Download - Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
1/22
WWRRIITTIINNGGAAPPRROOPPOOSSAALL
IINNEEDDUUCCAATTIIOONN
AcademicLanguageandLiteracyDevelopment
FacultyofEducationFebruary2012
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
2/22
1
TABLEOFCONTENTS
1. Introduction......................................................................................................................................................2
2. PurposeofaProposal.......................................................................................................................................2
3. ComponentsofaProposal(structure).............................................................................................................2
4. Aspectsofacademicwriting.............................................................................................................................6
4.1Acknowledgingsources....................................................................................................................... 7
4.2Informationprominentandauthorprominentreferences............................................................... 7
4.3Verbs
of
attribution
.............................................................................................................................
8
4.4Attributionandcriticalanalysis........................................................................................................ 10
4.5Verbtense......................................................................................................................................... 10
4.6Listofreferences............................................................................................................................... 11
5 Facilitatingyourwritingprocess.................................................................................................. 12
5.1Lettingyourownvoicebeheard(hedging).................................................................................... 12
5.2Imaginingyouraudience................................................................................................................... 13
5.3Signposting
........................................................................................................................................
14
5.4Mapping............................................................................................................................................ 14
5.5Usefuldiscoursemarkers.................................................................................................................. 14
6 Commonproblems(grammar,style,conventions)..................................................................... 15
7 ReportingwithStyle..................................................................................................................... 19
ListofReferences.................................................................................................................................... 20
TheTasksinthisbookletaredesignedtobeusedinourworkshopsandstudygroups.
Ifyourequirehelpdoingthembyyourself,pleaseconsultyourAcademicLanguageandLiteracy
DevelopmentAdvisors
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
3/22
2
1. Introduction
Thisbookletisdesignedtohelpyouasyoubegintowriteyourresearchproposal.PhDandcourseworkminor
thesis students must write a proposal early in their allotted study period. We write research proposals to
convince others that we have a research project that is worthwhile and that we have the skills and the
strategies
to
complete
it.
Remember,yoursupervisorisyourfirstpointofcontactforanyquestionsrelatedtoyourresearch.Youshould
thereforediscussallaspectsofyourproposalwithyoursupervisorthroughoutyourcandidature.
If you need help with issues such as language and expression, structuring, understanding referencing and
citationetc.,youmayconsultDrRaqibChowdhuryon99055396([email protected])orDrAnna
Podorova on99044346 ([email protected]) in the Faculty. Help is also available from Language
SkillsAdvisorsintheuniversitylibrariesatClayton,Peninsula,GippslandandBerwickcampuses.
2. PurposeofaProposal
Thepurposeoftheproposalistohelpyou(asastudent)tofocusanddefineyourresearchplans.Theseplans
arenotbinding,inthattheymaywellchangesubstantiallyasyouprogressintheresearch.However,theyare
an indicationtoyourfacultyofyourdirectionanddisciplineasaresearcher.Theyalsohelpyouprepareyour
presentationfortheEthicsCommittee.
Theproposalisexpectedto:
Showthatyouareengagingingenuineenquiry,findingoutaboutsomethingworthwhileinaparticular
context
Linkyourproposedworkwiththeworkofothers,whileprovingyouareacquaintedwithmajorschools
ofthoughtrelevanttothetopic
Establishaparticulartheoreticalorientation
Establishyourmethodologicalapproach,and
Showyouhavethoughtabouttheethicalissues.
3.
Componentsof
aProposal
(structure)
Theproposalislikelytocontainmostoftheelementslistedinthetablebelow,althoughyoursupervisormay
requiretheinclusionoromissionofparts.Checkfirstwithyoursupervisor.
It is suggested that you use the following table as a checklist of items and the order in which they usually
appearinproposals.
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
4/22
3
COMPONENT FUNCTION CHARACTERISTICS
Coverpage
identifiestopic,writer,
institutionanddegree
proposedthesistitle
(shouldbedescriptiveof
focus,concise,
eye
catchingandpreferably
usekeywordsfrom
internationalinformation
retrievalsystems)
writer'snameand
qualifications
department,university
and
degree
the
proposal
isfor
TableofContents
listssectionsof
proposalandpage
references
useahierarchyfortitles
andsubtitles
usethenumbering
systemasfollows:1;1.1,
1.2...;1.1.1,1.1.2...;
1.1.1.1,1.1.1.2...etc.
