Download - Where there's muck, there's brass
Proceedings Sardinia 2015, Fifteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
S. Margherita di Pula, Cagliari, Italy; 5 – 9 October 2015
2015 by CISA Publisher, Italy
WHERE THERE’S MUCK, THERE’S BRASS:
A MARKET SYSTEMS APPROACH TO
CONCEPTUALISING SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT IN MOMBASA, KENYA
M. CLARK*, J. PALFREMAN, AND J. VAN RHYN
* Red Pueblo Ltd, 140a Heath Road, London, TW1 4BN, United Kingdom
SUMMARY: Market systems development or M4P is an approach to poverty reduction widely used
by many development agencies around the world1. The approach provides a unique framework for
conceptualising ‘market systems’ which are often complex, dynamic, multi-stakeholder, and multi-
functioning systems. Waste management systems in emerging countries are complex and pluralistic
with an informal sector, typically represented by the poorest members of society, often making
significant contributions to the operation of the waste management system, working alongside
formal waste management stakeholders and approaches. M4P can be an essential tool for municipal
authorities or others seeking to understand and enhance the performance of waste management
systems in emerging countries, highlighting the roles, incentives and capacity of the informal sector
to participate, the rules and norms that affect how they operate and interact with other stakeholders,
and helping them to position themselves more effectively within the waste management system.
Waste management in emerging countries is by and large perceived as a public good or service,
representing a cost to municipal authorities. Resource recovery is often an after thought largely
facilitate by an active informal sector. The M4P approach advocates focusing on the value-chain,
specifically the core function or transaction in the waste management (market) system.
Conceptually this facilitates a shift away from thinking about managing waste as a public service,
towards a model where waste is seen as a resource to be managed and exploited for its value.
Identifying and addressing the underlying constraints that affect efficiency in the waste market
system and the recovery of more value from waste materials, enables the development of a waste
management system that delivers environmental, social and economic benefits that are both large
scale and long lasting2. M4P can also be used to explore labour market conditions that enhance
waste management. For example, focusing attention on how to create decent and well-paid
employment and income generating opportunities in the waste management sector can highlight
incentives for both the formal and informal sectors looking to invest in the waste management
sector or to create more sustainable business practices. Using Mombasa County, Kenya as a case-
study this paper will explore how adopting a M4P approach led to the identification of three
systemic issues which constrain the waste management system: poor coordination, a lack of
information exchange, and an absence of innovation or support for entrepreneurship. Addressing
1 M4P: Making Markets Work for the Poor. http://www.enterprise-development.org/page/m4p
2 SDC, 2008b
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these issues can be tackled by both formal and informal sector stakeholders to enhance performance
in economic, environmental and social development terms. Such collaboration can, for example,
improve decision making and coordination regarding investment in essential infrastructure for
waste management. It can also increase the ability of those working in the informal sector to expand
and enhance their income generating activities.
1. INTRODUCTION
Although generally considered a service industry delivering a public good, waste management can
also be described as a dynamic market system, focusing on the importance of waste as a resource
and the efficient management of materials. Where inefficiently managed, solid waste causes serious
degradation of the natural environment, significant risks to public health, which in turn may directly
or indirectly affect other economic sectors, for example the negative perceptions of poorly managed
waste that have been shown to impact tourism potential, or more generally lost workdays resulting
from poor health outcomes associated with poorly managed waste. These are all very real concerns
present in lower income countries. However, when viewed through the lens of a market system the
management of waste becomes a value added process – where waste is an input with numerous
opportunities for adding value, reducing social and environmental costs, and promoting economic
development through, for example, the creation of employment at each stage of the value chain.
Market players are involved in one or many processes or supporting functions involving the
collection, valorisation, recycling or resource recovery, disposal, and supporting services like street
sweeping. Much of the employment activity in the waste management sector in lower income
countries is derived from solid waste collection services, delivered either as a door-to-door
household service or from waste generation sources such as commercial properties, industrial
facilities, or institutions. Many of the employment or business opportunities in the sector are low-
skilled, manual jobs which require little training, as such barriers to entry are low and many young
people are engaged in waste management activities. Some of the poorest players operating the
sector are young men who earn a living working as waste picker. Indeed, many of those earning a
livelihood in the sector do so informally, and struggle to obtain official recognition or realise basic
employee’s rights. A detailed market systems analysis of the waste management system in
Mombasa County highlights three main challenges to a more efficient and effective management
system. This analysis was undertaken as part of a three-year UK Department for International
Development Market Development Project for Mombasa County seeking to improve labour market
access for Mombasa’s young people3. Primary and secondary data was gathered by the project team
in the field between March and November 2014 through a series of structured interviews, field
observations, and desk-based research of existing public sector records on solid waste. A Waste
Characterisation study was also carried out to establish the quantum and character of municipal
solid waste being produced in Mombasa County4.
1.1 Mombasa County
Situated on the shores of the Indian Ocean, Mombasa, Kenya’s second largest city and home to
approximately 1.1 million people is the most prominent trading hub in East Africa and the second
3 The three year Kuza Project intends to address selected root causes of youth unemployment in Kenya’s second city,
and to encourage productive and sustainable job creation for Mombasa’s young men and women. The project consists
of a combination of skills development, market development, and policy support. The project’s intended beneficiaries
are un- and underemployed women and men between the ages of 18 and 30, whose incomes are at the lowest end of the
scale in the county. 4 All data is copyright the DFID Kuza project, Mombasa, 2015.
Sardinia 2015, Fifteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
largest in sub-Saharan Africa. The city lies within an area of approximately 294.7km2, with a
calculated density of 5,224/k2, split into four distinct geographical areas composed of: Mombasa
Island, Mainland North, West Mainland and South Mainland. Mombasa Island is separated from the
mainland by inlets to the sea, though is linked to Mainland West by Makupa Causeway and to
Mainland North by the Nyali Bridge. Access to the island from the ‘south coast’ (Mainland South)
is by ferry only.
Figure 1. Mombasa County. Source Kuza Project, 2015.
Demographic change, as across much of eastern and southern Africa, is rapid. Population growth
rates, although expected to slow by the middle of the century, are currently growing at an average
of 3.8% per annum. Growth is a result of in-migration from rural areas as well as from births from
within the existing urban area. Unfortunately high population growth has been unaccompanied by
relative investments in infrastructure, basic services and employment opportunities for youth. A key
feature of the growth of Mombasa has been the increasing informalisation of the labour market with
many families relying on informal economic activities for income, and income inequality becoming
increasingly disparate across the city. These inequalities have manifested themselves in a physical
sense too, with wide variation in housing and basic infrastructure provision across the city, with as
much as 65% of the population living in informal settlements5, where one or more basic services are
absent - including proper solid waste management.
Mombasa, like many of its African urban centre counterparts, is a young city. 47% of the
Mombasa County’s population is between the ages of 18 and 35 and 69% of the workforce are
classed as young. Worryingly, 44% of young people are unemployed and the level of primary
school attendance is estimated as low at 50%; both worse rates than the national average. Solid
waste management in a city like Mombasa is not only an ever present challenge. It is also an
economic opportunity that if drawn upon, can produce local employment and income generating
opportunities whilst delivering positive environmental and social outcomes, provide the challenge is
framed in such a way.
5 SDI, 2015
Kenya
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1.2 What is a market systems development approach?
Market systems development or value chain development is an approach to poverty reduction that
development agencies such as the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID) and the
Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation have been at the forefront of promoting though the
Making markets work for the poor (M4P) concept. Under the market systems approach there is a
recognition that the poor are dependent on markets and therefore making changes to the way a
market system operates to work more effectively will improve livelihoods and ultimately reduce
poverty6.
A market systems approach provides a conceptual framework for understanding often complex
economic systems and as such can usefully be applied to many sectors of the economy. The
delivery of services such as water, sanitation, power, and solid waste management in urban areas of
lower income countries is an economic sector, or market system, that as yet as seen very little
attention in the discourse on market systems development. However these complex, highly
dynamic, multi-stakeholder systems require a robust conceptual framework to better understand
them - e.g. the motivations and incentives that govern their behaviour, in order to design sustainable
interventions that address market constraints and improve system performance. In lower income
countries in particular it is often the poorest in society who play a key role in ensuring whatever
waste management system is in place operates. In addition with millions of lower-income
consumers, service users or ‘bottom of the pyramid’ customers, waste management systems that can
be designed with the poorest of society in mind are likely to be more sustainable in the long run7.
The market systems diagnostic process starts by understanding the wider socio-economic context
before drilling down to the core function or value chain within the system; system actors roles,
responsibilities, and rules and norms; before finally identifying system specific constraints, or ‘root
causes’ that create market imperfections - in this case a dysfunctional waste management system,
e.g. un or underemployment, poor environmental protection, inefficient resource recovery systems.
A market system is described graphically below in Figure 2.
Figure 2. The market system (Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, 2014)
The conceptual framework for understanding a market system used in this paper is set out in
Table 1 below but can be broadly grouped into three analytical areas: sector context; market system
structure and performance; analysis of the constraints to the system. A market systems approach to
conceptualising the waste management system was adopted to identify key system constraints,
6 SDC, 2008 7 GIZ, 2013
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primarily with a view to increasing employment and income generating opportunities for
Mombasa’s young men and women. Although this particular systems analysis has an employment
focus, it is assumed that identifying systemic constraints to the efficient operation of the waste
management system would bring with positive development outcomes in terms of environmental
and social impact. The relevance and importance of adopting a market systems approach to solid
waste management in lower income countries though comes from the inherent flexibility this
conceptual framework offers, recognising the different motivations and incentives of the various
market players (or stakeholders) and their varying capacity to work/function within the systems.
More importantly for waste management policy makers, a market systems approach allows for a
rapid assessment of system constraints and accompanying project design which can be highly
experimental, yet provide value for money, where small changes at the system level can yield large
positive economic, social, and environmental outcomes.
