draft malaysian mtib14tc2003r1 standard - … 544 part 1_pc september 2015.pdf · malaysian...

DRAFT

MALAYSIAN MTIB14TC2003R1

STANDARD STAGE: PUBLIC COMMENT (40.20)

DATE: 7 SEPTEMBER 2015 – 6 NOVEMBER 2015

Code of practice for structural use of timber - Part 1: General (First revision)

ICS: 91.080.20 Descriptors: Code of practice, structural use, timber, general

© Copyright 2015

DEPARTMENT OF STANDARDS MALAYSIA

MTIB14TC2003R1

© STANDARDS MALAYSIA 2015 - All rights reserved i

CONTENTS

Page Committee representation..........................................................................……..………... ii Foreword…….........................................................................................……….... ………… iii 1 Scope………………………………………………………………………………………. 1

2 Referenced documents………………………………………………………………….. 1

3 Terms and definitions………………………………………………………………..….. 2

4 Symbols………………………………………………………………………………..….. 5

5 Materials……………………………………………………………………………….….. 7

6 Design considerations………………………………………………………………..….. 7

Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………… 12

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ii © STANDARDS MALAYSIA 2015 - All rights reserved

Committee representation The Industry Standards Committee on Timber, Timber Products and Timber Structures, under whose authority this Malaysian Standard was developed, comprises representatives from the following organisations: Construction Industry Development Board Malaysia Forest Research Institute of Malaysia Department of Standards Malaysia Institution of Engineers Malaysia Jabatan Kerajaan Tempatan Malaysian Furniture Promotion Council Malaysian Panel-Products Manufacturer’s Association Malaysian Public Works Department Malaysian Timber Council Malaysian Timber Industry Board (Secretariat) Malaysian Wood Industries Association Malaysian Wood Moulding and Joinery Council Malaysian Wood Preserving Association Sabah Timber Industries Association Sarawak Timber Association Sarawak Timber Industry Development Corporation Timber Exporters Association of Malaysia Universiti Putra Malaysia UniversitiTeknologi MARA The Technical Committee on Timber Structures which supervised the development of this Malaysian Standard consists of representatives from the following organisations: Construction Industry Development Board Malaysia Forest Research Institute Malaysia Institute of Engineers Malaysia Malaysian Institute of Architects Malaysian Timber Council Malaysian Timber Industry Board (Secretariat) Ministry of Urban Wellbeing, Housing & Local Government Multinail Asia Sdn Bhd Public Works Department Sarawak Timber Industry Development Corporation Timber Exporters’ Association of Malaysia Universiti Putra Malaysia Universiti Sains Malaysia Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Universiti Teknologi Mara Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia Wood Industry Skills Development Centre The Working Group on Structural Use of Timber Part 11 which developed this Malaysian Standard consists of representatives from the following organisations: Forest Research Institute Malaysia Malaysian Timber Industry Board (Secretariat) Multinail Asia Sdn Bhd Public Works Department Sarawak Timber Industry Development Corporation Universiti Sains Malaysia Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Universiti Teknologi MARA Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

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© STANDARDS MALAYSIA 2015 - All rights reserved iii

FOREWORD

This Malaysian Standard was developed by the Working Group on MS 544 Part 1 under the authority of the Timber, Timber Products and Timber Structures Industry Standard Committee. This Malaysian Standard is the first revision of MS 544 - 1, Code of practice for structural use of timber – Part 1: General. Major modifications in this revision are as follows: a) the terms and definition has been added and modified; b) the structure of MS has been modified; and c) clause 6 has been modified. MS 544 consists of the following parts and sections, under the general title Code of practice for structural use of timber: Part 1: General Part 2: Permissible stress design of solid timber Part 3: Permissible stress design of glued laminated timber Part 4: Timber panel products Part 4 is further divided into a number of sections as follows: Section 1: Structural plywood Section 2: Marine plywood Section 3: Cement bonded particleboard Section 4: Oriented strand board Part 5: Timber joints Part 6: Workmanship, inspection and maintenance Part 7: Testing Part 8: Design, fabrication and installation of prefabricated timber for roof trusses Part 9: Fire resistance of timber structures Part 9 is further subdivided into a number of sections as follows: Section 1: Method of calculating fire resistance of timber members Part 10: Preservative treatment of structural timbers

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iv © STANDARDS MALAYSIA 2015 - All rights reserved

FOREWORD (Continued) Part 11: Recommendation for the calculation basis for span tables Part 11 is further divided into a number of sections as follows: Section 1: Domestic floor joists Section 2: Ceiling joists Section 3: Ceiling binders Section 4: Domestic rafters Part 12: Laminated veneer lumber for structural application This Malaysian Standard cancels and replaces MS 544-1: 2001.