(don'tusemorethanfour
digits)
Background:
(preferablyamore
descriptivename)
providesbackground
informationrelatingto
the
social/political/historic
al/educational(etc.)
contextofthestudy
mayincludehistorical,
cultural,political,socialor
organisational
informationaboutthe
contextoftheresearch
mayincludeatheoretical
startingpoint
mayincludepersonal
motivation
mayincludepolicy
mayproblematisethe
currentstatusquo
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
5/22
4
COMPONENT FUNCTION CHARACTERISTICS
Needforthestudy/
Rationale
Usuallythisiscombined
withtheprevious
section
followsfrom
backgroundto
persuadethereader
thatthestudyis
neededand
will
be
useful/interesting
thismayinclude
referencetoagapinthe
researchliterature,tothe
needtoapplycertain
ideasin
anew
context,
or
tothesignificanceofyour
particulartopic
thewaysinwhichthe
studymaybesignificant
fortheeducational
communitymayalsobe
discussed
Purposeandaimsof
thestudy
statesclearlyand
succinctlythe
purpose
ofthestudy
outlinesthekey
researchquestions
andaims
thepurposeisexpressed
interms
of
the
broader
contextofthestudy
theresearchquestion(s)
(usuallyWhat,How,Why,
orWhatif) shouldbe
few,sothatthefocusis
manageable
theaimswillberelatedto
thepurposeandthe
questions
Reviewofthe
literature
showsyoursupervisor
anddepartmentthat
youareawareof
significant
writers/researchersin
thefield,andto
indicatewhich
issues/topicsyouwill
focusoninyour
review(thismay
changelater)
showsthatyoucanbe
judiciousinyour
selectionofissuesto
focusonandtakean
approachofcritical
thisisnotexpectedtobe
extensivefortheproposal
youshouldhavedonean
initialsurveyofthemain
theoristsandalibrary
informationsearchto
establishyourdirections
andformulate
atentative
listofreadings
youshoulddemonstrate
criticalanalysis
yourreviewshouldbe
shapedbyyourargument
andshouldseekto
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
6/22
5
COMPONENT FUNCTION CHARACTERISTICS
inquiry
situatesyourown
researchwithinthe
field
establishyourtheoretical
orientation
Researchdesign
outlinesanddescribesthe
researchplanswaysinwhich
itwillbeconducted
includesyour
understandingsofthe
natureofknowledgeand
howthisaffectsyour
choiceofresearch
approach
includesdescriptionof
and
rationale
for
selectionofparticipants,
methodsofdata
collectionandanalysis,
andproceduresyouwill
usetoensureethical
practice
includesastatement
aboutthedelimitations
(scope)ofthestudy
Timetable/Plan(maybepartofresearch
design)
depictsthetasks
proposedandthe
stages/timesfortheir
completion
thismaytaketheformof
achart,timelineor
flowchart(oranyother)
Proposedthesis
structure
describesthe
sequenceandfocusof
eachproposed
chapter
eachchapter'sproposed
contentsisdescribedina
fewlinesorasmall
paragraph,or
aproposed
table
of
contentsispresented
Significance/Expected
Outcomesofthestudy
predictsthe
significanceofthe
studyandexpected
outcomes.Thesemay
thisisonlyaprediction,
andmaybeexcludedif
therationaleforthestudy
hasbeenwelldeveloped
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
7/22
6
COMPONENT FUNCTION CHARACTERISTICS
relatecloselytoaims earlierintheproposal
Glossaryofterms
listsspecialisedterms
orwordsandtheir
meanings(e.g.,from
anotherculture,
acronyms,key
conceptsina
relativelynewfield)
thisisplacedinaposition
whichiseasytolocate
(e.g.,beforeorafterthe
maintextparts)
Appendices
displaysdocuments
whicharerelevantto
maintext,butwhose
presenceinthetext
woulddisturbrather
thanenhancetheflow
oftheargumentor
writing
includesdocuments,pilot
studymaterial,questions
forinterviews,survey
instruments,explanatory
statementtoparticipants
etc.
References
listsworksthathave
beenconsultedthus
farandappeartobe
useful
useconventions
recommendedbyyou
supervisor,orusethe
APAStyleGuide,orfollow
theconventionsina
prestigiousjournalinthe
field
4. Aspectsofacademicwriting
In thispart we discuss some aspects of good academic writing. Section 4.1 introduces a link whichoutlines
some common rules of citation and referencing in academic writing. 4.2 looks at two types of intext
attributions,while4.3 providesa listofcommonverbsandexpressions of attribution.Section4.4discusses
how to use attribution in critical analysis. Some examples of verbtense use are presented in section 4.5.
Finally,thebasicsofwritingalistofreferencesareexploredinSection4.61.
1 This paragraph itself is an example of an advance organiser, one such can be useful in introductory paragraphs
throughoutthedifferentpartsofaproposal.
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
8/22
7
4.1Acknowledgingsources
Theartofreferringtothewordsand ideasofotherwriters (citingand referencing) involvesmanyrulesand
requiressubtleusesofvocabulary (suchaswordsofattributionandevaluation)andgrammar (suchasverb
tense pastandpresent).
Aninformativeandinteractivetutorialwithreasonablydetailedrulesabouttheconventionsandmechanicsof
citingandreferencingcanbefoundontheMonashLibrarywebsiteat:
http://www.lib.monash.edu/tutorials/citing/
4.2Informationprominentandauthorprominentreferences
Swales (1990,pp.149,153)showshowyoucandecidewhetherto focusonthesourceofan ideaoronthe
idea itself inyourwriting.Heprovides twocategoriesof referencing:authorprominent,where theauthors
name
appears
in
your
sentence,
or
information
prominent,
where
the
authors
name
appears
only
in
brackets.
