents who sought to

borrow, and their partnership profile (2 8.329, df = 1, p = .004). Of those

who sought to borrow for their business activities, 71% were in a

partnership (n = 121), compared to 29% of respondents (n = 49) who

were sole/female operators.

There was also a significant relationship between those who were

successful in borrowing and their partnership profile (2 10.344, df = 1, p

= <.001). Of the respondents who had successfully borrowed for ongoing

business activities, 77% were in a partnership (n = 105) compared to only

23% of sole/female operators (n = 32).

Ten percent of respondents applied for, but were refused finance to start

their business. The differing outcomes with respect to gaining finance

potentially affects size, growth and profitability of business. A number of

studies previously mentioned have shown that women derive lower

income than men from small business, however there are characteristics

of women’s businesses that explain such results, none the least the issue

of difficulty in getting finance. Women in this research too have cited

discriminatory treatment by financiers.

47

There is a significant relationship between respondents and sought to

borrow and their profile (2 8.329, df = 1, p = .004). Of those who sought

to borrow for their business activities, 71% were in a partnership (n =

121), compared to 29% of respondents (n = 9) who were sole operators.

There was also a significant relationship between those who were

successful in borrowing and their profile (2 10.344, df = 2, p = .001). Of

the respondents who had successfully borrowed from ongoing business

activities, 77% were in partnership (n = 105) compared to only 23% of

sole/female operators (n = 32).

Table 4.11 sets out the proportions for reasons given for the 36 who had

finance rejected at start up phase and those 24 women who were refused

a loan to finance on-going business activities such as expansion.

Table 4.11 Reasons for Refusal of Finance

Reason given Percentage ofResponses re start up (n = 36)

Percentage of Responses re growth (n = 24)

Not enough security 33 38Insufficient cash flow 33 29No business plan 20 17Unable to service loan 13 12.5Unemployed/other 2 4

Examination of the experiences of women who had been refused start-up

loans showed that the sorts of responses found by Sykes (1989), that

focussed on negative attitudes about women’s ability to manage

businesses, were still given by financiers. Because of the perceived risk of

lending to women, security was required by women attempting to set up

business on their own. Typically, in a number of cases the “security”

involved providing a male guarantor. The following are comments made

by two women in partnerships with men.

I was 22 years old and told I was too young and inexperienced to own a business. They would however give me a loan if my husband was a partner – who knew nothing about the business. I used my own money. I am still told by the banks that it would be better for my husband to be doing the financial matters.

I had to have my mother and father’s land as security to borrow $25,000. I was told it was too big a risk even though I provided $10,000 of own money.

48

On the other hand one woman was told that the amount she wished to

borrow was not large enough for a loan. Some anecdotal evidence exists

that those wishing to borrow small amounts of money, for business or

otherwise, are encouraged to use their credit cards. This was indeed the

experience mentioned by a respondent. The bank manager had suggested

to her that, rather than take out a loan, she should survive on bankcard.

The woman in question chose to save the amount instead.

Women on their own attempting to get finance were at times treated by

financiers in a way which one woman describes as “Their attitude was very

‘look down the nose’”. Another woman commented that, “I did a business

plan but they (the financier) were still not happy. Arrogant bank manager.

He was OK while my husband was there.”

One woman, attempting to start her business on her own found herself

with a $50,000 debt and in a ‘Catch 22’ situation. She described how,

I was granted a $50,000 business loan. I needed an extra $15,000 to complete the set up and stock but the bank would not give this for 6 months. … luckily I was able to rely on my husband, so my husband took out a private loan.

At this point she was in debt but could not start her business to generate

income.

Financiers also refused loans on the basis of age and lack of business

experience. “I’ve never owned a business before so it’s assumed I don’t

know what I’m doing!”

Almost half of the women (49.7%) had sought to borrow for ongoing

business activities and most of these (41% of 49.7%) had been successful.

Those 24 who were unsuccessful (See table 4.11) were provided with

similar reasons by financiers as those women who were refused loans for

start-up.

We were refused a loan later, 10 years into the business, to expand – the reason given that it really only was “just a small women’s business” but was later retracted on discriminatory grounds, when the accountant stepped in.

49

Even when a business may have been operating relatively successfully

some women nevertheless had to rely on male partners to get a loan. Age

was again another reason given for refusal. As one woman said, “I was too

old.”

A woman in business on her own who did not attempt to borrow money

cynically commented,

I have not sought support from a financial institution since becoming a sole parent in 1997, because I know from past association with banks that my present status as a single parent/sole trader makes them consider me to be a poor risk, therefore discrimination.

Financiers perception of women as poor financial managers is not

supported in practice. Of the women in this study, the majority (68%) did

their own bookkeeping during operation, 18% paid someone to do their

books and 13% made use of kin, (mostly husbands).

4.4.2 Risk And Planning

Women’s cognisance of the need for risk planning and financial planning

are exemplified in their responses to questions of how they managed on-

going operations of their businesses. In terms of planning, 58% had a

formal business plan, 78% a financial plan and 74% formal goal setting

and planning. In ‘attitude to risk’ responses varied but few opted for the

‘big financial injection’ (4.4%). Respondents were almost equally divided in

their perception of whether they were a risk avoider (55%) or risk taker

(42%) and some insisted that they were both or ‘in between’ (3%).

In order to manage risks most opted for goal planning (63%) or having a

contingency plan (42%). A small minority (5.5%) acknowledged they ‘go

for broke’.

Many women wrote comments relative to how they manage risk. The

women in business on their own who were risk avoiders expressed some

degree of caution relative to taking risks in the setting up and operation of

their businesses. As one woman said, “I am not making a large net profit. I

would never have started my business except for the fact of an

independent income”, and one of the 26.3% women who stated that they

prefer to avoid borrowing said “I try small then grow and develop if I’m on

the right track. I am a risk avoider and prefer to avoid bank loans.”

50

Similar sentiments were expressed by women in business with men who

were risk avoiders, “I am self financed and I only take risks I can afford to

lose,” and “I never put the house and basic pension income at risk. So if

the business should fail, one is still OK.”

Eleven percent of respondents stated that they had strategies in place to

manage risk. “I know that I’m not dependent on the business for survival. I

have eggs in different baskets,” and “I know exactly how much I need to

cover all the bills and rent every week. After that it is a profit.”

Slightly less than half of all respondents (42.1%) saw themselves as risk

takers, though only 38.1% were women in business by themselves or with

a woman and 44.9% of them had male partners. One woman with a male

partner said that, “I rely on my husband and a little bit of go for broke,”

and a woman in partnership with a man who described herself as a risk

taker said, “We call it taking calculated risks” but another added, “I

married the right man.”

One female sole operator maintained, “I manage risk by just deciding and

doing it” while a second woman said, “To go into business certain risks

must be taken unless you are already wealthy.”

4.4.3 Perceived Hindrances

Lack of finance, confidence and prior experience were the most

acknowledged factors inhibiting start up phase of the business.

Comparable proportions (34%-39%) believed that finance, mentors,

training courses and financial advice would have helped them in start up.

The main inhibiting factor at operation of the business once again was lack

of finance though 50% of respondents had not sought to borrow for on-

going business activities such as expansion. Most (41%) of the 49.7% who

had attempted to borrow more money were successful.

Lack of time was the other major barrier (47%) that women identified as

getting in the way of the successful operation of the businesses. Of the

factors limiting business growth, time and competition are the most

important.

51

Table 4.12 Factors Hindering Business Percentages rounded.

Factor Start up % of Cases

Operation % of Cases

Lack of finance 43 49Lack of time 47Lack of community support 8 16Lack of confidence 30 16Lack of prior experience 30 10Lack of information 23Lack of information and support services

18 10

Bank not treating seriously 17Lack of child care 15 9Lack of infrastructure 13 7Accountant not treating seriously 7Lack of support from spouse/partner 6Different family priorities 6Staffing 2Space 2Government/GST/tax office 2

Type of business partnership had some influence. Lack of finance did not

differentiate between the partnership profiles, nor did lack of access to

information. In addition, rejection, lack of prior experience, and lack of

information and support services did not differentiate between the

categories. However, lack of confidence was statistically significant (2

9.991, df = 1, p = .002). On this question, 71% of respondents who said

that lack of confidence was not a problem were in a partnership with a

man, and 29% were sole/female operators.

Competition ( n = 95 in partnership, n = 42 sole operators), time available

(n = 52 partnered, n = 49 sole) and size of outlet (n = 13 partnered, n = 6

sole operators) were the most frequently answered responses in relation

to factors limiting growth.

No significant difference was noted in the profile of the respondents on

lack of finance, confidence, community support, childcare, prior

experience, time or information and support services, tax office, staffing,

Government or GST. In addition, area profile, different family priorities

and weather did not differentiate the groups.

52

However, on the item ‘bank not treating you seriously’, at on-going

operation phase, a significant relationship was noted (2 9.201, df = 1, p =

.002). The majority of respondents who stated that the bank had not

treated them seriously were sole operators (77%, n = 10) compared to

23% who were in a partnership (n = 3). (Once again, attention is drawn to

the small number of respondents in this analysis). In contrast, 65% of

individuals who had no concerns with their treatment from the banks were

in a partnership, as compared with 35% of sole operators.

In addition, lack of infrastructure and profile also differentiated the groups

(25.08, p<.05). Lack of infrastructure was seen as a factor which

hindered or inhibited operation or business by 884% (n = 15) of

respondents who were in a partnership, compared to 12% of sole

operators (n = 2). Because of the small numbers in this analysis, the

results cannot be used for the purposes of generalisation.

During the focus group discussions the factors inhibiting start-up and

operation were explained in greater depth. The women there highlighted

the areas of childcare, infrastructure and government and availability of

information, knowledge and skills as also being major barriers.