Compliance with a Malaysian Standard does not of itself confer immunity from legal

obligations.

MTIB14TC2003R1

© STANDARDS MALAYSIA 2015 - All rights reserved 1

Code of practice for structural use of timber - Part 1: General

(First revision)

1 Scope This Part of Standard provides guidance on the structural use of timber and timber-based

products, in load bearing members. It includes recommendations on quality, grade stresses and modification factors applicable to these materials when use as simple members, or as parts of built-up components, or as parts of structures in incorporating other materials. It also gives recommendations for the design of nailed, screwed, bolted, connected and glued joints. In addition, it provides recommendations for a method of test to assess the adequacy of structural assemblies, and it includes general advice on workmanship, various treatments which can be applied, inspection and maintenance.

It does not, and it is not intended to, deal comprehensively with all aspects of timber

construction. In particular it does not cover well tried and traditional methods of timber

construction which have been employed successfully over a long period of time.

2 Referenced documents The following referenced normative references are indispensable for the application of this standard. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the normative reference (including any amendments) applies.

MS 360: 2006, Treatment of timber with copper /chrome/arsenic (CCA) wood preservatives –

Specification (Third revision)

MS 544 – 2, Code of practice for structural use of timber - Part 2: Permissible stress design of

solid timber

MS 544 – 6, Code of practice for structural use of timber - Part 6: Workmanship, inspection

and maintenance

MS 544 – 7, Code of practice for structural use of timber - Part 7: Testing

MS 544 – 11, Code of practice for structural use of timber - Part 11: Recommendation for the calculation basis for span tables

MS 734: 1981, Specification for wood preservation by means of pressure creosoting

MS 758: 2001, Glued laminated timber – performance requirements and minimum production requirements

MS 1553:2002, Code of Practice on Wind Loading for Building Structure MS 1714: 2003, Specification for Visual Strength Grading of Tropical Hardwood Timber

ISO 3898, Cement-bonded particleboard - Boards of Portland or equivalent cement reinforced with fibrous wood particles

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2 © STANDARDS MALAYSIA 2015 - All rights reserved

BS EN 338: 2009, Structural timber. Strength classes BS EN 385: 2001, Finger jointed structural timber. Performance requirements and minimum production requirements

BS EN 912: 2011, Timber fasteners. Specifications for connectors for timbers

BS EN 1202-1: 2002, Specification for nails. Steel nails

BS EN 1210: 2005, Chemicals used for treatment of water intended for human consumption.

Sodium tripolyphosphate

BS 1203: 2001, Hot-setting phenolic and aminoplastic wood adhesives. Classification and test

method

BS 6100-0:2010, Building and civil engineering. Vocabulary. Introduction and index

BS 6446:1997, Specification for manufacture of glued structural components of timber and wood based panels The Uniform Building By-Laws 1984.

3 Terms and definitions For the purposes of this Standard, the terms and definitions given in BS 6100-0:2010 and the following apply.

3.1 bare sawn

Applied to sawn timber that measures, at the time of inspection, the same as the dimensions

specified.

3.2 basic stress (Clear wood stress)

Stress that can safely be permanently sustained by solid timber containing no visible strength

reducing characteristics.

3.3 connector

Device generally consisting of a plate, disc or ring which, when partly embedded in each or in

one of the contact faces of two members held together by a connecting bolt, is capable of

transmitting a load from one member to another.

3.4 connector axis

Line joining the centres of a pair of adjacent connectors located on the same surface.

3.5 dry stress

Stress applicable to material exposed in conditions which would result in solid timber having

moisture content not exceeding 19% in service.

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3.6 dressed timber

Sawn timber planed on one or more surfaces; also known as wrought timber; D4S – dressed

four side, i.e. on two faces and two edges; D3S – dressed three sides, i.e. on two and one edge; D2S – dressed two sides, i.e. on two faces only; D1S – dressed one side, i.e. on one face only.