Anadaptationofhisexamples2follows:
Category
Author
prominent
Brie(1988)
showedthatthe
moonismadeof
cheese.
Themoons
cheesy
compositionwas
establishedby
Brie(1988).
AccordingtoBrie
(1988),themoon
ismadeofcheese.
Briestheory
(1988)contends
thatthemoonis
madeofcheese.
Information
prominent
Previousresearch
hasestablished
thatthemoonis
madeofcheese
(Brie,1988).
Ithasbeenshown
thatthe
moon
is
madeofcheese
(Brie,1988).
Itiscurrently
arguedthatthe
moonismadeof
cheese(Brie,
1988).
Themoonmay
bemadeof
cheese(Brie,
1988,butcf.
Rock,1989).
It is important to be aware of the effect of your choice to use information or authorprominent intext
referencing.Ifthefocusisontheauthor,thenthereadercanseetheideasanddiscussionasclearlyrelatingto
thatauthorsthinking.Youcanoftengivemoredetailsaboutastudy.Thiscanmakeiteasierforthewriterto
see ideas as individual and discuss important ideas, facilitating a critical approach (whether positive or
negative).An informationprominentwayofcitingandreferencingcansoundveryauthoritativeandcanalso
sound liketruthtellingeventhoughyouhaveno ideaatallwhether it isthetruth! Ifyouuse information
prominentreferencing,trytobeawareoftheeffectonthereader.Iftheinformationseemstobeassertinga
truthyouarenotsureof,trytouseadifferentverbtoshedmoredoubt.Givealittlemoredetail.Trynotto
usecategoricalandgeneralisingstatementsfollowedbyareferenceallthetime.
2Thesearealsoexamplesofthedifferentwaysofparaphrasingsomeoneelsesideas
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
9/22
8
TASK1:Comparethefollowingtwoboxes,identifyingthesubstantialdifferencesinmeaningconveyed.
Inclusion is the fairest and most productive approach to educating children with special needs
(Smith,1999;Tollington,2000).Thevisuallyimpairedachievehighlevelsofsocialinteractionand
intellectualdevelopmentinmainstreamschools(Johnstone,2001).
And,
Smith(1999),writingaboutschoolinginVictoria,Australia,arguesthatinclusionisthefairestand
mostproductiveapproachtoeducatingchildrenwithspecialneeds(seealsoTollington,2000).Ina
study of 10 young adolescent students with visual impairment, Johnstone (2001) found that all
participants achieved high levels of intellectual development for their year level and that they
perceivedimprovedwellbeinginsocialinteraction.
4.3Verbsofattribution
Belowaresomeverbsand theirsynonyms foryou todrawonwhenyouwant to talkaboutsomeoneelses
ideasorwordsathesaurusofverbsofattribution.Trytoworkoutwhichverbsgiveamorepositiveviewof
the ideasyouare reportingothersas saying,whichverbsare simplyveryneutralwaysof restatingwhatan
authorsaysorshowthatauthorspositiveornegativeattitudestothe ideas,andfinally,whichverbsexpress
yourownslightlynegativeattitudestowardstheauthorsideas.
Show: demonstrate,establish
Persuade: assure,convince,satisfy
Argue: reason,discuss,debate,consider
Support: uphold,underpin,advocate
Examine:
discuss,explore,
investigate,
scrutinise
Propose: advance,propound,proffer,suggest(theviewthat)
Advise: suggest,recommend,advocate,exhort,encourage,urge,
Believe: hold,profess(theviewthat)
Emphasise: accentuate,stress,underscore
State: express,comment,remark,declare,articulate,describe,
instruct,inform,report
Evaluate: appraise,assess
Hypothesise: speculate,postulate
Disagree: dispute,refute,contradict,differ,object,dissent
Reject: refute,repudiate,remonstrate(against),disclaim,dismiss
Claim:
allege,
assert,
affirm,
contend,
maintain
Anargumentcanbe:
foundedon
basedon
groundedinatheory/view/setofdata
embeddedin
underpinnedby
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
10/22
9
Note that the above words are all valueladen. Your choice of word will reveal to your reader your stance
toward the author you are reporting on. It will show whether or not you consider her claims to be
substantiated.
