Chapter 7
Basic Motivation
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Learning Objectives
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1 Describe the three key elements of motivation.
2 Compare the early theories of motivation.
3 Contrast the elements of self-determination theory and goal-setting theory.
4Demonstrate the differences among self-efficacy theory, reinforcement theory, equity theory, and
expectancy theory.
5 Identify the implications of employee job engagement for managers.
6 Describe how the contemporary theories of motivation complement one another.
Motivation
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Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal
Early Theories of Motivation
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Physiological Needs
Security / Safety Needs
Social / Belongingness Needs
Esteem Needs
Self Actualization
Needs
General Examples Organizational Examples
Sustenance Base Salary
Stability Pension Plan
Friendship Friends in Work
Status Job Title
Achievement Challenging Job
Early Theories of Motivation
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
1 No research was conducted to support the concept
2Individuals can’t move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level aresatisfied
3 Individuals must move in a hierarchical order
4 Paved the way for others to develop new concepts in the field
Early Theories of Motivation
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Two Factor Theory
“The Motivation Hygiene Theory”
= Supervision
= Working Conditions
= Interpersonal Relationships
= Pay and Job Security
= Company Policies
= Achievement
= Recognition
= The Work it self
= Responsibility
= Advancement and Growth
The Traditional ViewSatisfaction Dissatisfaction
The Herzberg’s ViewSatisfaction Dissatisfaction
The Motivation Factors
Satisfaction No Satisfaction
The Hygiene Factors
No Dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction
Extrinsic to the WorkIntrinsic to the Work
Early Theories of Motivation
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Two Factor Theory
“The Motivation Hygiene Theory”
1 Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites but separate constructs
2Herzberg assumed, but didn’t research, a strong relationship between satisfaction andproductivity
3Subsequent research has also shown that if hygiene and motivational factors are equallyimportant to a person, both are capable of motivating.
4 Regardless of the criticisms, Herzberg’s theory has been quite influential.
Early Theories of Motivation
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McClelland’s Needs Theory
“Three Needs Theory”
1 Need for AchievementThe drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, tostrive to succeed
2 Need for PowerThe need to make others behave in a way that they would not havebehaved otherwise
3 Need for Affiliation The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
Early Theories of Motivation
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McClelland’s Needs Theory
“Three Needs Theory”
1 People have varying levels of each of the three needs which is hard to measure
2Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success “avoiding very low or high risksituations”
3Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal responsibility, feedback, and moderaterisk
4 High need for achievement doesn’t necessarily make good managers “too personal a focus”
5Most good general managers do not have a high need for achievement. They have high level ofneed for power and low need for affiliation for managerial success
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
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Self-Determination Theory
A theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation.
Cognitive Evaluation
Theory
Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously onlyintrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation
Self ConcordanceTheory
When the personal reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with personalinterests and core values (intrinsic motivation), people are happier and moresuccessful.
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
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Self-Determination Theory
Intrinsic “tangible” vs. Extrinsic “verbal” Rewards
1 Feel having control
2 Want to do the work vs. Have to do the work
Both are related and complementary for each other
Individual role vs. organization and managers role
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
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Goal Setting Theory
Specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.
1 Why specific goals? Clear – focus … etc.
2 Why difficult goals? Energize – persistence – effective – efficient … etc.
3 Why feedback? Progress toward goal achievement
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What is the role of
employees
participation
Mixed results
Well supported by research theory
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
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Goal Setting Theory
Goals and performance relationship depends on:
1 Goal commitment (the more public the better!)
2 Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
3 National culture (best match is in North America)
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
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Goal Setting Theory
Individual and Promotion
Promotion focus
A self-regulation strategy that involves striving
for goals through advancement and
accomplishment.
Prevention focus
A self-regulation strategy that involves striving
for goals by fulfilling duties and obligations.
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
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Goal Setting Theory
Goal Setting Implementation
Management byObjectives (MBO)
A program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicittime period and including feedback on goal progress.
1 MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting
2Four common ingredients to MBO programs: Goal Specificity - Participative decision making -Explicit time period - Performance feedback
3 Goals must be: Tangible – Verifiable - Measurable
4 Corporate goals are broken down into smaller, more specific goals at each level of organization.
Other Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
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Self-Efficacy Theory
“Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Theory”
1 Greater confidence
2 Greater persistence in the face of difficulties
3 Better response to negative feedback (work harder)
That’s why self-efficacy complements goal-setting theory
An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task
Other Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
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Self-Efficacy Theory
“Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Theory”
1Enactive mastery “gaining relevantexperience”
2Vicarious modeling “sea some one elsedoing the task”
3Verbal persuasion “some one convinceor motivate the individual”
Increasing self-efficacy:
4 Arousal “enthusiastic start”
Influencing self-Efficacy in Others:
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy“Pygmalion Effect”
What one person expects can come to serve a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Other Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
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Reinforcement Theory
Behavior is a function of its consequences
A counter point to goal setting theory “behavioristic vs. cognitive approach”
1 Environment cause behavior
2 Inner state is ignored “thought are ignored”
3 Behavior is controlled by its consequences
4 Not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of behavior
Other Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
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Reinforcement Theory
Operant ConditioningTheory
People learn to behave a certain way to either get something they want or toavoid something they don’t want.
Social-Learning Theory People can learn through both observation and direct experience.
Behaviorism A theory that behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.
Other Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
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Equity Theory / Organizational Justice
Compared With
(Ratio Analysis)
Outcomes (self)
Inputs (self) Inputs (others)
Outcomes (others)
No tension as the situation isconsidered fair
Tension exists due tounfairness
1 Ratios are equal
2 Ratios are unequal
State of equity exists
State of inequity exists (underrewarded or over rewarded)
Equity TheoryIndividuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others andthen respond to eliminate any inequities.
Other Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
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Equity Theory / Organizational Justice
Referent Comparisons:
Motivation to Equity: Maintain current situation
1 Self Inside / Outside 2 Others Inside / Outside
Motivation to Inequity: 1 Change inputs 2 Change outcomes
3Distort / change perceptionsof self
4Distort / change perceptionsof others
5Choose a different referentperson
6 Leave the field
Other Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
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Equity Theory / Organizational Justice
Organizational Justice An overall perception of what is fair in the workplace
1 Distributive Justice
2 Procedural Justice
Perceived fairness of outcome
Perceived fairness of the process used to determine outcome
3 Interactional Justice Perceived degree to which one is treated with dignity and respect
Components of the Organizational Justice:
Other Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
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Equity Theory / Organizational Justice
Informational JusticeThe degree to which employees are provided truthful explanations fordecisions.
Interpersonal Justice The degree to which employees are treated with dignity and respect.
Other Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
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Expectancy Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual
Individual
Effort
Individual
Performance
Organizational
Rewards
Personal
Goals
1 2 3
Effort - Performance Relationship
Performance – Reward Relationship
Rewards- Personal Goals Relationship
Job Engagement
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Job Engagement
The investment of an employee’s physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance.
What are the Consequences of High Job Engagement?
1 Higher levels of productivity 2 Fewer safety incidents
3 Lower turnover 4 Positive task performance
5Positive organizational citizenshipbehavior
6 Etc.
Integrating Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
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