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Waterflooding Presentation – April 11, 2002Waterflooding Presentation – April 11, 2002
WATERFLOODINGWATERFLOODING
Hycal - WeatherfordHycal - WeatherfordApril 2005April 2005
Presentation SummaryPresentation Summary Why does (and doesn’t) waterflooding Why does (and doesn’t) waterflooding
work in various reservoir situationswork in various reservoir situations What are the optimum conditions for What are the optimum conditions for
waterfloodingwaterflooding What are some common problems What are some common problems
associated with waterfloodingassociated with waterflooding What are some novel applications for What are some novel applications for
waterflooding?waterflooding? Summary and conclusionsSummary and conclusions
Why Does the Basic Treatise of Why Does the Basic Treatise of Waterflooding ‘Work’ as a Cost Waterflooding ‘Work’ as a Cost
Effective Recovery Method?Effective Recovery Method?Compare to unsupported (non water Compare to unsupported (non water
injection/influx supported) primary oil injection/influx supported) primary oil production to understand thisproduction to understand this
Primary Oil Production MethodsPrimary Oil Production Methods
Oil Compression Drive (0.1-2% Oil Compression Drive (0.1-2% OOIP)OOIP)
Compaction Drive (0.1 – 2% Compaction Drive (0.1 – 2% OOIP)OOIP)
Solution gas drive (1-10% OOIP)Solution gas drive (1-10% OOIP)Gascap drive (1-20% OOIP)Gascap drive (1-20% OOIP)
Solution Gas and Gascap Drives Solution Gas and Gascap Drives Have Limited Recovery Generally Have Limited Recovery Generally
Due to Adverse Viscosity and Due to Adverse Viscosity and Mobility EffectsMobility Effects
Waterflooding is Often Much Waterflooding is Often Much More Effective Than Gasflooding More Effective Than Gasflooding
Due to Due to Much better viscosity ratio results in better Much better viscosity ratio results in better
conformance and reduced coningconformance and reduced coningLower density contrast minimizing gravity Lower density contrast minimizing gravity
segregation in horizontal drive situationssegregation in horizontal drive situationsMaintenance of driving pressure gradient Maintenance of driving pressure gradient
in reservoirin reservoirPrevention of formation of critical or free Prevention of formation of critical or free
gas saturations which reduce relative gas saturations which reduce relative permeability to oilpermeability to oil
Waterflood RecoveryWaterflood RecoveryDepends strongly on a number of factors Depends strongly on a number of factors
to be discussedto be discussedCan be as high as 60% of the OOIP in Can be as high as 60% of the OOIP in
place in some favorable situationsplace in some favorable situationsMay be much lower in other casesMay be much lower in other casesThere are generally optimum reservoir There are generally optimum reservoir
types, conditions and implementation types, conditions and implementation strategies for waterflooding to maximize strategies for waterflooding to maximize potential oil recoverypotential oil recovery
TYPES OF TYPES OF WATERFLOOD WATERFLOOD OPERATIONSOPERATIONS
Natural WaterfloodingNatural Waterflooding
Infinite Aquifer Type WaterfloodInfinite Aquifer Type Waterflood
1 m31 m3OutOut
1 m31 m3InIn
Limited Aquifer Type WaterfloodLimited Aquifer Type Waterflood
1 m31 m3OutOut
0.5 m30.5 m3InIn
Passive Aquifer Type WaterfloodPassive Aquifer Type Waterflood
1 m31 m3OutOut
0 m30 m3InIn
Modes of Natural WaterfloodsModes of Natural Waterfloods
Vertical drive (most effective)Vertical drive (most effective)Edge or horizontal drive (less Edge or horizontal drive (less
effective)effective)
Vertical Flood (Common in Reef Vertical Flood (Common in Reef Structures, thick vertical pay sections)Structures, thick vertical pay sections)
Edge Flood – Common in Thin Edge Flood – Common in Thin Pay Zones with Little Vertical Pay Zones with Little Vertical
ReliefRelief
‘‘Induced’ WaterfloodsInduced’ Waterfloods
Induced WaterfloodsInduced Waterfloods In cases where good voidage replacement In cases where good voidage replacement
by natural aquifer support is not present by natural aquifer support is not present waterflooding is often conducted by waterflooding is often conducted by injection of surface, produced or other injection of surface, produced or other water into the formation of interest to water into the formation of interest to simulate various types of natural water simulate various types of natural water drivedrive