ArnaudetandBarrett(1984,p.1535)provideausefulresourceonverbsofattributionreproducedinthebox
below:
Neutralverbsofrestatement
Add inform(of,about) remind(of,about)
clarify present report(on)
describe remark speak/writeof
Verbsofrestatementwithapositiveornegativeconnotation
apprise(someoneof) explain indicate
argue(about) express observe
Verbsofopiniontoreportthecontentofanotherwritersopinion(orconclusionorsuggestions)
Positiveopinions:
affirm agree(with) applaud
concur(with,in) praise support
Reportingopinion(usuallyneutrally)
assert believe(in) claim
determine expound(on) maintain
pointout think
Verbsofuncertaintytoreportthecontentofanotherwritersexpressionofdoubtoruncertainty
challenge dispute question
disagree
(with)
doubt
suspect
(of)
dismiss mistrust wonder(at)
Somesentencestemstohelpyoubegin:
Muchresearchhasfocussedon.(thebenefitsofinclusioninAustralianprimaryschools)(Foreman,
2001;Lee,1999;Li&Phan,2003;Smithetal.2005)
Smith(2005)hasheadedthecritiqueof
AccordingtoJones(2001),the.
IncontrastwithLis(2002)view,Smith(2005)arguesthat
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
11/22
10
Itisclearfromtheliteraturethat. (Foreman,2001;Lee,1999;Li&Phan,2003;Smithetal.,2005)
Whilemanyauthorsargue that (Foreman, 2001; Lee, 1999; Li & Phan, 2003; Smith et al. 2005),
othersmaintainthat(Johnston,2003;Zavarce&Gonzalez,2006)
Keepyourownlistofstemsfromthearticlesyouread!
4.4Attributionandcriticalanalysis
TASK2Thefollowingparagraphisanexcerptfromanessayonapproachestointerculturaleducation. Notice
thewordsthat indicatewhatthewriterthinksaboutthe ideasoftheotherwritersshementions. Howdoes
sheuseparticularverbsofattributiontoconveyaparticularattitudetotheworkofthewriterssherefersto?
Whatwordsorphrasessignalherownideas?
ClanchyandBallard(1991)proposeacontinuumofattitudestoknowledgeandspecifylearningapproaches
andstrategiesthatcorrespondtotheseattitudes.Drawingmainlyonanecdotalevidence,theysuggestthat
their three learning approaches, namely the reproductive, analytical and speculative (p.11)
approaches, are characteristic of certain stages of schooling (in Australia) or of certain cultures. In their
considerationoflearningstrategies,however,theyhavepresentedonlyalimitedunderstandingoftheways
in which the strategies assist learning. For example, they see memorisation as a way of retaining
unreconstructed(p.11)knowledge. TheworkofBiggs(1996)demonstratesthatmemorisationservesthe
purposeofretainingideassothattheycanbeconsideredandunderstood.
4.5Verbtense
Verbtense inacademicwritingmayexerciseagreater influenceonyour readers interpretationofyourtext
thanyoubargainedfor.Pasttensecangivemorethanatimeperspective;itcandistancethereaderfromthe
ideasbeingexpressed.Thepresenttenseontheotherhandisoftenusedtomakegeneralisationsyouneed
tobesureyouwantedreaderstofeelthiswasageneralisablepoint. Below isasimplifieddescriptionofthe
usesandpossibleeffectsoftenseonthemeaningmade.
Thetenseyouselectforyourverbsinyouressay,reportorliteraturereviewrevealsagreatdealmoretoyour
readerthanjustthetimeframe.Ittellsyourreaderwhose idea isbeingproffered(yoursorsomeoneelses),
somethingaboutyourattitudetowardstheideasyouarereportingifyouhaveattributedthemtoaresearcher
or theorist, and indicates how general or specific the point is. In brief and note that this is a simplified
descriptionoftheuseoftensethethreetenseswhichappearmostfrequentlyareusedinthefollowingways:
Thepresenttense isused for:generalisation (inoverviews,statementsofmainpoints);astatementwhichisgenerallyapplicableorwhichseemsrelevant;astatementmadebyyouaswriter;ortoreport
the position ofa theorist/ researcher towhichyou feel someproximity,either in timeor allegiance
(e.g..Piaget(1969)outlinesthestages.).
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
12/22
11
Thepast tense isused toclaimnongeneralityaboutpast literature (Ostler,1981,cited inSwales,1990, p.152); that is, it is used to report or describe the content, findings or conclusions of past
research.Thespecificityofthestudyisthusemphasised.
Thepresentperfect is used to indicate that inquiry into the specified area continues, to generaliseaboutpast literature,ortopresentaviewusinganonintegral formofreferencing (thenameofthe
authordoesnotappearinthetextofthesentence;itappearsonlyinthesubsequentparentheses).
Thefuturetense isoftenusedinthemethodologysectioninaproposaltostateintention.Whenyouare describing what appears in your writing, use the present tense, not the future (its not your
intention,sinceyouvealreadydoneit):e.g.,Thesectionsbelowdescribetheprocessof,not,the
sectionsbelowwilldescribetheprocessof
TASK3:Nowconsider theexcerpt from theprevioussection. Whatsubtledifference inmessagemightyou
receiveasareaderifitwerewrittenasfollows?