The following sections of this paper will see the application of the market systems development
conceptual framework described in Table 1 to the solid waste management sector in Mombasa
County as follows:
2. Solid waste management sector context
3. System performance
4. System constraints analysis
5. Concluding remarks
Table 1. The market systems analysis conceptual framework8.
Information types Examples In order to:
Sector context
Socio-economic, demographic,
geographic context
Growth, competitiveness
potential and challenges
Key trends, prospects, drivers
and barriers to participation in
the sector
Identify specific markets which offer pro-
poor opportunities which might feasibly be
unlocked by intervention.
Market System
structure and
performance
The structure of the market
system
The dynamics of the market
system and dimensions of its
performance (and system
stakeholder’s performance)
The poor’s position within the
market system
Identify where the market isn’t working for
the poor: ‘symptoms’. Or the symptoms
that define whether a particular system is
operating at maximum efficiency. For
example, the extent to which solid waste is
collected, or the proportion of waste that is
recovered for re-use. Who are the system
players (stakeholders), what roles to they
play, and what are the rules and norms that
govern their behaviour in the system
Systemic
Constraints
Key market functions and
players
Who does what and pays for
what
Incentives, capacity and
relationships
Interconnected markets
Identify underlying reasons for market
under-performance and possible
intervention points to stimulate systemic
change: ‘causes’.
8 SDC, 2008b
Sardinia 2015, Fifteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
2. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT SECTOR CONTEXT
The solid waste management sector in Mombasa County currently employs young people at every
stage of the waste cycle: from collection, to resource recovery (re-use, recycling or waste
valorisation9), to eventual disposal; and, in a number of supporting functions such as street
sweeping and urban landscaping (‘beautification’).
Many of the employment opportunities within the sector are manual, low-skill activities. There
are a high proportion of informal jobs and business opportunities making the sector relatively
attractive to poorer young men and women with low levels of education/training and few resources.
A higher proportion of men than women are employed in the sector, with men typically being found
carrying out manual/physical activities such as collection and sorting, and women being found
employed in street sweeping or beautification activities10
. The exception is the presence of women
in a number of the County’s CBOs, some women’s groups who may carry out waste management
activities (collection, sorting, valorisation) alongside other interests e.g. self-help groups or cultural
activities.
The poorest operating in the sector often earn a living informally, picking through waste at the
County’s waste collection points or dumpsites. Waste picking is typically a role carried out by
young men, often those who live on the dumpsite itself, and typically earn less than 300 KES/day.
Table 2. Approximate scale of employment within the waste management sector in Mombasa
County. Source, Kuza Project (2014)
Organisation type No. of
employees Activities Notes
County
Government
500 Bulk evacuation from local
collection points to dumpsites;
street sweeping; beautification
Mainly low-skilled, street sweepers and
gardeners. Average salary 20000
KES/month.
Large private
sector
organisations
500 Domestic and commercial
collection; street sweeping,
beautification, cleaning.
Majority of staff employed on a contract
basis e.g. 40% FTE/60% contract.
Average starting salary 8000
KES/month
SMEs
450 Domestic and commercial
collection; recycling
Many casual staff taken on for contract
work
Average starting salary 8000
KES/month
Community-based
Organisations
(CBOs)
300 plus
Domestic and commercial
collection; recycling;
valorisation
c. 30 registered member organisations
specialising in solid waste management
with an average of 10-15, mainly part-
time members.
Average earnings: 5000-8000
KES/month
Waste pickers 500 plus Recycling; valorisation Itinerant waste pickers and those
working at the municipal dumpsites
Average earnings: 5000-7000
KES/month (i.e. 200-300 KES/day)
9Extracting valuable materials from the waste stream, cleaning and upgrading them and trading them as inputs to
industry, commerce or agriculture (UN-HABITAT, 2010). 10
Waste management work is often physically demanding, particularly where large quantities of waste are collected by
hand and then transported in hand carts, which when fully laden can weigh in excess of 100kg.
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2.1 Solid Waste: a definition
Solid waste is defined here as any item or material that is discarded by its owner and that is not
discharged in gaseous form to the atmosphere, to a pit latrine or via a pipe or channel. Solid waste
may include gases and liquids in containers (UN-HABITAT, 2010).
It should be noted that this analysis focuses on municipal solid waste (domestic, commercial,
institutional waste). It does not consider hazardous, industrial or healthcare wastes which by their
very nature require special attention and are best separated out from municipal waste. It is
recognised however that at present there may be a level of mixing of wastes where hazardous waste
often ends up at municipal dumpsites.
2.2 Growth potential
Growth in the employment potential in the sector is dependent on the amount of waste being
generated within the County. Employment opportunities are thereby associated with the need and
up-take of waste collection services, which in turn present greater opportunities for recovering
resources or valorising waste, and in other supporting services such as street sweeping,
beautification and the final disposal of waste.
Waste generation rates are typically linked to demographic growth rates and income-level. Recent
demographic projections suggest that the urban population of Mombasa is currently growing on
average 3.8 % per annum (falling to around 3% per annum by 2050) with a current population in
excess of 1 million people. Income-level varies across the city as will consumption patterns which
will affect both the amount and type of waste being generated. A Waste Characterisation Study
carried out to support this market systems analysis estimates that at least 875 tonnes of municipal
solid waste is produced in Mombasa County per day, equivalent to just under 0.8kg/per person/per
day (see Table 1 below).
Table 3. Population and estimated waste generation rate for Mombasa County11
*average per capita generation rate
Of the waste that is generated, perhaps 50% or 460 tonnes/day of the municipal waste generated
in Mombasa County is being ‘formally’ managed. The majority of formally managed waste is
collected through a combination of formal and informal primary waste collection agents, taken to a
network of official collection points where it is evacuated by the County Government and dumped
11
Taken from forthcoming paper Mombasa: A Waste Characterisation Study, Palfreman et al (2015) 12
Estimated using data from UN World Urbanization Prospects data, (United Nations, 2014)
Socio-
economic
type
% Population
(2009)
Population
(201512
)
Per Capita
(kg/day)
Waste
Production/
Tonnes (2015)
low 53.6 503,446 590,343 0.55 324.7
(37%)
medium 23.9 224,613 302,458 0.89 269.2
(31%)
high 22.5 211,311 211,199 1.33 280.9
(37%)
Total 100 939,370 1,104,000 0.8* 875
(100%)
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at three uncontrolled county dumpsites daily (see Figures 3 & 4). The Kibarani dumpsite, the largest
of county dumpsites, receives around 90% of this waste.
Solid waste that is not transported to official collection points or dumpsites is either dumped,
burned, or buried indiscriminately either by the waste generator themselves (household or
commercial entity) or, by any number of formal or informal collecting agents operating throughout
the County (see Table 2). This typically results in serious concerns over public or environmental
health, for example the degradation of the natural environment and associated health risks to the
human population of those living near sites where waste is inappropriately managed. Absent from
any official publications are indications of the proportion of waste being recycled or recovered for
re-use although it clear that waste is retrieved for recycling and selling at all stages of the solid
waste management process by the private/informal sector (see Figure 4).
Table 4. Community distribution by type of waste/garbage disposal Source: (Mombasa County
Government, 2013)
Method %
Burning 38.0
Public garbage heap 17.7
Garbage pit 15.4
Collected by Local Authority 11.1
Collected by private firms 10.2
Neighbourhood community
group 2.4
Farm garden 0.3
Figure 3. Municipal solid waste infrastructure in Mombasa County
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Figure 4. Waste Process flow diagram for Mombasa County indicating various activities and
players.
Managing increasing amounts of solid waste presents a serious urban environmental challenge.
Even with policy measures in place like punitive charging or other economic instruments to reduce
the amounts of waste being produced across the County, generation rates are likely to increase
proportionate to population, exacerbated by increases in income-level. However, the ever present
issue of waste and what to do with it presents employment opportunities in terms of an increased
need for solid waste management services and through solid waste resource recovery.
2.3 Solid waste collection (waste transporters)
Waste management activities in Mombasa County like many cities across the region could best be
described as pluralistic. Waste collection services are highly decentralised and either delivered as
door-to-door or communal container collections, by a combination of – formal private waste
management companies, the County Government, CBOs, and informal actors, such as individual
waste pickers, many of whom are young people and predominantly male13
. The County
Government estimates that only around 25-30% of waste generated is collected through a paid-for
service. Door-to-door waste collection services are paid for almost entirely by user-fees collected by
individual operators. County Government expenditure on waste management goes largely towards
the bulk evacuation of waste from community collection points to the municipal dumpsites, street
sweeping and beautification. Waste collection services are often delivered in dispersed patterns
whereby collection agents pick out the most profitable clients, often those most able or willing to
pay. The extent to which households and businesses may be willing to pay for waste collection
services is determined by the perceived value the benefits of a waste collection service bring them
in terms of improved environmental and or public health – something that is persistently low all
over Kenya (Tukahirwa et al., 2013). Linked to this is the ability of households to pay for collection
services. A study of over 800 households from across Mombasa County revealed that more than
13
A survey of CBOs operating in the waste collection sub-sector revealed that on average over 85% of employees were
under the age of 35. The gender split observed was on average 2 males to every female.
Sardinia 2015, Fifteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
half of non-poor households reported engaging the services of a waste contractor compared to just
25% of poor households14
.
Box 2. Mombasa Coast Tourist Association: collective action on waste management
The tourist industry provides an example of collective response to nuisance caused through
environmental degradation as a result of poor solid waste management. Many of Mombasa’s
hotels engage the services of private waste management contractors to collect waste from their
premises. In addition, the Mombasa County Tourist Authority have organised monthly clean-up
operations along main routes to and from Mombasa airport though contributions from the tour
operators and hoteliers they represent.
Prices for service delivery tend to be set by market rules and as such waste collection services
are delivered at a range of price-points reflecting the socio-economic status of households, the size
of commercial activity, and/or the physical nature of the urban environment. In areas which suffer
from poor levels of essential infrastructure i.e. informal, unplanned settlements, waste collection
services are typically delivered using handcarts, which afford easy access to narrow lanes and have
lower operating costs which allow a waste collection service to be provided to the urban poor15
. As
such waste management activities in these areas represent employment and income generating
opportunities for some of the County’s poorest residents – and as such the sector’s poorest players.