Discussion around housework and childcare exposed the women’s reality

of “you’ll always be responsible for the children’ and ‘that’s the trouble,

we have to do it all now”. As members of one group concluded:

“Being ‘superwoman’ is not something we should have to aspire to”.

“Often a male’s perception of helping out is either not up to standard or

not a full equal responsibility”. “In many rural areas child care is almost

non existent or may involve a long drive to relations”.

In one town only one person was registered to run Family Day Care and a

high school girl did baby sitting, but only out of school hours. She often

had to be transported long distances to client’s premises. Women noted

that many grandmothers were doing the child minding and some were

being paid. Alternatively relatives helped with childcare but for several,

the children were brought up in the business – neither they nor their

mothers thought this was bad for them.

53

Two women commented that twenty years ago when both started their

businesses they had to ‘fly by the seat of their pants’. There was no child-

care. If one wanted to work she had to do it from home and combine it

with child rearing. One said that it would take ‘generations’ before

anything really changes in relation to child rearing responsibility and

housework. The women maintained that there was a strong need for

affordable childcare.

Whilst the issue of adequate childcare was clearly an important issue, so

too were concerns about the level of government regulation. Forms of

regulation by authorities and various levels of government was an area

frequently commented upon in focus groups, though not addressed

specifically in the survey.

Over regulation was the term used to describe what they felt were

unnecessary bureaucratic obstacles. For example significant frustration

was felt about the amount of paper work, especially relative to the GST.

There was a perception that there were many levels of bureaucracy to get

through even for simple issues such a taking on a trainee. As one woman

concluded, “Dealing with a big organisation is very difficult.”

Over regulation was also considered to be a problem in areas such as

health, hygiene, sewerage and so on. Other examples were the expense in

meeting the standards, for example health regulations requiring $30,000

for a septic system. One woman also maintained that, “Even when there is

a bushfire the women are no longer able to bring cooked food from home

to feed the men because of hygiene rules.” Regulations also placed

barriers on stalls in the street. Furthermore it was claimed that regulations

were “… killing voluntary cooperation. It has stopped cooperative fencing

and cropping.”

The issue of taxation was a bone of contention. Taxation and GST include

hidden costs that a retailer cannot pass on and there is much ‘down time’

trying to sort out tax mistakes.

The problem with taxation is that there is no human intervention or overall appreciation of the logic of how it all works until well down the line when there is a problem. In many situations you have to go through eight different

54

people, who give different opinions and advice, so perhaps you may as well just wait until you hear one you agree with.

Payroll tax was also seen as a burden and there was also complaint of a

double tax, where shop insurance had both stamp duty and GST.

Employment policies were blamed for the difficulties in dealing with public

service bureaucracies. “The people we deal with are all on short contracts

so there is a lack of security and of continuity in dealing with government

services.” One woman now has a personal policy to avoid direct contact

with the authorities – she just does what she wants to.

There was general agreement because of the mire of legislation and

regulation at various levels of government, accessing information was not

always easy. Respondents seemed to feel that local Government should

be the entry point to an overview of all schemes relevant to those in small

business in rural area.

Some women found difficulty accessing the information they needed to

start (23.1%) and run their businesses. Lack of prior experience was cited

by 30.6% at start-up phase as a major reason. Women were forced to

learn completely new skills for example dealing with technology. One

woman found barriers in learning about export and claimed that, “it is a

nightmare”. She had to find out about customs laws and exchange rates

on the internet and found it hard to work in two time frames to

communicate with Asia.

For another the major barrier was finding out how to do things, like use

computers. She eventually found a book which,

… took you through 24 hour steps to create your own web page. Local libraries should stock such user friendly books but they claim the software changes too quickly. People who do not have the time to attend courses can work through the skills at home by themselves in their own time.

4.4.4 Business Style

The most important sources of information that aided the sample

businesses were professionals such as accountants and solicitors, with

magazines and journals and mentors next in significance. Newspapers,

55

then radio, television and internet were not far behind. While some read

local newspapers generally others focused on specific industry related

sections of The Age or subscribed to industry specific journals.

Business communication style with friends and acquaintances was

overwhelmingly ‘face to face’ (71%), most using this method for

interaction with experts and specialists, suppliers as well (41%), although

in this case telephone was used in 23% of the cases. Only 141 of the

sample communicated with Women’s or Business organisations and here

telephone contact (40%) was more important than face to face (31%) and

email contact not insignificant (14.9%).

Most of the women seemed to prefer face to face communication though

this was not always possible. For reasons of distance, time and lack of

effectiveness their preferred communication style was not always used.

Except for experts/suppliers, email contact was preferred over fax,

“Sometimes face to face contact would be better re experts/specialists

advice etc. But generally, telephone contact possibly followed up with

fax/email is sufficient.”

For rural business in particular it is not always possible to have face to

face contact as expressed by one woman “It is hard to be face to face

when you are 300 kilometres apart.” The situation for rural women is

summed up by one woman:

As we work in a relatively isolated area, most ordinary information gathering must be done remotely. Phone contact at least initially is most efficient, and I use either phone, fax or email as the situation requires.

Networking is a critical communication factor in both the start up and

operation phases of a business. Networking activities that worked for

various women were both formal and informal. All agreed that knowing

what is available has been important. For one woman being in Rotary

helped. She also has good contacts with the Council (local government).

Another knew all the main courier services. For two businesses a good

network of friends delivered and picked up parts when they were already

going to Ballarat.

56

At a focus group discussion women had mixed responses when asked if

they wanted a women’s business network. They were interested but

thought that women need to think they are getting something out of it –

some skill or motivation. One hundred and thirty people in Ararat attended

a business dinner with a motivational talk by football coach David Parkin.

If something, even one thought or idea is gained from a meeting or

network, it can be seen as worth the effort.

Networking and asking questions, as stated, was a common way of gaining

information, especially at start up. One woman mentioned a male mentor

who had been in the same business. He advised her to buy what she liked

and set the trend, to avoid over buying and to buy within the clients’

market. She had followed this advice successfully.

Networking between business people also occurred. The women

particularly mentioned the encouragement from other traders and locals

when someone opened up a business, for example flowers and cards were

given. When one woman began her business, everyone in the street

called in and gave her bouquets of flowers to welcome her. Happy

customers also helped to promote business and word passes around

through sporting and other clubs.

The networking and communication styles of female business operators

largely informed the way they dealt with staff. Most respondents reported

themselves as having a responsive management style with staff. Relative

to participative management and decision making 39.3% chose the option

that they “presented ideas and invited suggestions before making a

decision” and 23% thought that to “allow subordinates to function

independently within limits” reflected their decision making style the best.

A minority of respondents used authoritarian styles or at the other end of

the continuum, laissez faire styles. Four percent said they would make

decisions, “then announce it to the staff” and 3% would let the staff make

group decisions. Ultimately almost all those with staff presented

themselves as having flexibility and authority in relation to staff

management.

The relationship women business owners have with staff is demonstrated

in their responses to general employee relations questions (see Table

57

4.13). Those respondents for whom the question was applicable indicated

overwhelmingly that they had both flexibility and authority.

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Table 4.13 Staff Management Style

Staff management % TrueStaff willingly work back when required 95%Staff have a say over when they take their

annual leave and some flexibility to suit family needs. 94%

I generally feel that I have the skills required to effectively manage my staff. 94%

Staff respect my authority 98%

The final category of exploring business style focussed on respondents’

use of information technology. Three quarters (75.5%) of the sample had

access to the internet through a computer. Interestingly there was a

higher proportion of internet access among this sample than in the ABS

survey of 1999 in which 33% had access to the internet. Of those who had

access to the internet 68% used it for email, 58% for research, and 12.5%

to conduct main business activities such as buying and selling.

Furthermore, as many as 27% had their own home page.

Table 4.14 Use of Internet by Sample and Australian Small Business Women

Use of Internet Sample % ABS Australian Small Business %* Access to Internet 75.5 33Email 68 25Research 58 23Buying or selling 12.5 5Website or homepage 27 6* Predominantly female operators. (ABS 8127.0 1999)

Though email is widely used it is not preferred.

Although telecommunications makes it possible to work from different home bases, I felt that you need the direct and immediate response through a telephone call, where there is banter, a personal relationship and the chance to check up on something on the spot.

Although generally the take up of information technology is positive for

some it was still seen as a barrier. One businesswoman had tried a

computer course in order to learn excel but found it “a bit fast” and could

not keep up. This year she has not even set up the excel for her tax. She

now rarely puts the computer on as she is “so busy”.

Another woman also commented on difficulty with new technology. She is

convinced local libraries should stock such user friendly books but says

that library staff claim the software changes too quickly. She said that

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people who don’t have the time to attend courses can “… work through

the skills at home by themselves in their own time.”

A third woman did not quite trust computer technology,

…you cannot rely on computer inventories - you need someone to really check up on the shelves. Ecommerce would not work for me, though I may get listed on the town web page.

Although access to technology is high some problems with application

remain which may become relevant for training issues.

4.4.5 Training And Background

Most (72%) of the sample had work experience before setting up their

business and the most useful aspects of this experience for their business,

according to proportion of total responses, were customer service and

management skills (33.5%); same industry experience (27.4%) and

bookkeeping (25.5%).

Respondents were asked if they were aware of, made use of and found

useful a number of specialist services and courses for the start up phase

of their small businesses. Of some interest are the following items.

Table 4.15 Use of Services by Sample

Percentages of valid cases on all training options*

Training Course/ Aware available Used Found UsefulService AgencyNEIS 31 6 13Australian Taxation Office 39 29 9Chambers of Commerce 60 8 4Women’s Assoc/networks 25 5 4Accountants 24 39 32Solicitors 37 34 17Other eg. Colleagues 9 25 43*Percentages refer to the valid responses for each column category and bear no relation to other columns.