Clanchyand Ballard (1991) proposeda continuum of attitudes to knowledgeand specified learning
approaches and strategies that corresponded to these attitudes. Drawing mainly on anecdotal
evidence,theysuggestedthattheirthreelearningapproaches,namelythereproductive,analytical
andspeculative(p.11)approaches,werecharacteristicofcertainstagesofschooling(inAustralia)or
of certain cultures. In their consideration of learning strategies, however, they presented only a
limited understanding of the ways in which the strategies assist learning. For example, they saw
memorisationasawayofretainingunreconstructed(p.11)knowledge. TheworkofBiggs(1996) in
contrast demonstrates thatmemorisation serves the purpose of retaining ideas so that theycan be
consideredandunderstood.
4.6Listofreferences
The
most
commonly
used
set
of
referencing
conventions
in
Education
is
the
American
Psychological
Associations (2010)PublicationManual (6thed.),commonlyknownas theAPA. The following reference list
uses APA conventions. For examples of the most common types of citation and referencing, see:
http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/tutorials/citing/apaa4.pdf
NotesomeverybasicAPArules:
Booktitlesareinitalicsbutonlythefirstwordandpropernounsarecapitalised
Journalnamesareinitalicsandcapitalisedthevolumenumberalsoappearsinitalics
Thetitlesofarticlesinjournalsandchaptersofbooksareinplainfontandarenotcapitalised
Whenachapterofaneditedbook(onewherethedifferentchaptersarewrittenbyadifferentauthor)
is referenced, thechapter is treated in the samewayasajournalarticle,but insteadof thejournal
name, the book in which the chapter appeared must also be referenced in the reference list entry.
NotethatthebookisintroducedbythewordIn,whichisfollowedbytheinitialsoftheauthor(first)
andthenthefamilyname.This isthereverseofwhatyoudo intherestofthe list,wherethefamily
namecomesfirstandthentheinitialsofthegivenname!
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
13/22
12
TASK4:
Findthechapterofaneditedbookinthelistbelow
Findanarticlefromajournal
Findabook
Findanelectronicsource
Doveston,M.&Keenaghan,M.(2006).Improvingclassroomdynamicstosupportstudentslearningandsocial
inclusion:Acollaborativeapproach.SupportforLearning,21(1),511.
Foreman,P. (2005).Disabilityand inclusion:Conceptsandprinciples. InP.Foreman (Ed.). Inclusion inaction,
(pp.234).Australia:Thomson
Loreman,T.,Deppeler,J.&Harvey,D.(2005).Inclusiveeducation. CrowsNest,NSW:Allen&Unwin.
McLeskey,J.,Hoppey,,D.Williamson,P.&Rentz,T.(2004).Isinclusionanillusion?Anexaminationofnational
and state trends toward the education of students with learning disabilities in general education
classrooms. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice. 19 (2), 109115. Retrieved July 4, 2006 from
http://www.blackwellsynergy.comezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/doi/a
Stanovich,P.J.(1996)Collaborationthekeytosuccessfulinstructionintodaysinclusiveschools.Intervention
inSchoolandClinic.32(1),3942.
Formore
detail
and
more
complex
referencing,
please
refer
to
the
website
listed
above.
5 Facilitatingyourwritingprocess
Discussion, concept maps, questions, notetaking techniques may all facilitate your writing. Using certain
software(e.g.,Endnote)canalsohelp.
5.1Lettingyourownvoicebeheard(hedging)
How do you speak up in your proposal without having to say, I think or It is my opinion that (rather
inelegantexpressions)?
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
14/22
13
TASK5:ReadthefollowingexcerptfromHylands(1996,p.477)articleonhedging,acategoryoflanguageuse
thathelpstoinsertyourveryownvoice.
NURTURINGHEDGESINTHEESPCURRICULUM
KENHYLAND
EnglishDepartment,
City
University
of
Hong
Kong,
Tatchee
Avenue,
Hong
Kong
ABSTRACT
There isapopularbelief that scientificwriting ispurelyobjective, impersonaland informational,
designedtodisguisetheauthoranddealdirectlywithfacts. ButwhileESPcoursesoftenprovide
thelinguisticmeanstoaccomplishthisinvisibility,theyoftenignorethefactthateffectiveacademic
writing always carries the individualspoint of view. Writers also need topresent their claims
cautiously, accurately and modestly to meet discourse community expectations and to gain
acceptance for their statements. Such pragmatic aspects of communication however are
vulnerable
to
cross
cultural
differences
and
L2
students
are
rarely
able
to
hedge
their
statements
appropriately. Thispaperarguesthathedgingdevicesareamajorpragmaticfeatureofeffective
scientificwritingandthatstudentsshouldbetaughttorecogniseandusethemintheirownwork.
Itexaminesthefrequency,functionsandrealisationsofhedgesanddiscussedarangeofstrategies
forfamiliarisingstudentswiththeirappropriateuse.
Copyright1996ElsevierScienceLtd.