On average the majority of residents may be prepared to pay between 20 and 50 Kenyan Shillings
(KES)/per week for waste collection services, with services delivered by MSMEs or CBOs charged
at an average of 200 KES/month. In contrast, in the lower-density, higher-income settlements,
households may pay around 2000/KES month, though these services are likely to be delivered by
larger private contractors operating trucks or side-loading waste collection vehicles.
In general the larger market players provide their services to different customer segments -
higher and middle income customers i.e. those with a greater ability to pay for services - leaving
smaller market players to service lower income customers. At the lower-end of the market there is
some evidence of internal competition e.g. CBOs and waste pickers delivering services to the same
customer segments, often servicing each other’s customers. There is limited regulation of these
informal activities, and as such market players receive limited support from County Government16
.
The majority of formal, Government waste collections service Mombasa Island and Mainland
North, with only around 10% of estimated waste generated in Mainland South and West being
collected by County Government trucks and disposed of at one of the municipal dumpsites. As such
there is considerable potential to increase the proportion of households and businesses receiving
waste collection services door-to-door, or to increase the level of collection from community
collection centres. This would not only reduce the amount of waste being disposed of
inappropriately, capturing more waste for recycling, valorisation and resource recovery, but also
provide the platform for the creation of hundreds of additional jobs.
14
WSP, 2007 15
This is particularly relevant to the urban poor, who may spend 80-90% income on food and rent (Dixon-Fyle, 2000). 16
Community-based organizations can however register with the Department of Social Services which gives them
recognition as a formal entity which affords some recognition as a ‘registered service provider’, though not as a
commercial business.
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Box 3. Growth in domestic waste collection services.
Projections for expansion of domestic waste collection services alone, based on manual, micro-
collection model could are represented in Table 3 below.
Table 3. Estimated number of full-time employees in household waste collection services.
Year Estimated
population
Waste
generated/week
(kg)
FTEs required
(+10% additional
households serviced)
FTEs required
(+20% additional
households serviced)
2015 1,127,000 4733400 208-311 415-623
2020 1,411,000 5926200 251-376 501-752
2025 1,775,000 7455000 315-473 630-946
These employment requirements for the two scenarios represent an increase in service
provision of an additional 10% and 20% of households respectively above the current provision
of 30% of all household and are predicated on no additional policy changes or market
interventions. They are based on the assumption that on average each person will generate
between 0.6kg and 0.9kg of solid waste per day on average (represented by low and high
estimates of number of jobs created); collections are carried out by handcarts that collect from
around 60 households per day, where each handcart is operated by two people; each household
would pay 30 KES per week, representing a weekly income of at least 3000KES/week per worker.
This also assumes overheads of around and profits to the operating ‘entity’ of between 10-20%.
For a detailed breakdown see Annex 1.
2.4 Solid waste resource recovery and valorisation
The majority of municipal waste produced in Mombasa is biodegradable waste with estimates
ranging from 48% (higher income residential to 76% (hotels)17
. Despite the predominance of
organic, biodegradable waste in the waste stream in Mombasa County there is significant potential
for value addition through resource recovery from other recyclable wastes such as plastics, metals
and paper. Although County by-laws make provision for recycling activities, the County
Government does not undertake any recycling activities itself, nor does it currently provide any
incentives to do so. As such recycling in Mombasa tends towards a private economic activity i.e. it
is driven by the market value of the waste material (as opposed to the avoidance of policy-driven
costs of disposal).
17
The density (volume) of waste in Mombasa is assumed to be high (i.e. 300-400kg per cubic metre) due to high proportion of
‘wet’ organic waste in the waste stream. The type and density of waste generated will also influence the management regime
and therefore employment potential.
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Table 5. Municipal solid waste composition of various waste generators across Mombasa County.
Source: Kuza Project, 2015 Waste Characterisation Study.
Research from UN-HABITAT suggests that the informal sector may already be recovering 15-
35% of generated waste in low and middle income cities18
. The recent Waste Characterisation
Study of Mombasa (Kuza Project, 2015) estimated that around 22% of the total municipal solid
waste produced in Mombasa had recycling potential, however interviews with stakeholders from
the private sector recycling industry indicate that just over 20 tonnes of waste per day, or around
2.5% of the estimated total municipal solid waste generated in Mombasa is actually recycled.
Plastics and paper-based waste are typically recovered far from source, either at the dumpsites or
community collection centres. As such recovery efficiency rates are estimated to be fairly low with
around 10 tonnes of the estimated 78 tonnes of paper waste and around 13 tonnes of an estimated
120 tonnes of plastic waste being produced in Mombasa actually being recovered for re-use19
.
Growth potential in recycling activities is influenced by both supply and demand-side factors.
The supply of valuable waste is governed by the efficiency of those sorting and separating waste,
whilst the demand for recyclable materials is determined by those processing waste further for use
in industrial or agricultural value chains, itself further influenced by global commodity and resource
markets. There is much potential for greater recycling of waste materials, through an expansion in
the provision of waste collection services as discussed above or through more coordinated attempts
at separating waste at source. A recent study reports a high proportion of residents living in
Mombasa showing willingness to separate waste at source, before collection – in excess of 80%
across a range of settlement types (Mbiba, 2014).
2.5 Waste sorting and separation
The recyclable supply chain reflects the composition of the various waste streams as influenced by:
Reach and efficiency of waste collection services – greater proportion of recyclable waste
entering the value chain.
Leakage in the value chain- sorted waste with resource recovery potential may still be dumped
or burned.
Urban infrastructure - such as waste collection points, dumpsites and condition of feeder
roads.
Seasonal variation - during the hotter/wetter months organic waste degrades more quickly,
often contaminating other source of waste that could have been recycled e.g. papers and
cardboard.
There is virtually no separation of waste at source. Most resource recovery activities are carried
out by players in the informal sector who often work ‘alongside’ formal waste management
systems. Manual sorting is carried out by the informal sector either by CBOs providing door-to-
18
UN-HABITAT, 2010. 19
Kuza Project, Waste Characterisation Study, 2015.
Proportion of total waste stream (%)
typology organic diapers glass metals paper plastics textiles
low-income 72.29 7.78 1.05 0.41 3.76 12.11 2.6
mid-income 72.3 9.74 1.07 0.52 3.81 10.81 1.75
high-income 48.41 5.12 3.41 1 19.61 19.02 3.44
Commercial 68.29 0.16 4.5 0.65 13.06 13.17 0.16
Hotels 76.67 0.16 3.63 0.65 10.18 8.42 0.3
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door collection services, or by waste pickers operating at collection points, dumpsites, or riding
along in dumper trucks.
Around 500 young people depend on the recyclable waste arriving at these sites for their
livelihoods and it is important to note that although resource rich waste ends up at the dumpsite for
formal disposal, it is through the actions of these informal players that waste is returned to the value
chain for resource recovery. More often than not these are young men aged between 6 and 18, who
pick through waste with the sole purpose of selling recyclables for a profit, though often with
negative health and safety outcomes. The efficiency of recovering valued material in this way varies
greatly but provides a valuable source of income for some of the poorest players operating in the
sector. Both the County Government and citizens of Mombasa County also receive significant
environmental benefits from these activities through the conservation of resource and avoidance of
disposal at a likely lower cost than could be provided formally20
.
2.6 Recycling and waste processing
On the demand-side, there appears to be latent local demand for plastics, metals, glass and other
recyclables although some market players complain about the lack of co-ordination for recycling
activities and the absence of locally based input companies requiring certain materials i.e. hard
plastics. Much of the traded recyclable waste is bought by middlemen for further processing outside
of the county resulting in leakages in the value chain locally. Local market values for recyclables
are determined by the quality, cleanliness, and overheads associated with the transportation of
materials from the point of origin (or separation) to the buyer. Proximity to one of the recycling
‘middlemen’ (or other waste buyers) is likely to guarantee better access to recycling markets and
lower transaction costs, particularly for smaller market players who lack transportation21
. Market
prices for recyclables range from 3-6KES/kg for paper and cardboard; 15 KES/kg for plastics
(polythene); and 10-20 KES/kg for hard plastics i.e. bottles; up to 90 KES/kg for metals.
Processing of recyclable waste is less common within the County, such that most smaller market
players sell ‘raw’ waste on to middlemen or others in the recycling industry for further processing
and entry into industrial value chains outside of the County. A handful of local private sector
organisations buy plastic (polythene) waste directly from waste pickers and other collection agents
and are willing to collect waste plastics from which they manufacturer plastic bags and sheeting.
Industry standards regarding the quality of ‘raw’ waste exist but are not transparent, typically being
discussed with sellers during a transaction.
There has been some discussion around, and previous investment in, local waste processing
plants. A small plastic waste processing/recycling facility was established in Jomvu Jitoni by the
Mombasa Integrated Solid Waste Management Partnership – an umbrella organisation representing
many of the County’s waste management CBOs. Although completed in 2011 the plant has never
been in operation due to a number of outstanding constraints (see Box 4 below). A further attempt
was made to establish a recycling plant at Mtwapa, Kilifi County. Land and a building was acquired
but again, the site has never become operational where there were problems in the supply chain for
(sorted) waste materials.
The County Government, in its County Integrated Development Plan (2013-17), indicates that it
is prioritising the construction of a recycling plant in the Mwakirunge area by 2015. This plant
would provide a space for collection and sorting of wastes and further processing directly
employing 100 young people and providing a market for trading in recyclables for up to 20 youth
groups.
20
Scheinberg et al. 2011 21
The price paid for recyclable materials can be considerably lower where buyers collect the materials from those
sorting and separating waste.
Sardinia 2015, Fifteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
Box 4. Mombasa Integrated Solid Waste Management Partnership recycling plant, Jomvu Jitoni.