3.7 end joint efficiency

Percentage ratio of the strength of the end joint to the strength of unjointed timber of the same

cross section and species containing no strength reducing characteristics.

3.8 full sawn

Applied to timber that has been sawn oversize to allow for shrinkage and which should

therefore measure more than the specified dimensions until that timber has been fully

seasoned: also known as oversize.

3.9 grade

An established use of quality classification of timber.

3.9.1 select structural grade

Grade which is intended for special purposes, particularly when the strength/weight ratio of

the timber is to be a maximum.

3.9.2 standard structural grade

Grade which is intended for normal purposes.

3.9.3 common building grade

Grade which is intended for wooden members used in less important parts of building frames,

which are not usually designed by means of engineering calculations.

3.10 grade stress

Stress which can safely be permanently sustained by material of a specific section size and of

a particular strength group or species and grade.

3.11 load-sharing system

Assembly of pieces or members which are constrained to act together to support a common

load.

3.12 member

Structural component which may be either a piece of solid timber or built up from pieces of

timber, plywood, etc. (e.g. floor joist, box beam, member in a truss, etc.).

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3.13 nominal size

The size of the piece of timber before the timber is dressed. The nominal size is greater than

the actual of the finished dimension.

3.14 permissible stress Stress that can safely be sustained by a structural material under a particular condition.

NOTES:

1) For the purposes of this MS 544, permissible stress is the product of the grade stress and the

appropriate modification factors such as section size, service class and loading.

2) A more precise demarcation of wet and dry service conditions has been deliberately avoided. For the purposes of Malaysian Standard the dry condition for solid timber approximates to a moisture content of 19 % or less in hardwood.

3.15 principle member

Individual member on which the integrity of the structure depends (e.g. a trimmer beam).

3.16 strength group

Timber and timber products having similar strength and stiffness properties have been

grouped together for simplicity in design procedure.

3.17 structural unit

Assembly of members forming the whole or part of a framework.

NOTE. Example of structural units are truss, prefabricated floor and wall, skeleton of a building or a

complete structure. 3.18 target size

size used to indicate the size desired (≤ 19 % moisture content), and used, without further

modification, for design calculations.

3.19 vertically glued laminated member

Glued laminated member whose laminations are at right-angles to the neutral plane.

3.20 visual strength grading

Visual strength grading is a grading method that involves the visual judgement of the quality

of timber. For solid timber, visual strength grading is done based upon guidelines specified in

the MS1714 by certified timber grader. The amount of defects that exist in a piece of timber

will determine whether it is Select, Standard or Common grade.

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3.21 wet timber

Timber freshly felled, or still containing original free moisture in its cell cavities. Timber having

a moisture content exceeding 19 %.

3.22 wet stress/Green stress

The stress applicable to timber having a moisture content exceeding 19 %.

4. Symbols The symbols used in this standard are generally in accordance with ISO 3898 supplemented

by the recommendations of CIB-W18-1 'Symbols for use in structural timber design', The

symbols used are:

a distance;

A area;

b breadth of beam, thickness of web, or lesser transverse dimension of a tension or

compression member;

d diameter;

E modulus of elasticity;

F force or load;

h depth of beam, greater transverse dimension of a tension or compression member;

i radius of gyration;

K modification factor (always with a subscript);

L length;

Le effective length

m mass;

M bending moment;

n number;

r radius of curvature;

t thickness; thickness of laminations;

angle between the direction of the load and the direction of the grain;

MTIB14TC2003R1


eccentricity factor;

Angle between the longitudinal axis of a member and a connector axis;

Slenderness ratio;

Stress;

Shear stress;

MC Moisture content;

I Second moment of area;

The subscripts used are:

a) Type of force, stress etc:

c compression;

m bending; and

t tension.

b) Significance:

a applied;

adm permissible;

e effective;

mean arithmetic mean;

cw clear wood; and

cg grade.

c) Geometry

apex apex;

r radial;

tang tangential;

|| parallel (to the grain);

perpendicular (to the grain); and

angle.

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It is recommended that where more than one subscript is used, the categories should be

separated by commas.