In terms of help available the sample endorses the importance of

colleagues, accountants and New Enterprise Incentive Scheme (NEIS), had

some reservations about the Tax Office and solicitors and made limited

use of Chambers of Commerce and Women’s Associations.

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Training is a practical area that governments can respond to, hence

considerable resources are committed in this area. There were some

concerns expressed about the quality and experience of those running

business training courses.

I am very suspicious of courses, I feel that anyone running a course for business needs to have hands on experience. If not, all I have had anything to do with live in a fantasy business world and do more harm than good.

In spite of some complaints about inappropriate content, timing, place,

cost and eligibility of courses (12%) and a few who thought they were

poorly run (4%), most women found the course they did useful. The NEIS

was particularly commended, as the following comments highlight:

NEIS was most useful in providing bookwork skills and knowledge necessary for our business. NEIS gives us security to get through the teething stages of starting up, and assists us with any unanswered questions we may have.

I used the NEIS scheme which helped set out my business plan, helped finance while starting, and provided continual back-up in case of any problems. The NEIS scheme helped us to make a business plan, and showed us how to budget to keep us afloat.

NEIS course was most useful in helping with confidence and forming contacts. Free information and mentoring was great. It was comforting to know NEIS was available if needed.

However, few of the women who were aware of NEIS actually made use of

it, see Table 4.15. The restrictive eligibility criteria were one reason cited

by those who were aware of the NEIS program but who did not make use

of it.

I asked about NEIS but they said I wouldn’t qualify. I had a determination to succeed and did a Horticultural course at Longerenong. I also used common sense and hard work.

Those women who lived in or close to Ballarat or close enough to other

TAFE colleges or other providers found the business related courses run by

these institutions very useful. For example “My first year of marketing at

TAFE produced a marketing plan which was useful. Computer technology

at BRACE was also very useful,” and “I did a small business bookkeeping

management course through BRACE which was excellent and didn’t

consume too much time. I did extra hard work, learning the hard way.”

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That most women who completed courses found them useful suggests

that extension of TAFE and other small business courses could also be

considered. This need was evident in the following responses:

I did a small short business course at TAFE before starting a business that was very basic. I made a huge amount of mistakes in the early days of the business. Took a long time to learn to get education before mistakes. Industry courses have been excellent; there is a huge gap in education on delivery of customer service, effective communication, goal setting, etc.

Of some interest are the responses from 206 respondents who set out how

they compensated for a lack of courses.

Table 4.16 How Lack Of Training Compensated For

Factor Percentage of responsesExperience or professional qualif. 35Self taught 11.8Use/employment of specialist 11.4Trial and error 11.4Mentor/seeking advice 10.6Instinct/gut feeling 8.5Perseverance/hard work 6.3Organised own training 4Strength of partner relationship 1

Prior experience and (less often) professional qualifications were

perceived as very important. Thirty-one percent of women stated that they

had experience in a similar or the same industry. Twenty-nine percent had

bookkeeping skills 47.8 had customer service, staff supervision and

management experience. Of the latter group often the skills were acquired

whilst working previously in a similar industry, as noted by one woman,

“Twelve years retail experience helped me to cope as six years had been

in management.” Another woman summed up with:

Although formal training has its place, nothing teaches you more quickly than practice and mistakes and listening to other people. My family had their own small business. I love owning my own business.

The skills and knowledge gained from professional qualifications were also

used.

My management certificate provided me with clearer objectives, and allowed me to formulate my business plans. I still use my knowledge re marketing, finances etc. most days. I continue to use my Bus. Grad. Certificate skills as I operate the business.

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The Diploma of Management was excellent to build my business/management skills. I also learned through trial and error. I had accountant support and network support in the region.

As one woman concluded, “You can’t beat experience.”

There was also an interesting minority opinion voiced concerning a natural

proclivity for business expressed as ‘instinct’, ‘gut feeling’, and ‘common

sense’. This is exemplified by the following comments: “I used my brains”,

“I had to use my own gut feelings,” and “I used my common sense, that’s

all that is necessary. I read instructions re tax returns or car fix-up

manuals. Read.” Additionally women spoke of trial and error, learning on

the job (being self-taught) and the importance of mentors.

Women who were in a business partnership could also draw on their

husband’s or male partner’s experience. Many of those women

commented on the invaluable help this gave them. For example “My

husband had prior qualifications,” and “My partner had been in small

business before, same industry, and had much experience.”

Of more importance however is making use of specialists, with 38.6% of

women making use of accountants. “At the time of setting up business,

minimal help was available – Accountant the best. I managed hard work by

asking questions.”

At the conclusion of the survey, respondents were asked what courses or

training they would like to see available. Almost all who responded asked

for small face-to-face workshops (94%). Only 8% of cases wanted internet

chat groups. More than half wanted courses at night, 27% wanted day

time courses and a little less than half wanted part time (49%). Table 4.17

below indicates the percentage of cases requesting various types of

course content. The three most important were Marketing, Financial and

Promotion.

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Table 4.17 Courses Desired By Sample

Content Percentage of

cases

MarketingFinancialPromotionComputerInterpersonal skillsInternetStaff supervisionEcommerceExportOther

6150493822201615.577

In terms of accessing courses a number of respondents commented on the

difficulty getting to the larger regional centres where many courses are

conducted. At a focus group meeting the comment was made that, “The

main talks, seminars that we’d like to attend are in Melbourne.” A

suggestion for self-paced learning (correspondence and internet based)

was made. For example “There are some training courses that I would be

interested in. E.g. Workcare, Workplace relations, Awards etc. but they

tend to be in Melbourne and expensive for us,” and “I am really unable to

leave work early. Self-paced learning is the best and would need to be of a

standard that would be useful.”

4.4.6 Domestic/Family Issues

Underpinning many of the constraints facing women in business are issues

concerning household responsibilities and kinship links. When asked

which household tasks they were mostly responsible for, business women

responded in a way that clearly reflected a gendered household division of

labour, but they also revealed significant involvement in outdoor, ‘male’

activities.

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Table 4.18 Proportion with Most Responsibility for Domestic Task

by Business Operation

Task % Sole female & female & female

n = 130

% Females in partnership with males n= 222

% Totaln =352

Minding children 33.8 43.9 38.7Transporting children

36.9 43.2 40.7

Cleaning house 87.6 91 89.8Cleaning clothes 94.6 91 92.9Cleaning dishes 81.5 84.2 83.3Buying food 91.5 91.4 91.5Cooking food 89.2 91 90.4Maintaining garden 60.8 56.3 58.2Lawn mowing 26.9 24.8 26Waste handling 45.4 37.8 40.7Maintaining vegetable garden

30 18.9 23.2

House/car maintenance

40.8 23 29.9

Budgeting & bills 81.5 77 78.8

Almost all women, whether in partnership with a male, or in business on

their own or with a female, were mostly responsible for cleaning clothes,

buying and cooking food and cleaning the house. The style of partnership

made a notable difference for maintaining a vegetable garden, minding

children, waste handling, and house and car maintenance. Here sole

operators and those few with a female business partner had more primary

responsibilities.

Business partners were almost all family members, mostly husbands (n

=203). Other family members included sister (4), mother (2), father (3),

brother (3) and, where there was a second partner, child (12). The most

common reason for forming a partnership was the close kin or residential

tie (n = 117) but a number of others noted that access to complementary

skills was important (n = 55) and, to a lesser extent, business network

(11), finance (11) and tax minimisation (11). Women in business with

females were mainly so because of close kin ties (6) or complementary

skills (3).

Family members were also those most noted for offering unpaid labour

and advice. The numbers who answered this question (and who did not)

give the impression that sole operators were more reliant on family and

friends than others and less likely to gain unpaid helped from local and

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state government sources, but numbers are too small to attach statistical

significance.

Table 4.19 Sources Of Unpaid Help Noted By Total Numbers Business Operation*

Source % Sole female & females

% Females & males

Family 41.5 29.7

Friends 19.2 11.7

Associates 4.6 5

Suppliers 5.4 7.2

Local Govt.Authorities

Nil 3.2

State Government

Nil 2.7

Other 3.1 1.8

* Responses relating to help were compared to total number of women in different partnership arrangements, rather than those who answered this question.

The type of help offered was mainly work in the business (n = 72), advice

(40), childcare and housework (24) and cleaning and maintenance of

business (22). The type of help was not altered by the type of business

operation. Many could not estimate the time given to these activities per

week but of the 139 who did, unpaid help given amounted to a mean of

8.8 hours a week (median 5, mode 2 and standard deviation 12.2).

Family help extended for some to financial aid for start up of business.

Fathers were mentioned by 8% (over-represented by sole–female

businesses with 14, compared with 13 responses) of the sample and

mothers by 5% (over-represented by sole/female businesses with 8 c.f. 7

responses). Most, as stated, were reliant on their own (and partners’)

savings and bank loans.

Although responses were rather small for some of these issues, questions

relating to domestic issues reveal the continuing overwhelming

responsibility for domestic work by women and the centrality of marriage

partners to their business partnerships noted in focus groups. Some

unpaid family help on businesses is strong and a minority received

financial aid from family members. On a number of these measures sole

women and women with female partners differ, undertaking more of the

outside domestic tasks and receiving more help from family members.

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4.4.7 Time

Figure 4.13 demonstrates the average hours per week that women

estimated they spent on domestic tasks. (The detailed task-related

questions were designed as a memory aid for this estimation.) Over half of

the respondents work more than 20 hours a week and almost a fifth, more

than 40 hours a week on domestic tasks.

Figure 4.13 Average Hours per Week on Domestic Tasks

2.5%

17.8%

10.9%

25.1%

31.5%

12.3%

Missing entries

over 40 hours

30-39 hours

20-29 hours

10-19 hours

less than 10 hours

Group discussions revealed that women’s biggest constraint is time. They

know what they have to do but do not have time to do it, or do it well.