This recycling plant was commissioned and constructed in 2010/11and funded by the DANIDA
through the Kenyan Community Development Trust Fund. The centre has the potential to directly
employ 10-20 persons in processing waste for valorisation, and provide a centre for aggregating
and sorting municipal waste. The small factory houses plastic crushing and pelletising machines
capable of processing around 4 tonnes of plastic per day. Processing raw waste in this way has the
potential to increase the value of plastic by two to three times, from 18KES/kg to 50-60KES/kg.
The intention is to bring many partner organisations e.g. CBOs and individual waste pickers
together to use the facility and reduce operating and transaction costs.
However, due to a number of outstanding key constraints –political interference22
, high
operating costs, poor accessibility, poor connections to mains services and markets – the operation
has failed to attract any additional investment to begin operation. For example, both the plant’s
operators and smaller market players collecting waste cite the cost of transporting sorted or
unsorted waste to the site as a major barrier to the plant operating. A connection to the mains
power grid was only recently established (early 2014) and one bore hole on site represents the only
source of water – a steady supply of which is needed to operate the plant machinery. Additionally
an operator’s licence of 40,000KES/annum is required from the NEMA. Although the demand for
such a facility is evident, a number of key supply-side issues do not seem to have been adequately
considered at the project planning stage.
2.7 Waste valorisation
Waste valorisation is the process of converting waste materials into useful products. There are a
number of products that are currently produced from waste materials in Mombasa County
including:
2.7.1 Compost
With high proportion of biodegradable waste in the waste stream composting is an obvious activity
though requires land, practical knowledge, and time to turn biodegradable-waste into saleable
compost. Biodegradable waste also needs to be separated out as early as possible in the waste cycle
i.e. at source. Compost fetches around 30 KES/kg on the open market depending on the quality
though is often used directly in urban farming or horticultural practices – with incomes derived
from plant or food sales. There are some doubts over the environmental sustainability of
composting where not carried out in a controlled environment.
22
Tan, 2012
Sardinia 2015, Fifteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
2.7.2 Charcoal briquettes
These products are typically handmade and sold locally for profit. Charcoal briquettes can be used
as replacement for charcoal for cooking, but vary in quality, often having a much lower calorific
value and less efficiency than charcoal. They sell for between 30-50 KES/kilo.
2.7.3 Handicrafts
Handicrafts such as shopping bags weaved from recovered plastics are generally well-made and
designed though are currently mainly marketed door-to-door, often by CBOs who sell back to the
households they collect waste from.
Most of the activities listed above tend to occur at small-scale, local level. The most active
players in this sub-sector are CBOs who often engage in a diverse range of activities to provide
greater income generating potential. Although some of the activities from those operating at the
lower-end of the market show some promise in terms of entrepreneurship, much of the innovation
appears to have been spurred and supported by a previous donor’s interest in the sector – DANIDA
through the Kenyan Community Development Trust Fund. In general, waste valorisation activities
have not been successfully taken to scale and there is some doubt over the scalability of some of the
products. Further research is needed to identify the feasibility of developing and strengthening
waste valorisation value chains.
2.8 Waste disposal
Even in the most efficient integrated waste management system there is will still be a need to
dispose of some residual waste, preferably in a sanitary manner. As a supporting function to the
value chain, eventual disposal is currently ‘officially’ carried out at one of two ‘official’ waste
dumping sites in operation at the Kibarani and Mwakirunge dumpsites23
. These landfill sites are
well-used both by private waste contractors and County Government dump trucks although
management of these sites does not reflect best practice in environmental stewardship. These sites
are unfenced and uncontrolled such that it is not possible to monitor the amount of waste being
dumped at each site. Waste is wind blown beyond the boundaries and along access roads where it
falls off trucks transporting the waste from the City. In general waste is not carefully managed,
either being burned openly or allowed to decompose in an uncontrolled manner proposing serious
environmental risks to air and water quality. The NEMA have initiated court proceedings against
the County in respect of infringements of waste disposal licensing laws, though are currently
tolerating the continued use of these sites until suitable alternatives have been located24
.
The dumpsites themselves support many individual livelihoods, mainly where waste pickers are
making a living from sorting and selling recyclable material. These are informal activities which are
currently tolerated, despite Mombasa County by-laws forbidding unauthorised access to the
dumpsites. The County Government employs a handful of staff to manage and monitor the activities
at the Kibirani dumpsite. At Mwakirunge waste pickers themselves organise and manage the
dumper trucks arriving at the site so as to distribute the benefits of retrieving valuable waste
between themselves. Fees are charged for disposing of waste at these sites with remittances from
the Kibarani dumpsite being collected by the County Government whilst at the Mwakirunge site are
retained by those managing the site.
23
A third site at Shonda Quarry has more recently been used by the County Government to dump waste. Its location,
some 10kms south of Likoni makes it a convenient location to dispose of waste emanating from the south coast side of
Mombasa. 24
A feasibility study funded by ADF in 2004 recommended enhancing Mwakirunge dumpsite and establishing a new
sanitary landfill to the south of Mombasa.
Sardinia 2015, Fifteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
There are also around 90 community collection points across the city, often on privately-owned
land which have grown over time and become part of the urban landscape. The V.O.K25
site in
Nyali is one such site where a dozen of so waste pickers sort through waste for resale. Although
actively managed by the County Government, service provision varies from location to location. At
many of the larger, more central collection centres County dumper trucks stationed here and used to
transport waste on to the main dumpsites. Other local dumpsites are not managed in this way, and
waste is left to accumulate, being evacuated on a weekly, bi-monthly, or often monthly basis.
Exploring alternative options for eventual waste disposal has been considered by both the public
and private sector over the last ten years at various scales with some innovative proposals having
been discussed. At least one CBO has designed and built a small Jiko burner (incinerator) which is
predominantly used to burn waste from 250 households and 15 commercial properties. Incineration
is a regulated activated currently licensed by NEMA although in integrated waste management
terms may be less desirable than recycling or reuse. Ultimately, reducing the amount of waste
requiring disposal at a dumpsite represents the greatest potential for job creation up-stream through
expanded waste collection, sorting, and resource recovery activities.
2.9 Waste to energy
Exploring alternative methods of eventually disposing of waste is likely to be necessary for
Mombasa County given the scarcity of available land and environmental and social dis-benefits of
continuing to operate existing, uncontrolled landfills. Some innovative proposals for recovering
energy from waste have been put forward by the private sector. The Bamburi Cement Plant is
investigating the use of alternative fuels in their cement kilns and are currently investigating the
viability of pre-processing solid waste for use as a fuel. The environmental and social value of
utilising waste in this manner is generally favoured over landfill/incineration, though requires closer
scrutiny. The cement industry claim that using municipal waste for energy has the potential to
reduce the amount of waste going to landfill by up to 80% and create employment directly at pre-
treatment plants whilst stimulating additional demand for combustible waste. This could provide an
incentive for developing more efficient collection systems and therefore generating additional
employment opportunities.
2.10 Street sweeping and beautification
Street sweeping, landscaping and beautification all represent supporting functions of those involved
in the waste market system. They represent market systems in their own right and support the
livelihoods of hundreds of individuals across the public, private, and informal sectors in Mombasa
County. The County Government employs upwards of 200 full-time employees for street sweeping
activities largely on Mombasa Island. Waste pickers may also informally carry out street sweeping
or ‘volunteer’ around the County’s formal neighbourhood collection points, helping to load waste
onto tipper trucks, in order to sort through the waste to recover valuable material which they sell on
to earn a livelihood. Much of the employment in beautification is carried out under contract
between waste management companies or CBOs and the public sector i.e. Mombasa County
Government or Kenya Ports Authority. Teams of casual labourers, many of whom are young
women, work in the City’s parks or along main roads, picking waste and tidying the appearance of
the urban landscape.
25‘Voice of Kenya’ on account of the site’s proximity to the former Kenya Broadcasting Corporation offices.
Sardinia 2015, Fifteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
3. SECTOR STRUCTURE AND PERFORMANCE
This analysis starts from the viewpoint that waste is a resource or input to a value chain which
supports a number of employment and income generating activities such as resource recovery and
valorisation. These steps are supported by a number of functions or services such as waste
collection and sorting. The source of the waste entering the value chain varies from the waste
generator (i.e. households, commercial properties, hotels etc.) to municipal collection points or
dumpsites from which waste is recovered. By analysing the sector in terms of its value chain, one
highlights the interdependencies between the different functions and services in the waste
management cycle. The output is the supply of value-added products which re-enter the industrial
or agricultural value chains i.e. processed plastics for recycling, compost for farm inputs. This view
also implies that a number of these supporting functions are market systems in their own right i.e.
waste collection services, beautification.
Inputs(raw waste / demand for
services)
Aggregators(Collection)
Resource recovery
(separation)
ProcessingWholesale /
Retail
Supporting FunctionsPrivate Sector Government
Consulting, audit (M & E), technical
support/extension services
Research & development
(market, technical)
Laws, policy: taxation, trade, environmental &
labour regulations, polluter-pays-principle
Rules
Representative Bodies
Standards: local, international,
ethical, private (service delivery
and quality standards)
Gender dynamics (imbalances)
Civil Society
Infrastructure, technology
Advocacy
Financial services & investment
Socio-cultural rules, dynamics:
attitude to education & work,
religious norms, conflict
Skills & training
Collection, sorting, disposal
Informal norms: trust, motivation, community-
values, cartels, corruption (political
patronage)
Agricultural
Industrial
Coordination
Beautification
Information (public sensitisation)
Figure 5. Market system value chain for solid waste management
Sardinia 2015, Fifteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
3.1 Sector structure
Having mapped out the core value chain for the waste management system the supporting
functions, rules and norms, and system players are now subject to a more detailed analysis to
identify gaps or weaknesses in value chain performance.
3.2 Support functions
Supporting functions represent any function of the market system which supports the core
transaction, or value chain.