Subscripts may be omitted when the context in which the symbols are used is unambiguous

except in the case of modification factors K.

5 Materials The materials used should comply with the appropriate Malaysian Standards or when such are non-available, with the appropriate Standards such as BS EN 338:2009,BS EN 1202-1:2002, BS 1203:2001, BS EN 1210:2005, BS EN 912:2011 or other National Standards.

The timber shall be graded in accordance with the MS 1714: 2003 by certified timber graders

registered with MTIB. Timber graded shall be stencilled in accordance with MS 1714: 2003.

6 Design considerations

6.1 General

6.1.1 All structural members, assemblies or frameworks in a building, in combination with the floors and walls and other parts of a building, should be capable of sustaining, with due stability and stiffness and without exceeding the relevant limits of stress given in MS 544 the whole dead, imposed and wind loading and all other types of loading referred to MS 544.

The design requirements of this MS 544 may be satisfied either by calculation, or by load

testing in accordance with MS 544-7: 2001. The design and details of parts and components

should be compatible, particularly in view of the increasing use of prefabricated components

such as trussed rafters and floors. The designer responsible for the overall stability of the

structure should ensure this compatibility even when some or all of the design and details are

made by another designer.

To ensure a robust and stable design it is necessary to:

a) consider the geometry of the structure;

b) check any required interaction and connections between timber load-bearing

elements and between such elements and other parts of the structure; and

c) provide suitable bracing or diaphragm effect in planes parallel to the direction of the

lateral forces acting on the whole structure.

In addition, the designer should state whether special precautions or temporary propping are necessary to ensure overall stability of the structure or its components during construction.

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The grade stresses for materials and basic loads for fasteners given in this Part of MS 544 apply to specific conditions and should be multiplied by the appropriate modification factors given in the relevant parts of MS 544 when the actual service and loading conditions are different.

NOTE. The strength properties of timber, plywood, fibreboard, wood particleboard, other engineered timber products and joints are influenced by service and loading conditions.

6.1.2 With regard to the design process, design, including design for construction durability

and use in service should be considered as a whole.

NOTE. Unless clearly defined standards for materials, production, workmanship and maintenance are

provided and complied with the design intentions may not be realised.

6.1.3 With regard to basic assumptions covering durability, workmanship and materials, it is

assumed that the quality of the timber and other materials, and of the workmanship as verified

by inspections, is adequate for safety, serviceability and durability.

6.2 Loading

For the purpose of design, loading should be in accordance with UBBL-1984, or other

relevant standards, where applicable

NOTE. Unless clearly defined in the standard for loading, actual loading may be used for design.

6.3 Accidental damage

In addition to designing a structure to support loads arising from normal use, there should be

a reasonable probability that the structure will not collapse catastrophically because of misuse

or accident. No structure can be expected to be resistant to the excessive loads or forces

that could arise from an extreme cause, but it should not be damaged to an extent which is

disproportionate to the original cause.

NOTE. For further explaination, refer to UBBL 1984.

6.4 Service classes

Because of the effect of moisture content on material mechanical properties, the permissible

property values should be those corresponding to one of the following service classes.

a) Service class 1 is characterized by moisture content in the materials corresponding to a

temperature of 20 °C and the relative humidity of the surrounding air only exceeding 65 %

for a few weeks per year. In such moisture conditions most timber will attain an average

moisture content not exceeding 12 %.

b) Service class 2 is characterized by moisture content in the materials corresponding to a

temperature of 20 °C and the relative humidity of the surrounding air only exceeding 85 %

for a few weeks per year. In such moisture conditions most timber will attain an average

moisture content not exceeding 20 %.

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c) Service class 3, due to climatic conditions, is characterized by higher moisture contents

than service class 2.

NOTE. Timber continuously exposed to wet and hot conditions, e.g. in cooling tower structures, is outside the scope of MS 544 as regards to exposure conditions.

6.5 Moisture content

To reduce movement and creep under load, the moisture content of timber and wood-based panels when installed should be close to that likely to be attained in service.