Recently at a meeting of farm women from Nhill, they were advised by the

facilitator to take off a day a week for their family, and the response was

incredulous laughter. Other women too spoke of their responsibilities

arising out of gendered expectations.

Some women feel isolated because, even if they could afford to pay for

household services like cleaning, they are too far out from town, so have

to do it all themselves. Two said they would “feel bad” about paying out

for something they could do.

It was hard to get someone to ‘run a house’. Some women had minimal

help with ironing etc. and some were not negative about housework. If

their partner took the long shift at work they were given the flexibility to

67

start later and do other things. One found the break from home office work

useful. Vacuuming for one woman was a physical release that allowed

thinking time. An older woman in retail however expressed anger at

having to do all the housework and household organisation, as well as

running a business.

When the survey data on domestic work data was cross-tabulated with

type of business operation some differences were perceived. Female sole

operators and those in partnership with women were likely to work fewer

hours on domestic tasks in spite of their acknowledgement that they were

mainly responsible for more tasks. More, however, did perceive that the

time on domestic tasks was likely to increase in the next 5 years.

Table 4.20 Estimation of domestic work in five years by business operation

Estimation % Sole female & females

% Females & males

Stay same 56.6 62.7Decrease 24 26.4Increase 19.4 10.9

Given past research that suggests that women may have only a part-time

commitment to business, it is noteworthy that more than half of the

sample work more than 40 hours a week on the business activity and a

fifth work more than 60 hours per week.

Figure 4.14 Average Hours Per Week Put Into Business

1.1%

8.4%

12.8%

39.3%

12.8%

11.7%

13.9%

Missing entries

more than 80 hours

60-79 hours

40-59 hours

30-39 hours

20-29 hours

less than 20 hours

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A bigger proportion of sole female operators worked 40-59 hours a week in

comparison with women in partnership with men. The latter, however, had

proportionally more working over 80 hours a week.

Table 4.21 Hours Worked In Business By Business Operation

Hours % Sole & femalen = 127

% Partner with malen =224

$Total

Less than 20 11.8 15.2 14.120-29 11 12.1 11.830-39 16.5 11.2 1340-59 45.7 36.2 39.760-79 11.8 13.8 1380+ 3.1 11.6 8.5

There is a statistically significant difference between the hours spent in a

business, and whether the respondent was partnered or in sole operation

(2 11.406, df = 5, p = <.05). Of those who put in less than 20 hours per

week on their business, 69% were in partnership with males, (n = 34)

compared to 31% of sole/female operators (n = 15). Furthermore, for

respondents who put in more than 80 hours per week, 87% of this group

were in a partnership with a male (n = 26), compared to 13% (n = 4) of

women in sole/female partner operation. Those in partnerships with males

therefore more likely to do both low part-time hours as well as extremely

high hours.

Over half the sample wished that the time they put into the business could

decrease. Given that when business workloads are added to domestic

workloads many women were working in excess of 80 hours a week, the

wish for the workload to decrease is understandable.

Table 4.22 Preferred Time Commitment

Desired time

% Sole female & females

% Females & males

Total

Decrease 49.6 57.5 54Stay same 36.8 32.1 33Increase 13.6 10.4 12

4.4.8 Indicators of Success

4.4.8.1 Objective Success Indicators

A main objective of the research was to attempt to isolate features

associated with success. Usual indicators of success for economists

69

include profit and turnover measures and age of business. In this research

a substantial number of respondents (79 or 22%) chose not to fill out

questions relating to such measurable returns in particular the item

relating to profit/income. It was decided therefore to construct an

objective measure of success based on four indicators and to include as

successful, those businesses with three out of the four criteria. The

indicators of the “success” variable were:

Profit of $10,000-19,999 or more in 2000;

In business for 5 years or more;

Respondent reported ‘Moderately Strong’ to ‘Rapid Sales

Growth’ and

Respondent reported Business ‘Performing Well’.

When these criteria were applied exactly one third of the sample proved to

be a ‘success’. That two thirds were not may be some cause for concern,

given the large time input of most women.

Cross tabulations were made with a number of variables but many that

may have been expected to make a difference to success, did not. For

example, there was no statistical relationship between ‘success’ and

where respondents lived; the number of hours spent per week on

domestic tasks or on business work; work experience; source of start-up

finance; how they obtained raw materials and services, how marketing

was done or how financial records were managed. None of the points

listed on the question exploring ‘factors influencing start up’, that is,

finance, confidence, information, bank not taking you seriously, rejection

by finance, lack of experience, lack of information and support, were

statistically significant.

Furthermore, out of the 258 respondents who answered the question on

amount of start up finance, 167 (65 %) did not meet the criteria of

success, and 91 (35 %) did meet the criteria of success. There was no

significant difference between the median amounts of start-up finance

used (i.e. those who were successful started with a median of $27,000,

while those who were not, started out with a median of $30,000). A Mann-

Whitney test of independent samples indicates that there is no significant

difference between the amount of start-up finance acquired by those who

were successful, and those who were not ( = 7554, p >.05).

70

Many aspects of business style failed to make a difference to objective

‘success’. There was no significant relationship between success and style

of communication in business, communications and interaction with staff,

and managing and interacting with employees. Neither having access to

the internet, nor using it for research and constructing a web page, made

a difference to success.

The following aspects are however statistically significant, or approaching

it, and are therefore worthy of more detailed analysis.

a) Living arrangements and “success”:

There was a significant relationship between the living

arrangements of respondents, and those who met the criteria of

“success” (2 13.400, df = 4, p = <.05). Only 7% of people living

alone (n = 27) met the criteria of “success”, whereas 36% of

respondents who lived with a partner (n = 156) met the criteria of

“success”.

b) Local government area and “success”:

There does not appear to be a relationship between which local

government area the business is located within, and meeting the

criteria of “success”. However, proportionally more of the expected

ratio of 33% successful businesses, were from the farming areas of

West Wimmera (50%), Hindmarsh (48%) and Yarriambiack (47%).

Least successful Local Government Areas were Moorabool (24%),

Northern Grampians (29%) and Hepburn (29%). It is possible that

farming business has skewed this success ratio.

c) Number of employees and “success”:

There was a statistically significant relationship between the

number of staff employed in the business, and the criteria of

“success” being met (2 17.864, df = 3, p = <.001). Of the

businesses that employed between 1-4 employees, 27% met the

criteria of “success” (n = 66), while 73% did not (n = 180). Of the

businesses that employed between 5 – 9 employees, a greater

proportion (53%, n = 36) met the criteria of “success” when

71

compared to those who did not meet the criteria (47%, n = 32).

This could suggest that there is a relationship between an optimum

number of employees and “success”.

d) Main source of household income and “success”:

There is a relationship between the criteria of “success” and

whether the business is the main source of income (2 4.717, df = 1,

p = <.05). Of the respondents who stated that the business was

their main source of household income, 38% met the criteria of

“success” (n = 85), whereas only 27% of those who did not use the

business as the main source of income, met the criteria (n = 34).

e) Type of loan, gift, own savings, sale or assets and “success”:

The type of loans, gifts, own savings, sale of assets, credit, and

government allowances did not differentiate respondents in terms

of meeting the criteria of “success”. However, where respondents

received a ‘superannuation or redundancy’ payment, this did

differentiate between those who met the criteria of “success”, and

those who did not (2 4.450, df = 1, p = <.05). Respondents who

received a superannuation or redundancy payment were more likely

to reach the criteria of “success” (67%, n = 6) compared to 33% (n

= 3) who did not meet the criteria. However, because of the small

numbers involved in this analysis, it is not possible to generalise

from these results.

f) Training courses, services, agencies, and “success”:

On this question, a significant difference was noted between the

respondents who met the criteria of “success” and those who made

use of various training courses, services and agencies. Various

possibilities were tested, and these included the Chamber of

Commerce, Industry Associations, TAFE, Women’s Associations or

Networks, Accountants, and Solicitors. There was no significant

relationship between being aware of, or using these various

agencies and meeting the criteria of “success”. However, with

regard to the NEIS scheme, a significant difference was noted

between respondents who were aware of, or had made use of this

scheme, and meeting the criteria of “success” (2 12.308, df = 3, p

= <.05). It is of interest to note the direction of the difference

72

obtained. Almost a third of the respondents who met the criteria of

success were not aware of the NEIS scheme, and a further 45% of

“successful” respondents were aware it was available, but did not

use it. In total, 92% of respondents (n = 12) who made use of the

NEIS scheme, were not successful by our criteria, although attention

is drawn to the small number of respondents. This result can largely

be explained in terms of the recent start-ups of most of these

businesses and the profile of those eligible for NEIS, those who are

unemployed for twelve months and lack their own assets. Also, the

types of businesses that are started by participants of NEIS tend to

be very small, and require low start-up capital, thus struggle to

meet our criteria.

g) How lack of training was compensated for:

There was a relationship between meeting our criteria of “success”

and seeking advice from a mentor (2 4.394, df = 1, p = <.05). A

small number of respondents (n = 29) stated that they had sought

advice from a mentor, and of these, 55% met our criteria of

“success”. This was significantly more than expected. This

suggests that mentoring has a positive outcome on the success of

the business.

h) Formal written plans:

There was a statistically significant difference between respondents

on this question. Those who had a business plan were much more

likely to meet the criteria of “success” than those who did not (2

5.405, df = 1, p = < .05). Forty per cent of respondents (n = 60)

who had a business plan met the criteria of success, whereas only

28% (n = 54) of those without a formal written business plan were

“successful”.

i) Factors limiting business growth:

This question considered if a relationship existed between “success”

and factors that may have limited business growth. Three areas

were chosen to provide a focus: competition, time and size of outlet.