3.2.1 Information exchange
In order to allow the solid waste market to function efficiently, costs must be minimised including
social and environmental costs associated with poorly managed solid waste. Ultimately by reducing
the amounts of waste produced or the amounts of waste requiring landfill, greater value can be
added through the value chain resource recovery, recycling, or effective re-use of residual waste.
Where information is exchanged freely and equitably the amount and composition of material
entering the waste stream can be monitored, which in turn allows for monitoring and evaluation,
(price) signals to the market to be reflected accurately, and the ability to communicate the value of
waste as a resource to all players within the market system, particularly to the waste producers.
Public sensitisation to the perils and potentials of properly managed waste can then be used to effect
a cultural shift in how solid waste is perceived by consumers, driving up demand for waste
management services to create more employment.
3.2.2 Coordination
The County Government is mandated to coordinate the management of solid waste across the
County through the implementing of County by-laws. Currently there is no comprehensive strategic
framework coordinating the activities of all players in the sector active in the collecting, processing,
and eventually disposing of various sources of waste. Responsibility for servicing different
customers and locations across the County has been largely set by market rules. Greater
coordination in a waste management market system can allow greater efficiencies to be realised,
greater coverage of service provision, and increased value-added to waste material as it is captured,
early in the waste cycle, leading to greater opportunities for employment and income generation.
3.2.3 Advocacy
Some of the better informed and organised CBOs engage in advocacy that has resulted in changes
to County Government by-laws governing waste management - specifically relaxing rules around
the involvement of CBOs in waste management activities. Greater bottom-up participation in the
policy making process is not only a sign of a stronger democratic tradition, but also pre-cedes
demand-driven expansion of waste management services/supply-side increase in raw, valuable
wastes.
3.2.4 M&E/auditing
Monitoring and Evaluation of solid waste management generation, recycling and disposal rates, and
the provision of environmental monitoring services such as Environmental Audits are carried out by
Mombasa County Government and NEMA. The extent to which these organisations have the
capacity to effectively monitor the flow and composition of municipal waste, without which greater
efficiency and growth in the market system cannot be realised, is constrained by institutional
budgets.
Sardinia 2015, Fifteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
3.2.5 Skills development
Although many employment opportunities in the sector are low-skilled, there is scope for enhancing
technical skills in the proper and effective management of various types of solid waste. Local
formal options for skills development exist in the form of undergraduate and postgraduate courses
in Environmental Management from Mombasa’s Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and
Technology. Training in integrated solid waste management techniques have previously been
facilitated by a local community-based organisation, the Mombasa Integrated Solid Waste
Management Partnership funded by the Community Development Trust Fund (an EU-funded
initiative). This has included training in waste management and valorisation techniques i.e. charcoal
briquette manufacturing. Many smaller players lack the business planning, financial management
and occupational health and safety skills to allow them to successfully scale and optimise their
operations.
3.2.6 Research and development
Innovation in the sector has historically focussed on low-tech advancements in waste valorisation.
For example, weaving of baskets from discarded plastic (polythene) bags for re-sale, or developing
small-scale urban agricultural systems utilising biodegradable waste as compost. There may be
room for greater green innovation in the sector though there is currently no evidence of specific
local policies or programmes for fostering innovation within the sector, in either product
development or service provision. From a policy perspective innovation remains highly centralised
although there is provision for direct assistance to SMEs as well as potential for establishing
County-level offices specialising in innovation. The Kenya Industrial Research & Development
Institute has a mandate to facilitate technology transfer to SMEs, with some SWM-related
initiatives already having been developed. Additionally, the National Commission for Science,
Technology and Innovation and Kenya National Innovation Agency also promise to manage the
innovation system, institutionalising linkages between the public and private sector.
Innovation and growth in the green economy can yield positive results for the waste management
value chain (and interconnected market systems) which may be saturated, particularly where the
demand for better waste management services is constrained by an inability/unwillingness to pay
i.e. a need for alternative incentives/business models.
3.2.7 Infrastructure and technology
Spatial distribution of land for waste management activities is uneven which limits accessibility and
increases transport costs. Where land has been allocated inefficiently, there are threats to
environmental and public health. Mombasa County is predominantly urban and as such land
availability is scarce, particularly for lower ‘value’ land uses such as sites for waste disposal i.e.
Landfill sites. An abundance of low-tech solutions to waste management, although this largely
focuses on the bulk evacuation of waste from source to disposal with little value added by many of
the market players. In the past international donor funding has been used for the purchase of
handcarts and other equipment for a number of CBOs operating in the County. The absence of a
local recycling plant is cited as a consideration for the lack of value-addition within Mombasa
County by some players - waste collectors e.g. private sector waste management companies and
CBOs.
3.2.8 Financial services
Access to finance for many of the smaller/poorest players operating in the sector often comes from
Savings and Credit Cooperative Organisations (SACCOs) which are prevalent across Kenya.
SACCOs can provide valuable micro-financing to those operating in sector e.g. for the purchase of
Sardinia 2015, Fifteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
equipment. Micro-Finance Institutions and banks also provide financing for some players although
access to finance may be available to registered entities only, i.e. limited companies. The SME Act
(2012) makes provision for a fund for entrepreneurship which could potentially be accessed by
SMEs through the Department of Trade. Mombasa County has yet to develop policies to promote
and develop support to SMEs. Several international donors have been active across the sector in
Mombasa County investing in training, waste collection equipment, and recycling plant. This has
tended to be short-term and developed a dependency amongst some players whose business
activities have relied on this finance. Some larger private sector organisations have made resources
available through CSR initiatives, though these are generally short-term and involve assistance in
kind.
3.2.9 Collection, sorting, storage of waste
These supporting services facilitate value added through the core of the waste management value
chain described here (although they can also be thought of as interrelated market systems in their
own right). The longer term performance of the core market is determined to a great extent by the
effectiveness of these interconnected market systems. For example, low demand for waste
collection services will result in weak supply of recyclable waste to the core value chain, and by
definition greater take-up in waste collection services the greater potential for creating employment
The earlier in the waste cycle that valuable waste is recovered the greater potential for adding value,
whilst creating more jobs than concentrating solely on bulk evacuation of waste for eventual
disposal – the current focus of much of the waste management activities in Mombasa County.
3.3 Rules and norms
Rules and norms of a market system determine how the core transaction or function operates and
determines the ways in which individual market players/stakeholders act within the market system.
Rules and norms can either be formal e.g. legislation, policies etc, or informal e.g. culture or social
conventions.
3.3.1 Legislation
In general there is considerable cross over between individual pieces of legislation and regulations
governing solid waste management in Mombasa, such that responsibility for managing waste is not
well defined often being shared between different authorities. Decentralisation measures brought
about through devolution of power to County Governments in 2013 have left a situation where there
is no clear policy guidance from National to Local on implementing waste management measures.
There are several pieces of legislation that give powers to County Governments and the NEMA
in respective of the control of waste, delivery of waste management operations, and regulation of
technologies and procedures for example, the Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act
(EMCA), 1999 and the Environment Impact (Assessment and Auditing) regulations, 2003. The
Urban Areas and Cities Act, 2011 states that every city and municipality shall produce an integrated
development plan which shall-contribute to the protection and promotion of the fundamental rights
and freedoms and the progressive realization of the socio-economic rights which include the right to
housing; and be the basis for overall delivery of service including provision of water, electricity,
health, telecommunications and solid waste management (see section on Policy below). The County
Government Act, 2012 and Public Finance Management Act, 2012 reinforce the County the
budgeting process to start with the integrated development plan for the County. Mombasa County
has recently commissioned an integrated development plan (January 2014) with assistance from the
Japanese International Cooperation Agency. The preparation of this document is likely to take
between 18-36 months, but would make provision for the planning and appropriation of land for the
Sardinia 2015, Fifteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
purposes of solid waste management and the delivery of the provision of solid waste collection
services. It is not clear where the strategic direction for waste management comes from in the
absence of the integrated development plan.
Under the Public Procurement and Disposal Preference and Reservations Amendment
Regulations, 2013 youth, women and people with disability can theoretically access 30% of
Government Tenders, for example waste management or beautification contracts let by the County
Government or KPA. To qualify businesses must be registered and comprise 70% youth members
and 100% youth management. Although potentially a very powerful and positive driver for
enhanced youth employment opportunities, the initiative has come under criticism from some where
the procurement opportunities advertised under this scheme are often said to represent smaller value
contracts only i.e. 30% of the number of contracts as opposed to 30% of the value of a Ministry’s
budget. In addition there are further policy and legal instruments that govern investment and
procurement in the sector: Public Private Partnership Act, No. 15 of 2013, and Public Procurement
Disposal (Public Private Partnership) Regulations 2009.
3.3.2 Regulations
The Environmental Management and Co-ordination (Waste Management) Regulations, 2006 are
meant to streamline the handling, transportation and disposal of various types of waste and are
designed to ensure the protection of human health and the environment. The regulations place
emphasis on waste minimisation, cleaner production and segregation of waste at source though no
sign of these being implemented. Under the Waste Management Regulations, NEMA licenses
transporters, incinerators, landfills, composers, recyclers and transfer stations. Licences that must be
obtained include: Waste transporters/collectors licence at a cost of 5000 KES per annum (regardless
of the size of your operation); Waste treatment licence (e.g. recycling/composting) at 40,000 KES
per annum; Waste disposal licence (e.g. incineration/landfill) at 75,000 KES per annum. Cost of
obtaining these licenses can be prohibitive to many small players e.g. (informal) waste pickers or
CBOs/youth groups.
The Mombasa County Environmental Management by-laws 2008 set out County level objectives
for environmental management so as to ‘ensure environmental accountability and social
responsibility of all waste generators, waste managers and service providers’. They incorporate the
principles of integrated solid waste management practices, seeking to maximise resource recovery,
and to minimise adverse impacts on environmental and public health arising from the management
of waste. Provision is made for private sector involvement in waste management within ‘authorized
zones26
’ and mandatory separation of waste at source. It is an offence to dump waste
indiscriminately and written permission for any person to enter the County Government’s refuse
dumping ground. Although comprehensive and wide-ranging these by-laws are poorly enforced
such that both licensed and unlicensed operators can be found operating across the County.