Where it is intended to use the dry basic stresses, it is necessary to reduce the moisture content of the timber to below 19%. The cost of artificial drying increases sharply for boards over thickness more than 75 mm. Generally the basic stresses for wet timber should always be used for solid timber members more than 100 mm thick. Care should be taken on site to ensure that the timber is adequately protected. This is particularly important with material dried to below 19 % moisture content. The full design load should not be applied if the moisture content rises above 19 %. The moisture content of timber used in the manufacture of glued joints should comply with MS 544 - 6. Wood based panel products have a relatively low moisture content at the time of manufacture. If expansion in use is likely to be a problem in a particular end-use situation, they should be conditioned to a higher moisture content before installation. Care should be taken on site to ensure that material supplied in a dry condition is adequately protected from the weather (see MS 544 - 6). The moisture content of timber in manufacture of glued laminated members should conform to MS 758. The moisture content of timber to be finger jointed should conform to MS 758. The moisture content of materials used in components manufactured from separate pieces of timber, timber panel products that are fastened together with glue (e.g. box beams, single web beams, stressed skin panels, glued gussets) should conform to BS 6446. Where timber is to be used permanently in contact with the ground or otherwise exposed to damp conditions or used in situations where such conditions could occur, even if only temporarily, then it is recommended that pressure treatment be used MS 734 : 1981 or MS 360 : 2006. All timber which is thoroughly air-dried in this country attains moisture content between 15 % and 19 % depending on weather conditions prevailing at the end of the drying period. The moisture content of timber to be finger jointed should conform to BS EN 385: 2001. Timber treated with a water-borne preservative should be dried before being used in a structure.

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6.6 Service exposure conditions for solid timber It is not possible to cover all service conditions and for the purposes of MS 544 - 2 the following two exposure conditions only are defined. a) Dry exposure

All service conditions where the air temperature and humidity would result in solid timber attaining an equilibrium moisture content not exceeding 19 % for any significant period. This exposure includes most covered buildings, and internal uses. Stresses are given in MS 544 - 2 for the dry exposure condition and are identified as dry grade stresses.

b) Wet exposure

All service conditions, either in contact with water, or where the air temperature and humidity would result in solid timber attaining an equilibrium moisture content exceeding 19 % for any significant period. Stresses are given in MS 544 - 2 for the wet exposure condition and are identified as wet grade stresses.

6.7 Duration of loading The grade stresses and the joint strengths given in MS 544 are applied to long term loading. Because timber and timber-based materials can sustain a much greater load for a period of few minutes than for a period of several years, the grade stresses and the joint loads may be increased for other conditions of loading by the modification factors given in the appropriate Parts of MS 544.

6.8 Section size

The bending, tension and compression stresses and the moduli of elasticity given in MS 544

are applicable to material of 300 mm deep (or wide for tension).

These properties of timber are dependent on section size and size-related grade effects, the

grade stresses should be modified for section sizes other than the sizes given above by the

modification factors specified in the appropriate Parts of MS 544.

6.9 Load-sharing systems

The grade stresses given in MS 544 are applicable to individual pieces of structural timber.

Where two or more pieces of timber at a maximum spacing of 610 mm centre to centre act

together to support a common load, then some modification of these stresses may be

permitted in accordance with the appropriate Parts of MS 544.

6.10 Effective cross section

For the purpose of calculating the strength of a member at any section, the effective cross-

section should be taken as the target size (with no adjustment for in-service moisture content)

less due allowance for the reduction in area caused by sinkings, notches, bolt, dowel or screw

holes, mortices, etc., either at that section or within such a distance from it as would affect the

strength at that section.

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6.11 Structural members

Structural members should be so proportioned that the stresses or deformations induced by

all relevant conditions of loading do not exceed the permissible stresses or deformation limits

for the material or the service conditions, determined in accordance with MS 544.

6.12 Structural frameworks

6.12.1 Centroidal lines

The design should take due account of secondary moments induced by eccentricity if the

longitudinal axes of members do not intersect at joints.

NOTE. The recommendations for trussed rafters appear in MS 544 - 11 .

6.12.2 Secondary stresses

Many triangulated frameworks have continuous members and rigid or partially rigid joints.

Due account should be taken of the secondary stresses present in such frameworks.

6.12.3 Provision of camber

Where deflection of the framework would have an adverse effect on the function or

appearance of the structure, if possible the designer should specify any necessary camber to

ensure the intended configuration after application of the appropriate load.