There appears to be a significant relationship between what

respondents believed to be limiting factors and whether they were

“successful” (2 21.468, df = 2, p = <.01). Of these factors,

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competition was the most frequently mentioned response (n =

138). Of those respondents who thought that competition was a

limiting factor, only one quarter met the criteria of “success” (25%),

whereas 75% of this group failed to meet the “success” criteria.

One hundred respondents commented that ‘time available’ was a

factor limiting business growth, and 54% of this group (n = 54) met

the criteria of “success”. This number was more than the expected

33%. Of the 20 respondents who believed that the size of their

outlet was a contributing factor to business growth, 40% (n = 8)

met the criteria for “success”. Hence time and size of outlet were

more likely to be seen to limit successful businesses, while

competition was more likely to be seen as a limiting factor by those

not successful.

j) Attitude to business risk:

This question addressed whether success or failure was dependent

on an individual’s attitude to risk. Fifty four per cent of those who

had strategies in place to manage risks met our criteria for

“success” (compared with 46% of respondents who did not meet

the criteria). There appears, then, to be a relationship between

attitude to risk and “success”, which is approaching significance (2

9.260, df = 4, p = .055).

k) Perception of risk avoidance:

There is a significant relationship between our measure of

“success” and self perceptions of being a ‘risk avoider’ (2 4.910, p

< .05). Of the respondents who met our criteria of “success”, 50%

saw themselves as ‘risk avoiders’, whereas only 38% of those not

“successful” were risk avoiders. Of the 200 respondents who

indicated they did not avoid risks, 71% did not meet our criteria of

“success”, and only 29% did. Therefore, it appears that if people do

not avoid risks, this exacerbates the likelihood that they will not be

“successful” by the objective criteria. This result suggests that risk

avoidance may be associated with success.

l) Key success factors of your business:

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This question addressed if there was a relationship between our

definition of “success” and what the respondents thought were the

key success factors for them in their businesses. No relationships

were noted on skills, reliability of suppliers, location, networking,

creative ideas, quality, weather, genuine care for clients or being

unique. However, on the factor ‘dedicated friendly staff’, sixty nine

per cent of respondents (n = 13) who considered that dedicated

friendly staff was a key success factor in their business, also met

our criteria of “success”. This is much more than expected. It is

noted, however, that a small number of respondents answered this

question, and hence caution must be taken when considering these

results.

Objective success, then, is not clearly distinguishable from a lack of

success. Successful women in business were more likely to live with a

partner, to come from west Wimmera, Yarriambiack or Hindmarsh, to

employ 5-9 people, and to recognise the importance of good staff. The

business was mostly their main source of income and although they were

likely to be risk avoiders, they were more likely to have strategies in place

to manage risk as well as having formal business plans. In addition, they

made more use of mentors.

4.4.8.2 Subjective Success.

Several questions on the survey produced some understanding of

subjective motivation and success and these were elaborated and

qualified by open ended questions and group discussions.

The following responses to reasons for being in business were as follows:

sense of achievement (n = 168)

creating employment for self (n = 125).

a sense of being in control of one’s own destiny (n =

114),

better lifestyle (n = 100).

extra income for the family (n = 98)

desire to ‘be their own boss’ (n = 61).

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The question, What does business success mean to you? considered the

various subjective responses made by the sample in relation to the

meaning of business success. The following categories created in relation

to the answers received, were cross-tabulated with success.

a) Market dominance (n = 12)

Greater than the expected number of those respondents who met

the criteria of “success” wrote responses that could be

encapsulated by the concept “market domination”. There were 83%

(n = 12) of respondents who met the criteria of “success”,

compared to 17% (n = 2) who also wrote similar responses but did

not meet the criteria of “success”.

b) Market respect (n = 90)

Greater than the expected number of respondents who considered

market respect important (47%) met the criteria of “success”,

compared to 53% who did not meet the criteria of “success”.

c) Better income, profit and comfortable lifestyle (n = 103)

Of those respondents who reported that better income, profit and

comfortable lifestyle were an important definition of business

success to them, 73% were not “successful”. This is considerably

more than expected (65%) whereas only 27% of respondents (n =

28) who said that better income, profit and comfortable lifestyle

were important met the definition of “success”. That is, more

respondents met the criteria of “success” who did not consider that

better income etc. were important aspects of their definition of

success.

The profile of the business partnerships did not indicate a difference

between any of the factors (i.e. market dominance, market respect, family

subsistence or security, satisfying and happy work environment, better

income, profit and comfortable lifestyle, and achieving the self worth and

rewards of hard work). This suggests that there is no relationship between

subjective measures of business success, and whether or not the

respondent is in a partnership with a male.

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When asked what their original aspirations were regarding the size of their

business, ‘steady growth’ summarised the most common response

(29.6%). The comments relative to growth included, “Within two years be

able to financially justify building studio to work in and within three years

to be able to work five days per week on good money,” and “… to be as

big as a supermarket”. The second most common (27.1%) response was

staying small, i.e. to fit with family responsibilities. Many also desired

market respect in that they had a product or service that they could be

proud of and that clients and peers thought well of them (20%). A minority

wanted market dominance, for example the biggest shop in the area, the

best product made (7.5%) or a large income, profit and a comfortable

lifestyle (8.6%). A not insignificant proportion of the responses focused on

family subsistence (10.4%) and work for self or family members (15.7%).

Though for those whose concern was family lifestyle a more modest idea

of growth prevailed,

I never ever wanted to get too large to handle the business on my own. No desire to complicate things by going too big or employing staff. My original idea came about to be here for the children when little and now I’m still here before and after school - very important.

For these women it was considered important to, “… be able to maintain a

regular income on a weekly basis sufficiently supporting myself and

lifestyle.”

There were others whose desire for growth was a means to a more

complex end. For example , “To grow as rapidly as possible, to provide for

myself and for local young workers.”

Others wanted to grow to a point where they were able to employ a

certain number of staff, “To be able to employ 4-5 people; make an

income and pay my bills, and “Two or three employees and sufficient

income to provide weekends off and an annual holiday.”

Responses that suggested a desire for steady growth were the most often

cited, for example: “To grow as rapidly as possible, to provide for myself

and for local young workers, and “It was operating as a three day a week

business; we aim for a 6-7 day a week business.”

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The majority however wanted to stay small or grow only to the point

where they could support themselves and their families. Their main

objective was independence and flexibility, “Self employment of ourselves

only, not to employ staff. “We thought we would like it to remain small

and manageable,” and “Not to become bigger than we can control. Self

employed”, and “I wanted to make enough money to personally survive

on, enough to save well and live comfortably without worry.”

A quarter of the respondents said they would be happy if their business

could ‘break even’ and they kept enjoying the work. This may have meant

covering business costs with or without a salary being drawn. However,

the majority (60.7%), wanted the business to grow and make more profit,

a little less than half of these wanting to produce or service more for the

same market. Others wanted to produce more for a different market

(18.6%), or to produce something else in the same sector (19.2%). Only

11.3% anticipated employing more people to enhance growth.

When asked what business success meant, the women mentioned similar

motivations to their original aspirations. Self-worth and reward for hard

work was the most common type of response (36.5%) with better income,

profit and a comfortable lifestyle second most important (34.4%). Once

again market respect (30.1%) was important and market dominance

(3.7%) reflected the views of a smaller minority. A satisfying happy work

environment (28.1%) and family security or subsistence (23.4%) were also

significant. Personal autonomy was mentioned by 8% of the sample and

6% saw success as serving the community in some way.

When asked what the key success factors were for their business the most

frequently mentioned response was ‘skills’ (77.6%) followed by ‘creative

ideas’ (44%), ‘location’ (42.9%) and ‘reliability of suppliers’ (37%).

Networking was mentioned by a quarter of the sample and several pointed

to the significance of staff (4%, n=13), quality of product or service (7%,

n=23) and genuine care for the client (45%, n=14) in the ‘Other’ category.

A few attributed their success to being a market leader, or having a

unique product (n=5).

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At the focus groups women were also asked to discuss their perceptions of

business success. Their responses and those from the survey can be

categorised as both intrinsic and extrinsic measures of success.

Enjoyment/personal satisfaction and achievement can be termed intrinsic

measures of success. There was discussion of success leading to self-

confidence and the importance of positive feedback to self worth.

One woman described how her initial shyness and reluctance turned to

self confidence as she began to realise that clients were responding

positively to her:

With Avon type selling it is all set up for you so you do not have to make any big decisions but the first time selling was difficult. Now I find it easy and I go inside for 20 minutes rather than leaving the catalogue in the letterbox as some do. Some clients like the social interaction and like me to stay longer.

In terms of intrinsic measures of success women in business on their own

and women in business with men said similar things. The following

comments focus on achievement, job satisfaction and confidence. A

number of women noted that their reason for going into business was that

they wanted to achieve and that it gave them social contact. “I have

financial security, sense of achievement, job satisfaction,” and

“confidence in my own abilities of various types. A purpose in life as well

as happiness and room to do whatever I want.” The following comment is

also typical of many responses. Whilst this woman emphasises personal

fulfilment she also recognises the need to be profitable and the

importance of how her business is perceived by others.

Personal and employee satisfaction and fulfilment. Obviously we must be profitable enough to justify remaining in the business, such as return on capital. Business name and reputation I view to be very important in gauging success.

Growth, profit and business status can be termed as extrinsic measures of

success. To have achieved growth and be making a profit was also

deemed important as a measurement of success, as the following

comments demonstrate, “For me it is financial independence, to build a

reputation as an effective operator in charge of my destiny,” and “To have

lots of money and a sense of self worth - next step world dominance.”

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It is worth noting that even when extrinsic factors are spoken of relative to

success the women still focus on satisfaction and personal lifestyle issues.

“Doing what I do with a passion; keeping my business small and

manageable, but also making a profit”, and “Having a balance between

work and life-style. Being financially self-reliant.”