INTRODUCTIONThetermhedgingwasintroducedtolinguisticsbyLakoff(1972)todescribewordswhosejobitis
tomake
things
more
or
less
fuzzy
(p.
195).
It
has
subsequently
been
used
by
sociologists
to
describeameanstoavoidfacethreateningbehaviourandbyappliedlinguisticstodiscussdevices
suchasIthink,perhaps,mightandmaybewhichqualifythespeakersconfidenceinthetruthofa
proposition. In scientific writing these effective and propositional functions work in rhetorical
partnership to persuade readers to accept knowledge claims. Hedges express tentativeness and
possibilityincommunicationandtheirappropriateuseisacritical,althoughlargelyneglected,area
ofscientificdiscourse.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss how ESP teachers can help develop L2 learners
understanding of the principles and mechanics of the appropriate use of this critical pragmatic
feature. Firsthowever, Iwillgive abriefoverviewofhedging inacademicwriting, sketching its
importance
5.2Imaginingyouraudience
Trytofindouttheparticularrequirementsofyouraudience inrespectofpreferredconventions. It isalways
usefultoimagineyouraudienceasanintelligentpersonwho,however,isnotanexpertinthisparticulararea
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
15/22
14
ofyourfield.This isnottosaythatyoucangetawaywithpresenting inaccuratestatements,butratherthat
you need to explain ideas or concepts and arguments clearly to your reader. You cannot assume that your
readeralwaysknowseverything, andyou shouldnot feel that it is insulting to explain specialised concepts.
Yourreaderwantstoseehowwellyouunderstandthe issuesyouhavechosentodiscuss. Nevertheless,the
readerdoesnotwanttowaitforyoutogetalongwithyourargumentwhileyouareshowinghim/herhowwell
youknowsomethingelseinthefield(unrelatedtoyourargumentormainissue).
5.3Signposting
Itisagreathelptoyourreaderifyoumakeaclearlysignpostedmapofyourwriting. Youcandothisby:
Using subheadings which indicate what you will focus on in thatpart of your writing. Brown (1993)
recommendsusingverbs inheadingsandrewritingheadingsaftersectionsarewritten.Atallevents,
dontoverlooktheusefulnessofheadingsinguidingyourreader;
Statingexplicitly
the
points
you
will
focus
on
in
the
introduction
of
achapter
or
(for
alonger
piece)
at
thebeginningofamajorsection;and
Repeating key words or further developing propositions from an earlier sentence in order to make
cleartheconnectionbetweentheideasdiscussedearlierandthosediscussedlater.
5.4Mapping
Theuseofmappingoradvanceorganisersisveryimportantinalongpieceofwork. Insuchpiecesofwriting
you may insert maps at strategic points (e.g. beginnings of chapters/sections) so that readers reorient
themselvesandknowwheretheyreheaded.
Examplesofmapswillbegivenintheworkshops.
5.5Usefuldiscoursemarkers
Theways
in
which
parts
of
your
writing
are
related
to
other
parts
are
made
clearer
by
discourse
markers,
which
canbegroupedaccordingtotheirfunctioninthediscourse.Herearesomegroupsofmarkersthatmighthelp
youwhenyouneedalittlevariety.
Orderingpointsorsequencing
Firstly,secondly,finally,
Addingsomething
Moreover,Furthermore,Further,Inaddition,Additionally,[NOTE:Besidesismainlyusedinspeaking]
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
16/22
15
Comparing(similarity)
Similarly,;likewise,;equally,
Comparing(differenceestablishingcontrast)
However,;infact,;Ontheotherhand,;,rather,;Incontrast,;Onthecontrary,;Nevertheless,;
Nonetheless,;,yet(moreformal)
Introducingacause
Asaresultof;Becauseof;Because;Owingto;Dueto
Introducingaresult
Consequently;Therefore;Hence,;Asaresult,;Thus,;So;Then;
Exemplifying
Forexample,;Forinstance,;Notably,
Restating
Inother
words,;
that
is,;
namely,
Generalising
Ingeneral,;generally,;onthewhole,
Summarising
Insummary,;Inconclusion,;
AdaptedfromParrott,2000,pp.301307
6 Commonproblems(grammar,style,conventions)
Below are examples of some commonly confused words/expressions in academic writing. Can you think of
more?
Etal.(andothers)
Only one of these two words is abbreviated. Et is a whole word meaning and, while alii, a word meaning
others,
is
abbreviated
to
al.
(note
the
full
stop/period
mark).
For
example,
Held
et
al.
(1999)
confront
the
questionofwhetherWesterncapitalismandinstitutionsarethedriversofglobalisation.
Useofthe&sign
The & (ampersand) sign in referencing appears only in brackets or in the reference list at the end of your
thesis. Thus,youwouldwriteCarverandGaines (1987)conducted the firststudy,orThe firststudy that
examinedstressfocusedonidentifyingonesownemotions(Carver&Gaines,1987).