6.13 Floor and roof boarding

6.13.1 Lateral distribution of load Floor and roof boarding should be designed for the uniformly distributed and concentrated imposed loadings given in UBBL. The concentrated load should be considered to act over a 300 mm width of boarding where the boards are tongued and grooved. On pitched roofs where the boarding is not tongued and grooved the same rule should be applied. In all other instances the concentrated load should be applied to a single board. If a wood strip, hardboard, wood particleboard or plywood wearing surface is applied on top of the boarding, or plywood sheathing on the underside, this should be considered as giving adequate lateral distribution of load and the above restriction is unnecessary.

6.13.2 Joints in boarding

Header joints should be staggered and should bear directly on a supporting member with

adequate bearing there on, unless end-matched and taken into account in design.

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Bibliography [1] MS 228: 1991, Specification for plywood [2] MS 934: 1986, Specification for wood cement board [3] BS EN 384: 1995, Structural timber – Determination of characteristic values of mechanical properties and density

[4] BS 1088: 1966, Plywood for marine craft [5] BS 5268 - 2: 1996, Code of practice for permissible stress design, materials and workmanship

[4] BS 5756: 1997, Visual strength grading of hardwood [5] BS 6566: Part 1-8: 1985, Plywood [6] AS/NZS 2269: 1994, Plywood structural

[7] AS 1720.1-1988, Timber structures code - Part 1 : Design methods. [8] AS 1720: 1975, Timber engineering code [9] NZS 3603: 1981, Section 4 –Joints [10] Timber Design Handbook - Malaysian Forest Record No. 42 [11] Structural Timber Joints by Malaysian Forest Record No. 32 [12] The Standard Product Manual for the Production of Malaysian Basic Structural Grade

(MBSG) Rated Plywood, Timber Technology Bulletin, No. l, August 1995, FRIM

© STANDARDS MALAYSIA 2015 - All rights reserved

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Acknowledgements Members of Technical Committee on Timber structures Prof Dr Zakiah Ahmad (Chairman) University Teknologi Mara Ms Syafinaz Abd Rashad (Secretary) Malaysian Timber Industry Board Mr Mohd Idrus Din Construction Industry Development Board Malaysia Dr Tan Yu Eng Forest Research Institute Malaysia Ir Lai Sze Ching Institute of Engineers Malaysia Ar. Chris Yap Seng Chye Malaysian Institute of Architects Ms Hamidah Abdullah Malaysian Timber Council Mr Muhammad Shaiful Nordin Malaysian Timber Industry Board Ir. Ahmad Redza bin Ghulam Rasool Ministry of Urban Wellbeing, Housing & Local

Government Mr Ng Wun Pin Multinail Asia Sdn Bhd Ir Azman Jamrus Public Works Department Mr Nicholas Andrew Lissem Sarawak Timber Industry Development Corporation Mr Lee Leh Yew Timber Exporters’ Association of Malaysia Assoc Prof Dr H’ng Paik San Assoc Prof Dr Badorul Hisham Abu Bakar

Universiti Putra Malaysia Universiti Sains Malaysia

Assoc Prof Dr Abd Latif Saleh Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Assoc Prof Dr Mohd Ariff Jamaluddin Universiti Teknologi Mara Assoc Prof Dr David Yeoh Eng Chuan Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia Mr Mohd Nor Zamri Mat Amin Wood Industry Skills Development Centre Members of Working Groups on MS 544 Part 1

Assoc. Prof. Dr Zakiah Ahmad (Chairman) Universiti Teknologi MARA Ms Syafinaz Abd Rashad (Secretary) Malaysian Timber Industry Board Dr. Mohd Omar Mohd Khaidzir Forest Research Institute Malaysia Mohammad Shaiful Nordin Malaysian Timber Industry Board Mr Ng Wun Pin Multinail Asia Sdn Bhd Ir Azman Jamrus/ Public Works Department Ms Mimi Suriyani Ismail Mr Nicholas Andrew Lissem Sarawak Timber Industry Development Corporation Prof Dr. Badorul Hisham Abu Bakar Universiti Sains Malaysia Assoc. Prof. Dr Abd Latif Saleh Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Assoc. Prof. Dr Mohd Ariff Jamaludin Universiti Teknologi MARA Dr David Yeoh Eng Chuan Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

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