Financial independence and security was also an important measure of

success for many of the women. Often these two issues were their reasons

for starting the business. Many women wanted to work because they

needed a second income to keep their farms afloat. The rural downturn

and the subsequent lack of jobs in rural and regional areas was another

factor. The women knew that in the absence of opportunities for waged

work they had to make their own work by running a business.

Success factors discussed in previous research include a focus on a small

multi-skilled staff and a strong orientation toward customers (Ackroyd,

1995). Many respondents in this research nominated high quality staff and

their ability to satisfy customers as an indication of success.

Both women operating on their own and women in business with men also

placed emphasis on customer satisfaction. For example one woman noted

that, “Being able to provide a personal service that has my character and

individuality associated with it,” was important to her and another woman

felt that, “Having a good reputation in the community, giving satisfaction

to clients and providing a high quality effective service,” was important.

Additionally another woman said,

Being responsible for the improved quality of life and a means of communication to my clients and their families. As a result continuing to receive referrals and maintain a good reputation.

Ultimately the main issue was that customers are satisfied and “gladly

return to do business”.

Mostly women understandably placed importance on financial reward

however they also placed great importance on intrinsic rewards such as

happiness and a sense of achievement. For example, “A sense of

achievement and I suppose to create an identity for myself. I like myself

better when I can make a contribution,” and “A feeling of achievement

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and increased self-worth, “Validation of existing skills and talents”,

“Independence, financial and personal”, and finally “Business success to

me means that after all the hard work a sense of achievement and

personal satisfaction and self-worth has been conquered”.

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5.CONCLUSION

5.1 Introduction

The number and scope of businesses, the significant proportion of sole

operators and strong optimism among women in business in the Western

Region reflects the growth and interest in women’s businesses in recent

decades. On the other hand the data bear out some aspects of the

influence of rural decline and the struggle some households have to

survive, in terms of long hours input and limited financial returns.

In conclusion we draw attention to some other ambivalent findings. First

the Western Region sample has many similarities with the general

literature and similar surveys of women in small business generally.

Secondly the sample as a whole has some internal, broad-based,

commonly experienced features. Thirdly within that homogeneity,

diversity can be discerned. On some matters there is a wide range of

experience of business. Comparisons between sole/female businesses and

those partnered with males, and between those objectively defined as

successful and those not, bring to light some characteristics of interest

that should allow a more refined approach to policy.

5.2 Similarities To Women In Small Business

Generally

The study revealed that there was much about the sample that reflected

general patterns for women in small business described in literature and

previous surveys. They were broadly similar in terms of education, age,

industrial sectors, gendered division of labour, business style and

preferred communication patterns, and use of family links and help. They

claimed to be flexible in staff dealings but not to lack authority.

Although there was no direct evidence of acts of discrimination, the

gendered horizontal segregation of industries could be a factor

constraining women to a restricted number of employment options. The

gender division of labour in the home and business reflects previous

studies of ethnic family business and wider women and business studies.

The occupations of the women and industry sectors of the businesses

reflect a growth in service work but do not appear to reflect ‘non

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employment’ of people forced to contract for their former waged work.

Most of those surveyed do not appear to be such peripheral workers.

5.3 Internal Homogeneity

Most of the sample worked long hours when domestic and business work

was considered jointly and half wanted their time on the business to

decrease. On the other hand 60% wanted their business to grow. Most

also had some work experience before going into business and had strong

regard for pragmatic experience as the best preparation for business. Lack

of finance, confidence and prior experience were considered the most

significant factors hindering them at start up and, once operating, time,

competition and finance were most important.

Domestic work competed with business time, but isolation, finance and

guilt reduced the potential for outsourcing housework. Although not

addressed in the survey dominant concerns with bureaucratisation and

over-regulation appeared to erode the social capital of the community.

The growth of non-standard work amongst salaried community workers

also compounded this situation.

Professionals, in particular accountants, as well as mentors and colleagues

were deemed by respondents as more vital help to business success than

training courses and business organisations, but informal interaction and

support from fellow traders and similar business owners was valued.

Dominant marketing techniques such as ‘word of mouth’ could be

considered basic. Although many did not make a profit the majority

remained optimistic about their business.

5.4 Differences within the sample

In spite of similarities the study also brought out the range of scale of

business and spectrum of attitudes within the sample. A close look at the

demography revealed some differences that may prove to be important.

Although many of the sample were mature women, it was younger than

the Victorian business women’s sample and contained more sole

operators. The women had more access to the internet than previous

studies of small business had shown.

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Turnover ranged from less than $10,000 to over $1 million. Profits ranged

from nil to $100,000. Just over half claimed they were risk avoiders while

the rest self-defined as risk takers. Attitudes to success ranged from

minimal subsistence, to a desire for world dominance (perhaps tongue in

cheek); from strong commitment to strengthened self worth, to

community altruism. Some had a strong wish to be entrepreneurial and

others were constrained by the need to find employment for themselves

or for family members.

In relations to motivation and success then the findings support a model

that embraces diversity and extrinsic and intrinsic features among women,

which might also cross over to men’s motivation (Baines & Wheelock,

1998). Survival and security are obviously important to many and market

dominance, market respect and the desire for profit appear to reflect the

enterprise culture or classic entrepreneur of a smaller minority.

When sole/female businesses and those partnered with men were

separated out more differences emerged. Although the research did not

directly compare men’s and women’s businesses, the comparison between

sole and female partnered businesses and others revealed some

interesting points of agreement with previous generalisations about

women’s business, especially in relation to size of business and finances.

The sole businesses were more likely to be in Personal, Cultural, Health

and Property sectors, to experience banks not treating them seriously, to

have responsibilities for more household tasks but to spend less time on

them. They were more reliant on family and friends for unpaid labour and

financial help. Data support the notion that women, particularly sole

operators are more kin and social tie bound and could benefit from more

use of official, business, professional networks.

Women in partnership with a male were dominant in Construction,

Transport, Farming, Accommodation and Manufacturing sectors and the

business was more likely to be the main source of household income. They

obtained more start up finance, sought to borrow more and were more

successful when they did. They made more use of unpaid help from Local

and State authorities and were more likely to work both short, part-time

hours and extremely long hours in their business. Thus the model of

women in business with men has similarities to male business.

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5.5 The Success Model

Isolating success factors proved to be difficult, for while there were some

significant differences between the objectively successful and the others

on some variables, there were very few independent variables that

appeared to affect the dependent variable. The successful business

women were more likely to be living with a partner and for the businesses

to be the main source of household income. They were more likely to have

between 5 and 9 employees and to see lack of time and size of outlet as

hampering factors. They did appear to recognise and value good

employees and to value mentors. Their aims were more likely to be

market dominance, market respect, more profit and a comfortable

lifestyle. Although more likely to be risk avoiders, they tended to have

strategies in place to manage risk. More had formal business plans.

Comparisons that suggest that the farming LGAs (Local Government

Areas) appear more successful should be viewed with some scepticism, as

primary production should be analysed within a larger time frame and

financial context, including some recognition of debt.

5.6 Final comment

Time, future training needs, and access to finance could hinder future

success of women’s small business. Greater family equity, efficiency or

outsourcing of domestic tasks may have to be negotiated to allow the

necessary time release for those committed to business growth. The long

hours worked by the women in small business in the western region

warrant greater levels of success and survival than is currently apparent.

In relation to training, although most women prefer face to face contact

for business interaction, the wide use of computers and the high email

accessibility of the 162 who expressed their wish to be on a data base

suggest potential developments in an IT direction. In addition, the women,

like those in the Assessment of Rural Women’s Business Training Needs

(1999) want, foremost, marketing and financial planning business skills.

Finally, finance was a major problem perceived by many of the women in

small business. This problem in all likelihood applies more broadly to small

business, and has been reported in earlier studies (Mason & Harrison,

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1992, p.148). The present research has found that financial difficulties

may be more acute for sole/female traders.

APPENDIX AUniversity of BallaratMt. Helen CampusPO Box 663Ballarat Vic 3353

October, 2001

Dear Small Business Owner

The University of Ballarat in partnership with the City of Ballarat recently attracted funding from the Department of State and Regional Development and the Department of Natural Resources and Environment to identify the extent of women’s involvement in small business within the Western Region.

The project entitled ‘A Model of Success: Women’s Entrepreneurial and Small Business Activity in Regional Areas’ is being managed through the University’s School of Business. The information gathered as a result of this project will influence future government policies and aims to assist women in rural areas.

To assist in providing information and identifying the factors leading to success, we require your assistance in completing the attached questionnaire and either handing it to the researcher in a sealed envelope or posting it in the reply paid envelope provided. It will take approximately thirty (30) minutes to complete the questionnaire.

All information provided will be treated with the strictest confidence and data will be stored separately from any listing that includes names and addresses. Aggregated results will be used for government reports, research purposes and may be reported in scientific and academic journals. It should be noted that individual businesses will not be traceable.

Your consent to the above is implied by completing and returning the questionnaire.

Yours Sincerely

Janice NewtonLorene GottschalkGlenice WoodSchool of Business

A return by late October would be greatly appreciated.

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SURVEY ON WOMEN'S ENTREPRENEURIAL AND SMALL BUSINESS ACTIVITY IN REGIONAL VICTORIA

(For this survey small business is defined as a business employing less than 20 people.)

Questions are on both sides of the page. Please tick the box provided or write on line provided.