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
17/22
16
Pluralsandsingulars
*Datum/data(thedatawerecategorised)
*Phenomenon/phenomena(wasunderstoodtobeaphenomenon)
*Focus/foci(orfocuses)(Thefociofthisstudywere)
*Criterion/criteria
*Research/information(used
as
non
countable
nouns
in
the
singular)
Oftenconfusedspelling
Affect/effect:
Whenthesewordsmeaninfluence,affectisusedasaverbandeffectisusedasanoun.
e.g.,Chocolateaffectsmyskinbadly.
The
effects
of
chocolate
on
my
skin
are
disastrous.
When thewordsmeansomethingdifferent from influencetheyareuseddifferentlygrammatically.Toeffect
(verb)somethingistosuccessfullycompleteit,whileapersonsaffect(noun)referstotheirfeelings.
Practice/practise
ForAustralianspelling,theverbusesans.
e.g.,IwouldliketopractisetheskillsIhaveacquired.
Thenounisspeltwiththecandcontainsanothernounice
e.g.,Thepracticeofleavingchildrenaloneinthecarshouldbediscouraged.
Its/its
Itsisusedwhenyouaretalkingaboutsomethingbelongingtothethingyouhavealreadymentioned. Itsisa
contractionorashortenedformofItisorIthas theapostrophestandsfortheletteromitted.
E.g..ThemethodologyappearsinChapter3. Itsapproachisprincipallyquantitative.(Itsapityitcouldntalso
bequalitative)
Thatorwhich?
Inacademic
writing,
which
often
needs
to
very
specifically
define
the
issues
that
it
is
discussing,
while
the
word
thatisusedmorefrequentlythanwhich. Boththesewordsintroduceinformationthatisrelatedtoaword
or phrase that appeared earlier. That is used when you wish to specify more closely the defining
characteristicsofthewordorphrase(thewordorphrasethatappearedearlier). Which isusedtoprovide
extrainformationratherthantospecifyordefine. Youneedacommabeforewhich,butnotbeforethat
(thatmuststicktotheworditisdefining).
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
18/22
17
Asandthat
Manywritersuseboth asand thatto introducewhatotherauthorsaresaying.Theybothmeanthesame
thing,soyoumustchooseonlyONEofthesewords.
e.g.,AsStrunkandWhite(1959)argueintheirwidelyreadstudyoflanguagethatsimplicityinlanguageuseis
best.
Thisshouldbeoneofthefollowing:
AsStrunkandWhite(1959)argueintheirwidelyreadstudyof language,simplicityinlanguageuse is
best.
StrunkandWhite(1959)argueintheirwidelyreadstudyoflanguagethatsimplicityinlanguageuseis
best.
Intheirwidelyreadstudyoflanguage,StrunkandWhite(1959)arguethatsimplicityinlanguageuseis
best.
Parallelstructures
Notethatthe lastproblemsentenceabove isonethatwascausedbythefailuretouseparallelgrammatical
formsforthestemthemainfactorsthatcontribute. Thesentenceshouldread:Cognitivebiasisoneofthe
mainfactorsthatcontributetotheconfidencewehaveinourdecisionmakingaswellastotheaccuracyofourconfidence.Bothunderlinedtermsarenounsandtheyareprecededbyato.Theyarejoinedbywordssuch
asand,aswellas,or,orpossiblyformpartofalist,whereitemsareseparatedbycommasorsemicolons.
Hanging(dangling)modifiers
Inasentencewithtwoparts,thewriters intentionmightbetogivethereaderonepieceofinformationthat
canenlightenusabouttheother(main)partofthesentence. Thisextrainformationseemstoremainhanging
ordanglingifthewriterforgetstoindicateclearlywhoisdoingwhatinbothpartsofthesentence.
E.g., AfterfailingtheCAT,theteacherhelpedthestudent.(DidtheteacherfailtheCAT?)
Thisshould
read:
After
failing
the
CAT,
the
student
was
helped
by
the
teacher.
Therule isthat ifyouhaveaningwordatthebeginningofthefirstpartofthesentence,theactionofthat
wordmustbecarriedoutbythefirstwordofthesecondpartofthesentence. Thatistosay,thesubjectofthe
twopartsshouldbethesame,evenifitisnotexplicitlystatedinthefirstpart.Toputitingrammaticalterms,
whenweuseapresentparticiple(aningword) inan initialclause,butdonotstatethesubject(theperson
doingtheaction)weexpectthesubjecttobe identifiedattheverybeginningofthesecondclause(afterthe
comma).
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
19/22
18
TASK6:Thefollowingsentencesareexamplesofwritingthatmaycauseconfusionduetogrammatical,stylistic
errorsorreferencingconventions. Seeifyoucanworkoutwhattheproblemsare.
Identifyingthecauseofstress,workrelatedstressisbetterunderstood.
Thereareanumberofareaswillberesearched.
HolmesandRaheslifeeventschecklistwasthefirststudyonstress.