The draft Mombasa County Finance Bill proposes flat rate charging of 200KES/month per
household for waste management fees, though does not state explicitly how this would be spent.
This draft Bill has provoked fervent reaction from the public.
3.3.3 Policy
There is currently no national waste management plan for Kenya that provides national policy
guidance on proper management of solid waste. Although the draft County Integrated Development
Plan (2013-17) has several references to solid waste management (including budget proposals) it
does not articulate a clear policy framework for the management of solid waste. The Ministry of
26
Authorized Zone’ refers to sites officially reserved for waste management activities i.e. the Kibirani and Mwakirunge
dumpsites
Sardinia 2015, Fifteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
Environment and Water Resources have indicated a desire to prepare specific solid waste
management policy for the County, although in the absence of any national guidance on best
practice on environmental protection and strategic waste management planning, there is a risk that
the County Government produces policy that is inconsistent with any emerging national waste
policy. Equally though, this cold be an opportunity for Mombasa County to be a frontrunner in
describing at the County-level what strategic waste management policy could look like.
3.3.4 Standards
Technical guidelines for the proper handling and disposal of both solid and liquid waste are few and
far between aside from those set out in the National EMCA or local by-laws. Locally, standards
exist for waste management operations carried out within Kenya Ports Authority land. Firms
bidding for opportunities in waste management contracts through the KPA are therefore required to
demonstrate technical competency against these standards. In the recycling industry there are often
local standards to ensure the quality, cleanliness, and re-use potential of recovered waste which in
turn affects the price paid for waste products. There is a general lack of transparency over these
standards which allow buyers to negotiate prices for waste products on an individual basis. Through
existing waste to energy initiatives Bamburi Cement are capable of disposing of various forms of
solid and liquid waste in their cement kilns. Any exchange value of the materials is set by standards
that reflect the calorific value/quality of the materials and circumstances under which they
collected.
3.3.5 Informal norms, socio-cultural rules and dynamics
There may be significant resistance to involving oneself in waste management activities due to
negative socio-cultural perceptions of waste particularly amongst indigenous communities who
practice Islam. Willingness to pay for or engage the services of a private waste contractor may be
constrained by an individual’s perception of waste as a priority in terms of public/environmental
health or as a valuable resource. The majority of residents or local businesses may have regard
waste management as a low priority. The role of village elders/local chiefs or other community
leaders in supporting and enforcing solid waste management activities should not be
underestimated. There is evidence of traditional influence encouraging greater take up of waste
management activities at the local level. There is potentially also a big advantage to being a local
resident in gaining access to customers, particularly where local waste collectors service residents
that they know personally.
Waste pickers operating at the two municipal dumpsites are well-organised along the lines of
traditional village hierarchy. The rules by which these groups operate are not well understood
though the behaviour resembles that of a ‘cartel’, influencing the behaviour of other players such as
private waste contractors who pay for the privilege of dumping waste at the Mwakirunge dumpsite.
Violence and unrest along ethnic and tribal lines has emerged as a feature of the coastal region.
Civil unrest, particularly in lower and middle income settlements of the County have the potential to
disrupt the delivery of municipal services and threaten the safety and security of young people
operating in these areas. Security issues may also detract potential investors. Waste collection as an
occupation is predominantly carried out by males, which may be a reflection of the physical nature
of the work, particularly where the work itself is manual in nature. For example, the ratio of male to
female in CBOs active in waste management is approximately 2:1. That said, many women’s
groups and other CBOs active in the sector have a high proportion of female members - many of the
valorisation activities e.g. handicraft production, urban farming; beautification are championed by
young women.
Sardinia 2015, Fifteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
3.4 System actor performance
The profile and performance of the various system players is examined below in the context of
youth employment. This analysis identifies how they currently do business, the relationships they
have with other market players, and the clarity of their particular role within the waste management
system. System actors can be broadly defined as either formal i.e. motivated by either social or
environmental gains in the proper management of solid waste and/or the economic benefits to
themselves in participating in the sector; or informal i.e. principally motivated by income derived
from waste management activities e.g. Livelihood.
3.5 Formal system players
3.5.1 Mombasa County Government
Mombasa County Government are mandated with managing solid waste across the County as a core
public service – implemented largely by the Ministry of Environment, Water, and Natural
Resources, though the Ministry for Land, Housing, & Urban Development also important in terms
of facilitating land allocation. They are a relatively new administration, power devolved to the
County Governments in March 2013. Main activities include the bulk transportation of solid waste;
street sweeping; beautification and horticulture; regulation, monitoring and enforcement of waste
management activities across the County – for which approximately 500 persons are employed.
There is currently no County-wide strategic solid waste management strategy and inter-
ministerial cooperation is clearly required though it is unclear how effective this is currently. A
budget of 1.6bn KES was declared for solid waste management in 2013/14 although there is no
central/dedicated budget for waste management activities i.e. staff costs fall under Min.
Environment budgets, whilst vehicles and transportation of waste fall under Transport &
Infrastructure budget. The County Government ha limited capacity for managing even the bulk
evacuation of waste with a comprehensive waste evacuation service only being delivered to
Mombasa Island, with a less frequent service provided to the mainland areas of Mombasa County.
Monitoring and enforcement of County by-laws and other regulations is also weak – e.g.
indiscriminate dumping of waste visible all over the County. Though some flexible application of
regulations in recognition of the role that informal players play in the sector. There have been
allegations in the press citing the relationship between private sector waste contracts and key
County Government figures which may negatively affect performance of the solid waste
management system in Mombasa i.e. Cronyism.
3.5.2 The National Environment Management Authority (NEMA)
NEMA is the custodian of environmental legislation designed to manage and mitigate against any
environmental impacts from solid waste management strategies or activities across Kenya. They
licence individual operators for the transport (including collection), processing and disposal of
waste (including dumpsites and incineration facilities). They also suffer from a lack of resources
and as such are unable to monitor waste management activities across Mombasa County effectively.
There is some cross-over of responsibility between NEMA and the County Government and despite
attempts to create a more harmonious working relationship conflict has arisen with Mombasa
County Government, for example over the refusal to licence the Kibarani dumpsite for poor
environmental performance, resulting in court action being raised by NEMA against the County
Government in this respect.
Licensing activities are fragmented such that waste transporters licences are processed locally,
whilst waste disposal licences dealt with through the National NEMA office.
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3.5.3 Donors
UN agencies such as UNEP and ILO and the French (AFD), German (GIZ) and Danish (DANIDA)
development agencies have all previously shown interest and support in the waste management
sector in Mombasa. A feasibility study into enhancing waste management was funded by AFD
around 2008 although no practical intervention followed. Attempts to stimulate green
entrepreneurship in Mombasa have resulted in training and skills development in green economic
activities for young people (UNEP, ILO). e.g. innovation competitions for young business people.
3.5.4 Kenya Ports Authority
A parastatal with overall responsibility for managing the activities of Mombasa Port, including
responsibility for all solid waste management activities in and around the port complex. A Green
Ports Initiative will purportedly see more integrated waste managed activities on-site, including
sorting and separating. KPA estimate that approximately 20% of solid waste produced in Mombasa
County originates at the port.
The KPA currently contract out all of the port’s SWM activities to private-sector contractors
though all waste is currently processed off-site with no evidence of separation of waste at source.
Some Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and environmental management initiatives are funded
by the KPA which directly benefit smaller players such as CBOs e.g. contracting local CBOs to
landscape and manage Uhuru Gardens, public park on Mombasa Island. The KPA is potentially a
large employer of youth though there may be resistance towards employing youth or youth groups
directly and certainly some hesitation towards engaging informal sector players.
3.5.4 Bamburi Cement Limited
This cement company based at Bamburi, north of Mombasa Island is owned and operated by the
Lafarge Group – a French aggregates company employing 65,000 people worldwide. Bamburi
Cement Ltd signed an MOU in 2014 with Mombasa County Government to develop a solid waste
management system for the County – a waste to energy solution. An investment of KES 4.8bn has
been put forward by the company - KES2.8 billion to fund a feasibility study plus KES2bn donated
in kind (land available for waste processing activities). The company have stressed that their
expectation is for the County Government (or partners) to put forward a solution for a
comprehensive waste collection system, leaving them to concentrate on developing the business
case for a waste pre-treatment facility that will allow them to use the County’s biodegradable waste
as a fuel in their cement kilns. Donor funding would be sought for additional investment in the
facility.
3.5.5 Private sector waste collection companies
Several profit-motivated, medium-large scale registered companies deliver waste collection services
to commercial customers (offices, hotels etc.) and higher-income residential areas across Mombasa.
These companies may also be involved in some beautification and cleaning activities, though
currently no recycling of the waste they collect takes place, although many have the capacity to
separate and sort waste. The market is currently dominated by one player in Mombasa:
KeenKleeners who employ up to 500 staff and were originally the waste management agent for
Mombasa Municipal County (est.2000) though now work across several counties in Kenya. Sixty
percent of KeenKleeners employees are on short-term contracts reflecting the contract nature of the
services. Keen Kleeners charge on average 1700 KES/month to service the higher-income
neighbourhood of Nyali, Tudor, Kizingo Estates.
These organisation directly employ (unskilled) young people and provide training in waste
management activities, though there is some resentment towards smaller market players –
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particularly unregistered businesses that don’t pay taxes. Allegations of strong political allegiances
between key County Government figures and the largest private sector waste collection companies
are frequently found in the local press.
3.5.6 Recycling/waste processing companies
There are a number of local, national, and international players in the recycling industry servicing
Mombasa, although on the whole material is bought and sold from Mombasa with little actual
processing taking place in Mombasa County. One local plastics (polythene) manufacturer exists on
Mombasa Island who buy used plastics wholesale (i.e. by ton weight) to use in their manufacturing
processes. There is evidence of failed attempts to establish local recycling enterprises: e.g.