PERSONAL DETAILS

1. Age Less than 30 40-50 30-39 Greater than 50

2.Ethnicity Born in Australia Aboriginal or Torres Strait IslanderBorn Overseas If yes, year arrived in Australia _________What is your most commonly used language in relation to running your business __________________

3.Education Did not finish high school Completed high school

Completed basic or skilled vocational Completed Degree or Diploma Completed post-graduate degree Other eg. Currently studying (explain) _______________________

4.ResidenceRural town/area below 500 people Rural town 10,000 to 19,999 people Rural town/area 500-999 people Rural town over 20,000 people Rural town 1000 to 9999 people Bi-local (move between different areas)

5. Are you:Living alone Living with partner Living with partner and dependent children

and/or elderly/disabled dependant Living without partner with dependent

children and/or elderly/disabled dependant Other Age of children (if applicable) ___________________

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Domestic Responsibilities6.What are your main domestic responsibilities? (tick only those that you are mostly responsible for)minding child/ren/elderly parent,

or arranging for their minding lawn mowing transporting child/ren waste handling cleaning house maintaining vegetable cleaning clothes garden/chickens cleaning dishes house and vehicle buying food/household provisions maintenance cooking food budgeting & bills maintaining garden other (name) ________________________________________________

7. How many hours a week, on average, would you spend on all these tasks? Less than 10 hours 30-39 hours 10-19 hours Over 40 hours 20-29 hours

8. Do you anticipate that in the next 5 years your time on this domestic work will:remain the same decrease increase

CURRENT BUSINESS PROFILE

9.Current Business Sole operator In partnership with male/s, shared leading role

In partnership with female/s In partnership with male/s, leading role 10. If in partnership, what is your starting point partner’s relationship to you, and reason for forming the partnership?

Partner 1’s relationship to you Partner 2’s relationship to youhusband father mother brothersister

partnerfriend acquaintanceOther__________

husband father mother brothersister

partnerfriend acquaintanceOther__________

Reason for forming partnership: Reason for forming partnership:Close kin or residence tie Access to financeAccess to business networkAccess to complementary skillsTax minimisationOther

Close kin or residence tie Access to financeAccess to business networkAccess to complementary skillsTax minimisationOther

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Industry Sector

11.Tick the category that best describes the primary activity of your business (Choose only one).

Mining Manufacturing Construction Wholesale trade

Retail Trade Accommodation, cafes & restaurants

Transport & storage

Communication services

Finance & Insurance

Property & Business Services

Education Health & community services

Cultural & Recreational services

Personal & other services

Farming & agriculture

12.What type of product/service do you make or exchange? ______________

13.Please give a 2-5 word description of current business. ______________________________________________________________

14. Local Government Area of business.

West Wimmera Hindmarsh Horsham Yarriambiack Northern Grampians Ararat Pyrenees Hepburn Ballarat Moorabool

15. Location of your business

home residence farm town (less than 10,000 population) on net ( e business) town (less than 11 - 20,000 population) Other (please state)large town (more than 20,000 population) ______________________

16.Type of business premise/s

desk at home shed/studio at home room/office at home office and/or factory in a town shop/gallery Other (please state) _______________

Numbers Employed

17. Numbers employed in this business including self __________________

18. Effective number of full time employees (ie 2 half times = 1) __________

19.Unpaid labour and advice.

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Source of help Type of help Estimate of average weekly hours of help

FamilyFriendsAssociatesSuppliersLocal Government agenciesState Government agenciesOther

Income20. Is the business your principal source of personal income? Yes No

21. Is it the main source of household income? Yes No

CURRENT BUSINESS - START UP PHASE

22. Beginning the business Year

Time first conceived idea of having this business _______Year business actually began _______

23. Did you: Start this business Purchase business as a going concern Inherit this business Obtain a franchise for this business Take on direct selling Other _________________________________

Work Experience24. Did you have past work experience prior to setting up your business?Yes No

25. If ‘Yes’, what knowledge and skills that you acquired from your prior work experience have been the most useful in your business? (eg. bookkeeping, staff supervision.)____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

26. Source, type and amount of actual ‘start up’ finance.

Source eg. self, father, bank, financial institution.

Type eg. loan, gift, own savings, sale of assets.

Purpose Amount in dollars

27.If you were refused finance, what were the main reasons given by the financier?

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unable to service loan insufficient cash flow not enough security no business plan Other ___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Training

28. Tick if you were aware of, used and/or found useful the following training courses, services and agencies in your region for the start up phase of your business.

Training Course/Service/Agency

Not Aware

Aware available

Made use of

Found useful

NEIS (New Enterprise Incentive Scheme) Certificate II to IV in Small Business Certificate III to Diploma in Business Management

Diploma of Business Certificate II to III in Retail Operations Certificate IV to Diploma of Retail Management

Australian Taxation Office Dept of State & Regional Dvlpt Koori Business Network Small Business Counselling Service Victorian Civil & Admin.Authority Rural Finance Corporation of Victoria Austrade Victorian Workcover Authority Chambers of Commerce Industry Associations Tourism Victoria Victorian Business Centres Business Enterprise Centres Women’s Associations/networks TAFE (local) Accountants Australian Customs Service Consumer & Business Affairs, Victoria Solicitors Council Economic Development Unit Other, eg Colleagues

29. Please comment on usefulness of courses, if applicable.

______________________________________________________________

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______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

30. If you did not make use of any courses, how did you compensate for this?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

Factors influencing start up

31. Which factors hindered or inhibited start up phase, if applicable?Lack of finance Lack of prior experience Lack of confidence Lack of support from spouse/partner Lack of access to information Lack of community support Lack of infrastructureLack of child care (eg.water supply, telecommunications)

Bank not treating you seriously Lack of information and support Rejection by financial institutions services (eg banks, building societies) Accountant not treating you seriouslyOther _______________________________________________________________

32.In hindsight what would have helped you in start up of your business?

Finance Training Courses Business Mentors Financial advice Other _________________

________________________________________________________________

CURRENT BUSINESS OPERATIONS

Planning33.Do you have: Yes Noa formal, written business plan? a financial plan? formal goal setting and planning?

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Time34. How many hours are you able to put into the business per average week?

Less than 20 hours 40-59 hours 20-29 hours 60-79 hours 30-39 hours More than 80 hours

35.Would you like this amount of time to: decrease stay the same increase

Training

36. Tick if you were aware of, used and/or found useful the following training courses, services and agencies in your region for the operating phase of your business. Training Course/Service/Agency

Not Aware

Aware available

Made use of

Found useful

NEIS (New Enterprise Incentive Scheme) Certificate II to IV in Small Business Certificate III to Diploma in Business Management

Diploma of Business Certificate II to III in Retail Operations Certificate IV to Diploma of Retail Management

Australian Taxation Office Dept of State & Regional Dvlpt Koori Business Network Small Business Counselling Service Victorian Civil & Admin.Authority Rural Finance Corporation of Victoria Austrade Victorian Workcover Authority Chambers of Commerce Industry Associations Tourism Victoria Victorian Business Centres Business Enterprise Centres Women’s Associations/networks TAFE (local) Accountants Australian Customs Service Consumer & Business Affairs, Victoria Solicitors Council Economic Development Unit Other, eg Colleagues

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37.Please comment on usefulness of courses, if applicable.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

38.If you did not make use of any courses, how did you compensate for this?

_____________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

Obtaining Raw Materials & Services

39.How do you obtain the following: (Raw Materials/resources = RM; Services = S) RM S RM S

Local distributor Melbourne (self drive) Mail Order Melbourne (delivered from) Intermediaries Interstate Overseas Carrier to nearest major town Other ______________________________________________________________

Marketing and Advertising

40.What is your main method of marketing and advertising?

Internet word of mouth existing personal relationships newspaper advertisements fliers/brochures posters/noticeboards shop front incentives to current customers exhibitions and trade shows television Other (please state)___________________________________________________

Financial Records

41. How do you manage your financial records?I do my own bookkeeping. A family member _________(nameI pay someone to do my books. relationship) or friend does my books.

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Measures of profit and growth

42. Per annum profit last financial year 1999 –2000 43. Turnover 1999-2000did not make a profit 0- $10,000 less than $1000 $10,001 - 20,000 $1000-$5000 $20,001 - 50,000 $5001-$10,000 $50,001 - 100,000 $10,001-20,000 $100,001 - 300,000 $20,001-30,000 $300,001 - 500,000 $30,001-50,000 $500,001 –1,000,000 $50,001-75,000 $1,000,001 + $75,001-100,000 $100,001 +

If business is more recent, estimate last quarterly profit $ ____________

44. Sales Growth 1999-2000 45. Percentage of Export Sales

Nil or declining 0% Low (less than 10%) 1-9% Moderately strong (10-24%) 10-19% Rapid (25% +) 20-39%

40% +

46. Compared with your competitors, would you say you werePerforming well/growing Struggling Keeping up Other ______________________

Factors limiting business growth.

47. Please tick the 3 most important.

competition size of outlet time available domestic responsibilities venture finance transport of product access to market lack of information infrastructure (roads, telecommunications) Other ___________________________________________________

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Factors affecting Operation

48.Which factors hinder or inhibit operation of business?

Lack of finance Lack of information and support services Lack of confidence Lack of support from spouse/partner Lack of community support Bank not treating you seriously Lack of child care Lack of infrastructure Lack of prior experience (eg.water supply, telecommunications) Lack of time Other (please state)_________________________________________________________________________________

49.Have you ever sought to borrow for ongoing business activities (eg expansion)?

Yes No

50. If ‘Yes’, were you successful? Yes No

51. If ‘No’ what reason was given by financier?

unable to service loan insufficient cash flow not enough security no business plan Other ______________________________________________________________

Attitude to business risk.

52.Tick the statement that is closest to your attitude.a) I prefer to avoid large bank loans. b) To do something properly you should start with a big financial injection. c) I prefer to produce only a small batch and see how a product goes, or start in a small way with service provision, before investing too much money. d) If I really believe in what my business has got to offer, I am prepared to take

risks to start or build up my business. e) I have strategies in place to manage risk.

53.Would you perceive yourself as a risk avoider? or risk taker?