Thedataisrelativelyold,yetuseful.
Carver&Gaines(1987)didoneofthefirststudieswhichexaminedstress.
Differencesamongindividualsabilitiestoappraiseandexpresstheiremotionsareeffectedbytheirsocial
learning.
ItisinterestinginlightofthecriticismoftheSOCascontaminatedwithemotionality(Korotkov,1993)that
Antonovskyisatpainstopointoutthecognitivenatureofthisperceptiondespiteitsemotionalsounding
terminology.
Cognitivebiasisoneofthemainfactorsthatcontributetotheconfidencewehaveinourdecisionmaking
aswellasbeinganaccurateconfidence.
Havingevaluatedthecurriculum,differentteachingmethodswereintroduced.
AsStrunkandWhite(1959)argue intheirwidelyreadstudyof languagethatsimplicityin languageuseis
best.
Therearemanystudiesininclusiveeducationfocusonsocialisation.
Weshouldallawareofhownegativefeedbackaffectsstudents.
Johnsonet.al.(2003)reviewedmanyresearchesongiftedmathematicalthinkers.
These researchers undertook the study by first reviewing the literature ongiftedness, then interviewing
mathsstudentswithhighgradesandidentifiedthetraitsofmathematicalgiftedness.
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
20/22
19
7 ReportingwithStyle
TASK7:Astylishreportercombinesthevirtuesofclarityandgoodlanguagesense. Tryyourhandatimproving
thestyleoftheitemsbelow:
1. Eachandeverygoodwriternevereverusestautologicalexpressionsorsaysthesamethingtwice(inthesame
sentence).
2. Eachsubjectprefacedbyeachuseaverbinthesingular.3. Agoodwritershouldalwaysremembertoneversplitaninfinitive(oratleastnotalways).4. Therewasadifferenceofopinionamongthetwoteachers,eventhoughthePrinciplehadmadeevery
efforttocreateharmonybetweenallstaffmembers.
5. TheGAT (GeneralAchievementTest)wasusedforvalidationof results. While theVCEprovided themain
source
of
assessment.
6. Thatistherelativepronoun,whichweuseinadefiningclause,whilewhichisusedinaclause,which
givesanextrabitofinformation,whichisaparentheticalclause. Whichisprecededbyacomma,but
thatisnt.
7. Thenewpolicywhichwasintroducedin1999wasoneofthemostproblematicpoliciesforteachersthathaseverbeenused.
8. AndIthoughttomyself,Whatawonderfulworld. Canwethinktoanyoneelse?9. Itisnoteverydaythatyouseesuchaneverydayoccurrence.10.Agood researchermusthavestamina,which isnecessaryforaccuratelyrevealingwhatthedataare
tryingtosay. Moreover,clearcriteriaforgoodresearchisveryimportant.
11.Ourresearchesledustotheveryimportantissueoftheeconomicalcontext.12.Thewritingof complex ideasoften involves theuseofparallel structures,whichbuildupa seriesof
ideas,addslayersofmeaningandactingasakindofechoofthefirststructure(oftenaverb).
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
21/22
20
ListofReferences
AmericanPsychologicalAssociation.(2010).PublicationmanualoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation(6th
Edn).Washington,D.C.:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation.
Arnaudet, M.L.&Barrett,M.E. (1984). Approaches toacademic readingandwriting. EnglewoodCliffs, NJ:
Prentice
Hall
Regents.
Hyland,K.(1996).NurturinghedgesintheESPcurriculum.System,24(4),477490.
Parrott,Martin.(2000).GrammarforEnglishLanguageTeachers. Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Strunk,W.&White,E.B.(1959). Theelementsofstyle. NewYork:MacmillanPublishingCompany.
Swales,J.(1990). Genreanalysis:Englishinacademicandresearchsettings. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity
Press.
-
7/29/2019 Writing Proposal in Education Booklet
22/22
21
TheAcademicLanguageandLiteracyDevelopmentUnit,FacultyofEducation,MonashUniversity,wishes to
acknowledgethestaffwhohavecontributedtoproducingthisbooklet:
AcademicLanguageandLiteracyAdvisors:
MsRosemaryViete
DrRaqib
Chowdhury
DrAnnaPodorova
MsSueMarch
TeamLeader,Teaching/TechnologyLearningCentres:
MsBronwynDethick
Copyright(2012).NOTFORREPRODUCTION.AllmaterialsproducedforthiscourseofstudyarereproducedunderParts
VB/VAof theCopyrightAct1968,orwithpermissionof thecopyrightownerorunder termsofdatabaseagreements.
Thesematerialsareprotectedbycopyright.Monashstudentsarepermittedtousethesematerials forpersonalstudy
andresearchonly.Useofthesematerialsforanyotherpurposes,includingcopyingorresale,withoutexpresspermission
ofthecopyrightowner,mayinfringecopyright.Thecopyrightownermaytakeactionagainstyouforinfringement.