Mombasa Plastic Recycling Company initiated the project in Mombasa North, and the Jomvu Jitoni
recycling plant to the west of the County though neither have never been in operation due to poor
access/infrastructure which has created problems in the supply chain.
3.5.6 SMEs
These players are smaller companies who provide SWM collection services; street sweeping and
beautification, usually on a contract basis. They are often former or existing CBOs who have
formalised their activities and registered formally as a company, employing typically between 10-
150 employees and are generally managed and staffed by young people - a high proportion of
employees are casual staff who are taken on if contracts are won. These groups tend to be well
organised with staff skilled and trained in different aspects of waste management as well as clerical
and administrative activities. Competition is high with scores of other registered SMEs tendering
for contracts from the public sector (Mombasa County Government, KPA) or the private sector e.g.
hotels. Companies expect to win around 10% of the contracts for which they tender. Young people
are often employed unskilled and trained on the job, often having the opportunity to progress.
Growth in the demand for SMEs waste management services is constrained by competition in the
sector, a lack of innovation and weak marketing strategies.
3.5.7 Community-based organisations
Around thirty youth groups currently operating in the waste management sector (out of a total of
130 registered in the County). The CBO groups largely provide door-to-door collection services but
also landscaping/beautification; resource recovery; self-help; handicrafts; arts; peace-building. On
average no more than 30% of CBO membership are female, though this often reflects the scope of
activities undertaken by the group. Solid waste collection tends to be male-dominated due to the
manual nature of the work. CBOs that provide waste collection services typically to lower and
middle-income settlements and may collect from households and occasionally commercial
premises. They all charge around 20 KES/visit for household waste collection (200 KES/month).
Smaller groups may service around 30 houses a month – larger groups up to 1000 households.
CBOs wishing to operate in the sector can be formally recognised (and therefore able to become
licensed) with a letter of support from Department of Social Services within the Ministry of Gender,
Sports and Social Services.
CBOs are by no means homogeneous and as such have varying degrees of influence, presence
and experience of operating in the sector. They are generally very tolerant of each other’s presence
often providing waste management services in close proximity to one another, though rarely
coordinate their activities. The groups are often motivated by environmental or social goals first,
profit second, though many engage in recycling or valorisation of waste materials and tend to have
a relationship with the recycling players, though typically they would sell to informal middlemen
buyers (see below). Many CBOs use SACCOs as a means of saving and raising finances for
expanding their waste management activities.
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3.5.8 The Mombasa Integrated Solid Waste Management Partnership (MISWMP)
The MISWMP is an umbrella group that acts as an advocacy agent for around thirty CBOs
operating in the sector. They are active in the sector at the grass roots level, campaigning for
improved access to (labour) markets and enhanced landfill facilities and also provide a SACCO for
group members. The group was established through the Community Development Trust Fund
which provided donor funding, technical training, and other support to CBOs on proper waste
handling, and to establish a recycling plant at Jomvu Jitoni – see above.
3.5.9 Savings and Credit Cooperative Organisations (SACCOs)
SACCOs provide a savings vehicle that promotes the welfare and economic interests of its
members, and provide a source of soft loans and reasonable rates of interest. Many of the Mombasa
CBOs utilise SACCOs as a means of saving and re-investing in their waste management activities.
SACCOs provide a crucial source of finance for MSMEs who may not be eligible for more
mainstream sources of financing, such as banks. Despite best intentions though there is some
evidence of CBO groups borrowing money for investment purposes and misappropriating loans or
defaulting on them.
3.5.10 Village Elders and Local Chiefs
Traditional community leaders provide governance at the local level, though may not always
objectively represent their ‘constituents’. Often village elders may influence the local populace to
take-up waste management services, and have also been known to mobilise CBOs/youth groups to
manage waste in areas under their jurisdiction. Village chiefs often act as mediators between
CBOs/youth groups collecting waste and County Government waste officials demanding payment
for dumping/tipping fees. Local chiefs may also be in a position to access the Constituency
Development Fund, to provide grants for local groups interested in delivery local services such as
solid waste management.
3.5.11 Waste generators/users
Any person or organisation that produces solid waste - citizens, public and private sector
organisations, the business community, and visitors to Mombasa County. Mombasa County’s solid
waste generation rates will grow proportionate to the number of people living, working and visiting
the County. In addition, Mombasa County is actually an importer of solid waste due to Sea Port’s
activities. Solid waste management services are often seen as a public good by waste generators and
as such there may be considerable resistance from users who do not currently pay (directly) for
SWM services to change to a system where user-fees are mandatory. The majority of households in
Mombasa rent their properties, so where there is an inability of the household to pay, landlord may
have the ability to pay. Public sensitisation of the benefits of proper waste management is also low.
e.g. little separation of waste at source despite requirement in County by-laws.
3.6 Informal sector actors
3.6.1 Waste pickers
Waste pickers can be defined as any person making a living collecting, sorting, recycling, selling
materials that someone else has thrown away’27
. Waste pickers work either as individuals or loosely
coordinated as informal collectives collecting directly from the source of waste generation e.g.
27
Achtell, 2013
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households, commercial premises, or, municipal collection points across the County. A distinction
should be made between itinerant waste pickers i.e. those with no fixed address/place of work, and
those waste pickers who are based at one of the County dumpsites.
Itinerant waste pickers tend to operate informally and are extremely unlikely to have a waste
transporters licence. Waste pickers tend to be younger males and operate at the margins of the
livelihood spectrum earning less than 300 KES/day from the sale of recyclable waste they have
recovered.
Site-based waste pickers are often referred to as ‘volunteers’ who work alongside formal actors
in the sector such as Mombasa County Government helping to keep collection points clean and
more organised. These players generally achieve high rates of efficiency through manually sorting
waste, ensuring that a lower proportion of the County’s waste reaches landfill. Though they are
subject to poor working conditions – i.e. no protective equipment, handling raw waste. Waste
pickers often lack formal recognition of their skills, or entrepreneurship and lack representation. As
such they are less well organised than CBOs or SMEs operating in the sector. At the Kibarni
dumpsite there estimated to be as many as 300 waste pickers living on the site. Though not formally
employed, they earn a livelihood by recovering valuable waste from the loads delivered to the site
by dump trucks and have had accommodation and drinking water provided for them at the
dumpsite. In efficiency terms, the amount of waste being recovered for re-use (where not spoiled) is
high and the working conditions that waste pickers face are incredibly hazardous – lack of
equipment, often working with bare arms, legs and feet and working and living amongst raw waste
and often hazardous materials e.g. acids and chemical waste.
3.6.2 Waste ‘middlemen’ (buyers)
The middlemen buyers operate informally within the sector buying waste products from those
collecting it and selling it on to those operating industrial value chains who have a demand for
suitable, raw materials. They operate out of open yards where waste products are aggregated for
transport to input companies/industrial supply chains. Informally they provide a degree of
coordination, loosely organising the activities of waste pickers where they decide to guarantee a
price for recyclables. However, the middlemen determine prices, not waste collectors, purportedly
offering lower prices for raw materials than if a collector sells direct to those who recycle waste
products. The middlemen often transport aggregated waste to industrial supply chains in
Nairobi/overseas.
Their activities are unlicensed and often cartel-like. Consequently they suffer harassment from
County Government officers.
4. SYSTEM CONSTRAINTS ANALYSIS
The analysis in the preceding sections has led to the identification of three binding constraints
within the waste management market systems (see Table 6 below):
4.1 Poor coordination between market players
Waste collection and supporting functions operate in a highly decentralised yet fragmented manner
which increases the costs of doing business particularly for smaller market players, for example
through diminished efficiency and a lack of cost sharing when transporting waste. Integration of
supporting functions with the core value chain and other related market systems i.e. waste collection
systems and industrial value chains is similarly fragmented. The pluralistic nature of the solid waste
management market in Mombasa County means that although on a practical level there is some
Sardinia 2015, Fifteenth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
integration of formal and informal waste management activities, opportunities for growth are
typically asymmetric, favouring larger, private-sector organizations over smaller, informal players –
the poorest in the sector whose activities are often ‘tolerated’ but not formally recognised,
constraining growth and realisation of basic employee rights. Investment in infrastructure and
research and development also appears disjointed such that infrastructure that could enhance the
role of market players is often developed as ‘quick-fix’ solutions often in inappropriate locations.
The two different tiers of policy and regulation from both the National (NEMA) and County
Government levels have at times created conflict between the different levels of regulatory
authority. As evidenced, for example, through the initiation of court proceedings against the County
Government by NEMA condemning the two ‘official’ dumpsites as illegal.
The lack of effective coordination between market players is a result of two systemic issues:
i. A lack of strategic oversight of the entire solid waste management system, with no clear
definition of roles and responsibilities of formal and informal sector actors stems from weak
institutional capacity and lack of political commitment. For example, there is currently no
County-wide policy framework for solid waste management. Strong political ties to the two
biggest market players may have historically provided a disincentive to address coordination
with smaller market players.
ii. A limited history of players interacting in a collaborative way often reflecting differences in
motivation i.e. profit versus. non-profit, and the perceived monopoly that two of the biggest
market players have held in the sector over the last 10-20 years. There may also be trust issues
where there is resentment from licensed operators who pay taxes and licence fees towards
informal operators who don’t pay. There are also potential liability issues arising from informal
sector players working directly with/for formal sector players.
Growth in employment and incomes will therefore require systemic changes in developing a
coordinated approach to strategic planning and investment in the sector based on comprehensive
stakeholder engagement.