54.How do you manage risks?Goal planning ‘go for broke’(not worry) Rely on others having a contingency plan Other ______________________________________________________________

Information and Communication

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55.Main sources of information that aid you in business. (Rank from ‘1’ most important to ‘7’ least important, until not applicable).

Radio (specify program) ____________________Television (specify program) ____________________Newspapers (specify) ____________________Magazines/journals (specify) ____________________Rural Women’s Network Internet searches Professionals (eg accountant, solicitor) Mentors

56.How do you communicate with your business partner/s, if applicable. (P1 = Partner 1, P2 = Partner 2)

Typical frequency P1 P2

Type of interaction P1 P2

Continuous Informal Daily Set, formal meetings Several times a week Telephone contact Weekly Fax contact Less than weekly Email contact Less than monthly Web contact Varies Other (please state)

57. How do you generally communicate with staff as a whole, if applicable?

Typical frequency Type of interactionContinuous Informal Daily Set, formal meetings Several times a week Telephone contact Weekly Fax contact Less than weekly Email contact Less than monthly Web contact Varies Other (please state)

58.What is your normal style of communication for business (Tick the appropriate box)

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STYLE OF COMMUNICATIONWHO YOU COMMUNICATE WITH

Face to face contact

Telephone contact

Fax contact

Email/ internet contact

Friends and acquaintances

Experts/specialists, accountants, suppliers, other like businesses etc.Women's or Business organisation eg. Chamber of Commerce, CWA

59. Generally, what is your preferred style of communication in your business dealings? (Tick appropriate box)

STYLE OF COMMUNICATIONWHO YOU COMMUNICATE WITH

Face to face contact

Telephone contact

Fax contact

Email/internet contact

Friends and acquaintances

Experts/specialists, accountants, suppliers, other like businesses etc.Women's or Business organisation eg. Chamber of Commerce, CWA

60. If your actual style of communication and your preferred style differ please comment on the reasons for the difference._____________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

Managing/Interacting with Employees

61. Decision making style with staff, if applicable. Please tick one statement that is closest to your typical style of making business decisions.

I allow subordinates to function independently within limits. I make a decision then announce it. I present a tentative decision and allow that it is subject to change. I let the staff make group decisions within defined limits. I present ideas and invite suggestions before making the decision. I make a decision then explain it. I present a problem, take suggestions and then make a decision.

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Staff management 62.Mark the statements that are generally true, false or not applicable for your business. True False NAI have a fairly quick turnover : few staff stay longer than 6 months.Most of my staff have been with me since I began/for several years.Staff willingly work back when required.I have difficulty getting the staff to work the odd/flexible hours I need for my business.Staff work set hours.Staff have a say over when they take their annual leave and some flexibility to suit family needs.Staff can alter start and finish times as long as the required hours are put in.I generally feel that I have the skills required to effectively manage my staff.Staff respect my authority.

Information Technology

63. Do you have access to the Internet through a computer? Yes No

64.If yes, tick what uses you make of the internet?

Email Research Buying or selling (e-commerce) Website or homepage Other (please state) ______________________________________________

SELF REFLECTION

Objectives65. Why are you in business? (tick up to only 3 main reasons)extra income for family tax minimisation extra income for self better lifestyle sense of achievement satisfying work environment sense of being in control of own destiny creating employment for self creating employment for family members satisfying a local need inherited business wanting to be own boss recognised market niche Other (please state) ___________________________________________________

Aspirations for business growth

66.What were your original aspirations regarding the size of your business when you set up or obtained your business? ___________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

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67.Tick the statement that most fits your aspirations now.a) As long as I break even and keep enjoying the work I will be happy. b) I would be happy if I could make $_________(insert number) profit per year. c) I want to sell or close my business d) I would like the business to make lots of profit and to keep growing.

If d) This is how I would anticipate growing:producing more ( or servicing more) for the same market producing more (or servicing more) for a different geographical market diversifying, producing something else in same sector of industry diversifying, producing something else for a different industrial sector employing more people Other (please state) ________________________________________

68.What does business success mean for you? ______________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

69.What are the key success factors of your business?

Skills reliability of suppliers location networking creative ideas not known Other ____________________________________________________________

70. What sort of courses or training would you like to see made available? Delivery style Content TimingSmall workshops face to face

Financial Night

Internet chat groups Marketing Day Large city based seminars Promotion Part-time Other Ecommerce Fulltime in block

Export Interpersonal skills Computer Internet Staff supervision Other

Thank you very much for your time and cooperation

Janice Newton, Lorene Gottschalk, Glen Wood

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THIS SECTION IS DETACHED BEFORE QUESTIONNAIRE CODED AND MAY BE MAILED SEPARATELY, SO NAME REMAINS ABSOLUTELY

CONFIDENTIAL----------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------

I would like to become part of a database network for rural women in small business managed through the Department of State and Regional Development.

I would like to be a mentor for other women

Please leave your name and phone number and/or email address, postal address if you

would like to be a mentor or part of the database (Alternatively, you can also phone

this information to Janice Newton 03 53279623.)

Name:

Phone:

Email address if applicable:

Postal Address:

Any questions regarding this project can be directed to Janice Newton on telephone number 53279623 . Should you have any concerns about the conduct of this research project, please contact the Executive Officer, Human Research Ethics Committee, Scholarship and Educational Development Services Branch, University of Ballarat, PO Box 663, Mt Helen VIC 3353. Telephone: (03) 5327 9765.

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APPENDIX B LIST OF OCCUPATIONSBold indicates sole or female partnership

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Accommodation (17) 2Accommodation and mealsAccommodation- B & B (6) 3Accountancy (4) 2Adult educationAdvertisingAgri tourism (2) 1Alternative therapiesAmusement machinesAromatherapyArt classes and suppliesAuto repair (2)Auto salesAuto-electrical repairsBakery (5) 1Beauty therapyBookkeepingBuilder (3)Building materialsBusiness advisorCabinet makingCafé (8) 1Café & BakeryCatering (2) 1Ceramics (3)Chemical manufactureCleaner (2)ClothingClothing alterationsCommunicationConsultancyConsultant – engineeringCorporate writerDance supplies (2)Dance teacherDental careDietetic consultantDigital illustrationsDoll making – porcelainDry cleaning (2)Earthworks (2) EngineeringEnvironmental managementFarm machineryFast food (2) 1Florist (4) 2Food (4) 2Food – sandwich barFood – takeawayFood – takeaway and deliFood productsFood –takeawayFood, hospitalityFunction centreFurniture makerFurniture removals (2)General store (2) 1Giftware (3)Glazier (3)

Grain cleaners Graphic designGrass seed supplierGrazierGrocer (2) 1Grocery wholesalerHairdresser (15) 12Health advisorHealth supplementsHearing aidsHome helpHoney gathering and packingHorseriding (2)HospitalityHotel (5) 1House restumpingHuman servicesInterior design (5) 2IT servicesJewellery manufactureJoineryKitchen manufactureLaminated benchtop manufactureLegal services (2)Licensed barLiquor tradeMaintenance manualsMake-up direct salesManufacture -Navigation buoysManufacture – candyManufacture – chocolateManufacture – confectionaryManufacture Clothing (2) 1 Manufacture – food (3) 1Manufacture – Hand knittingManufacture – wrought iron productsManufacture Animal food Manufacture –Curtains (3)Manufacturer – steelManufacturing – canvas goodsMarketing consultantMassage (3) 2Milkbar and sandwichesMilkbar and videosMotel (7) 2Motor parts manufactureMultimedia consultantMusic teacherNatural healthNatural medicinesNaturopathyNewsagency (4) 1)APPENDIX C (ContinuedOccupational health and safety trainingOffice suppliesOrchardistPainter

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Painter and wallpapererPatchwork quilting (2)PersonnelPet cagesPet carePharmacy (3) 2Photography (5) 3Photography, designPhysiotherapy (2) 1Picture framer (2) 1Plant nursery (2)Postal (2)Primary producer – organic vegetablesPrimary producer – cereals and legumesPrimary producer – grain (3) 1Primary producer – sheep, grainPrimary producer – wool (3)Primary producer – wool and grainPrimary producer –AgriculturePrimary producer –FlowersPrimary producer –Wool, accommodationPrimary producer – cropping, grazingProperty maintenanceProperty managementPsychologist (2)Real estate (2) 1Retail –Children’s clothingRepair – TVRepairs – electrical applianceRestaurant – veganRetail (3)Retail – antiquesRetail – apparel (12) 9Retail – apparel and ManchesterRetail – baby productsRetail – children’s clothing (2)Retail – confectionaryRetail – crystalRetail – electrical (3)Retail – electrical motorsRetail – fabric and giftsRetail – floorcoveringsRetail – Footwear (3) 1Retail – fuelRetail – furnitureRetail – garden suppliesRetail – giftware (4) 3Retail – hardwareRetail – homewaresRetail – kitchen wareRetail – Manchester (2)Retail – menswearRetail – motorcyclesRetail - shopkeeperRetail – small engines

Retail – souvenirRetail – specialty Retail – sporting goods (2)Retail – sportswear (2) 1Retail – underwear (2)Retail – uniformsRetail – wineRetail furniture, removalistRetail –haberdasheryRetail, petrol, garden suppliesRoadhouse restaurantSaddlerySecretarial serviceSecretarial supportSecurityService stationService station and mechanical repairs (2) 1Shopkeeper (2)Snack foodSpeech pathologySpray paintingSteel fabricationStockfeed, calf rearingSupermarket (2)Superphosphate supplierTaxiTobacconistTourism (2) 1Transport -sheep and grazierTravel consultantVeterinary servicesVideo hire (3)Vineyard (3) 1Vineyard and accommodation, tourismVineyard, wool, accommodationWaste collectionWholesaler - Chinese goodsWildlife Art manufactureWood turningWriter – children’s book

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