4.2 Poor information exchange amongst key stakeholders.
A lack of accurate information on the flows and composition of the various waste streams in
Mombasa County limits knowledge of how effectively the waste management system currently
operates, for even the most well informed market players. This results in high cost of doing business
particularly for the public sector where a ‘fire-fighting’ approach is often adopted as opposed to
informed, strategic planning. The lack of clarity over the potential for adding value to various types
of waste and the true costs of waste management results in a low perception amongst the market
players, particularly waste producers, of the benefits of effective waste management and the value
of waste as a resource. This not only results in weak demand for collection services resulting in
limited opportunities to scale operations particularly for the poorest/smallest market players, but
limits growth in market for recyclables, where there is sub-optimal resource recovery from the
waste stream. A lack of transparency over market values/price signals of recyclable waste and poor
knowledge of the existence of markets for resource rich waste exacerbate this leakage in the value
chain.
Poor information exchange amongst key stakeholders can be traced back to two systemic issues:
i. Lack of reliable data and appropriate technical guidance due to constrained budgets, weak
institutional capacity, and limited collaboration within and between organisations. E.g. the scale
of the challenge of managing the County’s waste is obscured through an absence of reliable
information from the public and private sector.
ii. Low levels of knowledge transfer between waste ‘suppliers’ and those demanding various
types of waste. Inter-linkages between the supporting functions of the market system and the
core value chain are not particularly well established with a lack of information available to
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market players. For example, the specific quality standards demanded by those recycling waste
are not transparent. This is due to the low value placed on reliable information on the amounts,
composition, and value of various types of waste produced in the County.
Reinforcing the idea that waste is a valuable resource should incentivise behavioural change
amongst market players, stimulating growth in employment in waste collection, sorting, and
resource recovery activities. Achieving this will require enhancing the flow of information amongst
market players, to help define a clearer picture of the waste management system in Mombasa
County.
4.3 Weak Research & Development functions (innovation and green entrepreneurship)
A lack of innovation in developing alternative market-based approaches to waste management has
constrained growth across the sector. For example, an inability for the urban poor to pay means that
only the County’s higher-income residents can afford to pay for waste management, leading to a
saturation in the current market for waste collection services. With many players focussing on the
rapid disposal of waste from source to dumpsite, there is significant leakage in the value-chain
where resource recovery has not been maximised and consequently there are fewer opportunities for
employment28
. Where innovative practices have been adopted they have largely been the result of
previous donor interventions. Many of these practices have never been successfully taken to scale,
having been based on unsustainable business models. Examples of this include waste valorisation
initiatives taken up by CBOs without adequate consideration given to developing a market for
recycled products or the means to access existing markets.
The lack of focus on research and development in innovation and green entrepreneurship can
reflects three systemic issues:
i. Limited support from the public sector to encourage (green) innovation and
entrepreneurship. Public sector investment in R & D for waste management is largely absent at
the County-level where waste management budgets are constrained and institutional capacity is
weak.
ii. Incentives for developing alternative methods of disposing of waste are not currently
present. For example, the absence of policy-based instruments to stimulate and encourage
greater involvement by the private sector in developing innovative business practices.
iii. Highly centralised policy environment that has not been devolved. At the National-level
there are several initiatives to stimulate innovation, some which have successfully been applied
to waste management. However, initiatives like technology transfer or building linkages between
private sector organisations and institutions have not been devolved to County-level and as such
remain out of reach for many operating within the sector i.e. SMEs.
Market development and enhanced job creation will require developing greater intelligence
around a wider range of waste management options available to Mombasa County. Creating an
enabling environment for both public and private sector investment in innovation and green
entrepreneurship could be brought about through the use of economic instruments or other
incentives to stimulate green innovation and entrepreneurship. Advocacy and policy support can
ensure that higher-level, National initiatives are realised at County-level creating better access to
opportunities for young entrepreneurs.
28
Studies elsewhere have shown that on a per-ton basis, sorting and processing recyclables alone sustain 10 times more
jobs than landfilling or incineration. http://www.ilsr.org/, 2014
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Table 6. Constraints analysis for the waste management market system.
Constraint Effects of constraint Systemic issue
Poor coordination
between market players
Fragmented delivery of supporting
functions (waste collection and
separation) constrains growth.
Integration of supporting market systems
is weak e.g. SWM collectors are not well
connected to recycling markets.
Some supporting functions are ‘tolerated’
but not officially recognised or supported
i.e. waste picking from dumpsites.
Increased costs e.g. high cost of
transportation where high proportions of
dense, heavy biodegradable are disposed
of, escaping the value chain.
Research and Development is disjointed
resulting in short-term investment
strategies.
Conflict between the different levels of
regulatory authority.
Poor strategic oversight of
entire SWM system.
Limited history of players
interacting in a
collaborative way
Weak information
exchange between
various supporting
functions/market
players
No rational basis for assessing the
effectiveness of the current SWM system
results in high cost of doing business.
Leakage in value chain where the
proportion of recyclable waste being
captured for resource recovery is not
optimised/maximised.
Lack of reliable data and
appropriate technical
guidance.
Low levels of knowledge
transfer between waste
‘suppliers’ and those
demanding raw waste.
Weak R&D function
(green innovation and
entrepreneurship)
Constrained growth across the sector
through a lack of innovation in
developing alternative market-based
approaches to waste management.
Market system focuses on rapid disposal
therefore leakage in the value chain and
fewer opportunities for employment.
Tendency towards development of
unsustainable business models.
Limited local opportunities for training
young people in green business
development &innovation.
Limited support public
sector to encourage (green)
innovation and
entrepreneurship.
Incentives for developing
alternative methods of
disposing of waste are not
currently present.
Highly centralised
innovation policy
environment. Limited
devolution to County-level.
5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Taking a market systems approach to economic development projects is useful for generating better
understanding economic market systems as they relate to people particularly where pro-poor
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development outcomes are desired. Delivering urban services in lower income countries,
particularly solid waste management, presents an often complex and challenging set of
interconnected issues. Waste management systems in lower income countries are often multi-
stakeholder affairs, characterised by a high degree of informality. Taking a market systems
approaches to conceptualising a solid waste management system allows the system to be described
in terms of its core function or value chain, in order to prioritise the use of waste as a resource,
consistent with international best practices in waste management. Growth potential, sector and
stakeholder performance, and the rules and norms of the system can then be analysed with a view to
addressing constraints that hinder the waste management market system from operating efficiently.
Using the example of Mombasa County in Kenya the market systems analysis was used to highlight
ways in which addressing constraints to the market system for solid waste could potentially support
the creation of new employment opportunities for young people in Mombasa County by stimulating
growth in the demand for waste management - collection, sorting activities - which in turn would
increase the supply of resource-rich waste for further processing and recycling. Three key system
constraints were identified which could be addressed by a package of policy interventions involving
the public, private and third sectors to:
Enhance coordination of the waste management system, providing a base for additional
opportunities for youth employment in the collection, re-use, and disposal of the County’s
municipal solid waste. Coordinating the various stakeholder’s waste management activities could be
brought about through the development of an Integrated Waste Management Plan for the County
accompanied by a programme of institutional capacity building within the public sector (Mombasa
County and NEMA) to better coordinate waste management activities throughout the County
through the development of a more balanced multi-stakeholder engagement framework. With
clearly defined roles and responsibilities for the private sector, and more space for those operating
in the informal/third sectors would allow for greater cost-sharing amongst players and increases the
coverage and efficiency of waste management services across the County. Better coordination may
also allow players to identify gaps in information/knowledge or skills relevant to the market system.
Increase information exchange between all market players allowing them to realise greater
efficiencies across the market system. With inadequate knowledge and capacity to monitor waste
management activities the County Government and the NEMA strive to make positive changes in
the waste management system, for example through increasing recycling rates, reducing levels of
waste requiring landfill, or strategically investing in infrastructure. Figures on waste generation
rates quoted typically reflect feasibility studies carried out five or more years ago, and are at best an
educated guess. Full-cost recovery of service provision is not realised, and the scale of the
environmental and social costs of the current system of waste management are under-reported.
Enhanced M&E and knowledge transfer practices would facilitate the flow of information to and
between market players, providing a clearer assessment of the effectiveness waste management
cycle in Mombasa County. This would then provide a platform for building awareness that waste is
a valuable resource on one hand, and that poorly managed waste is a risk to public and
environmental health. This would then encourage greater participation of users (waste generators)
in expanding the waste collection service to capture a greater proportion of valuable waste, enhance
the efficiency of handling waste in order to reduce management/transaction cost, and realise greater
resource recovery.
Strengthen sector research and development to explore alternative market-led solutions to
waste management that delivers world-class innovation. Creating additional employment
opportunities in the sector requires growth and expansion of resource recovery activities, and by
inference expanding and maximising the efficiency of waste collection and sorting activities. Under
the current business model though the current market for collection services is saturated, where
those who can or are willing to pay for a service do so, giving rise to some concern over who would
pay for the expansion of collection services. Exploring different waste collection models and
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providing additional incentives to encourage private sector investment in innovation would lead to
developing market-based waste management solutions that are self-sustaining.
5.1 Limitations
Defining the focus or desired outcomes of a market systems development analysis is critical to how
you understand the ‘effectiveness’ of the market system in question. The desired outcome of the
analyses performed here were to inform intervention design for a youth employment development
project in Mombasa County. As such under-performance in the waste management market system
was characterised as un or under-employment of young people in Mombasa within the sector. It was
assumed that intervention design to correct system constraints would always follow best
international practices in environmental stewardship and resource use, although these are not
explicitly described throughout the analysis. It is possible that the market systems approach to
improving waste management in Mombasa could have been applied with differing expected
outcomes for example, delivering high value ecosystems services, or positive development s in
climate change mitigation and adaptation, as opposed to economic performance such as
employment or income generating potential. The investigator needs to accurately define expected
outcomes prior to analysing the system. Of course, it is impossible to capture all information
relating to a particular market system. Indeed, a thorough market systems analysis should be
thought of as an iterative process, being regularly updated as new information comes to light, to
allow adjustments to be made to policy recommendations or programme and project design. That
said clear boundaries need to be established to ensure that information gathering and subsequent
analysis is relevant to the market system in question, with an acknowledgement that in may cases
there will be other supporting market systems that influence and determine the function of the
system being analysed.
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