Common Induced Waterflood Common Induced Waterflood TypesTypes
Edge drive (updip)Edge drive (updip)Bottom drive (gravity stabilized)Bottom drive (gravity stabilized)Line DriveLine DriveAdvancing line driveAdvancing line driveStaggered line driveStaggered line drivePatternPatternReservoir dictatedReservoir dictated
Updip Edge DriveUpdip Edge Drive
Vertically Stable Bottom DriveVertically Stable Bottom Drive
Line DriveLine Drive
Advancing Line DriveAdvancing Line Drive
Staggered Line DriveStaggered Line Drive
Pattern Flooding – 5 SpotPattern Flooding – 5 Spot
Pattern Flooding – 7 SpotPattern Flooding – 7 Spot
Pattern Flooding – 9 SpotPattern Flooding – 9 Spot
Reservoir Controlled OrientationReservoir Controlled Orientation
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
0
5
10
15
20
Waterflooding Presentation – April 11, 2002Waterflooding Presentation – April 11, 2002
Factors Impacting Factors Impacting the Displacement the Displacement Effectiveness of a Effectiveness of a
WaterfloodWaterflood
MACROSCALE EFFECTSMACROSCALE EFFECTSHeterogeneityHeterogeneityPermeability contrastsPermeability contrastsReservoir continuityReservoir continuityFaults and fracturesFaults and fracturesDirectional permeability trendsDirectional permeability trends
MICROSCALE EFFECTSMICROSCALE EFFECTSPore size distribution and geometryPore size distribution and geometryCapillary pressureCapillary pressureWettabilityWettabilityRelative permeability characterRelative permeability characterAdvance rateAdvance rateInjection fluid induced damageInjection fluid induced damage
MACROSCALE MACROSCALE ISSUESISSUES
Reservoir HeterogeneityReservoir Heterogeneity
Reservoir HeterogeneityReservoir Heterogeneity
Permeability ContrastsPermeability Contrasts
Reservoir ContinuityReservoir Continuity
Reservoir ContinuityReservoir Continuity
Natural FracturesNatural Fractures
Natural Fractures Parallel to the Natural Fractures Parallel to the Line of FlowLine of Flow
Natural Fractures Perpendicular Natural Fractures Perpendicular to the Line of Flowto the Line of Flow
Natural Fractures Perpendicular Natural Fractures Perpendicular to the Line of Flowto the Line of Flow
Directional Permeability Trends Directional Permeability Trends Can Give Similar PerformanceCan Give Similar Performance
Presence of Sealing FaultsPresence of Sealing Faults
Waterflooding Presentation – April 11, 2002Waterflooding Presentation – April 11, 2002
Microscale IssuesMicroscale IssuesPrimarily Dominated by Wettability Primarily Dominated by Wettability
EffectsEffects
What is Wettability?What is Wettability?Preferential Attraction of a fluid to a solid Preferential Attraction of a fluid to a solid
surface in the presence of one or more surface in the presence of one or more other immiscible fluidsother immiscible fluids
Wettability TypesWettability TypesWater WetWater WetOil WetOil WetNeutral WetNeutral WetMixed WetMixed WetSpotted WetSpotted Wet
Impact of Wettability on Relative Impact of Wettability on Relative Permeability to Water and OilPermeability to Water and Oil
Impact of Wettability on Relative Impact of Wettability on Relative Permeability to Water and OilPermeability to Water and Oil
Relative PermeabilityRelative Permeability
Water Saturation - Fraction
Rel
ativ
e P
erm
eabi
lity
- Fra
ctio
n
Swi 10%Crossover 22% SwKrw = 0.88
Swi approx 25%Crossover approx 68% Krw = 0.08
Typical Relative Typical Relative Permeability Curve Permeability Curve
Configurations for Other Configurations for Other Wettability TypesWettability Types
Neutral Wet FormationsNeutral Wet Formations
Swi 10-20%Crossover around 50%Krw = 0.45
Mixed WettabilityMixed WettabilityA fairly common wettability type in which A fairly common wettability type in which
tight microporosity is water saturated and tight microporosity is water saturated and water wet, while oil saturated macropores water wet, while oil saturated macropores are oil wetare oil wet
Typical Mixed Wettability Typical Mixed Wettability Relative Permeability CurvesRelative Permeability Curves
Swi = 40%Crossover approx 55%Krw = 0.70
Spotted/Dalmatian WettabilitySpotted/Dalmatian WettabilitySwi = 22%Crossover = 59%Krw = 0.28
General Impact of Wettability on General Impact of Wettability on Rel PermRel Perm
FactorFactor WaterWaterWetWet
Oil WetOil Wet Neutral Neutral WetWet
Mixed WetMixed Wet
SwiSwi >15%>15% <15%<15% 10-20%10-20% >15%>15%
CrossoverCrossoverPointPoint
> 50% Sw> 50% Sw < 50% Sw< 50% Sw Approx Approx 50% Sw50% Sw
< 50% Sw< 50% Sw
Krw at SorKrw at Sor <0.2<0.2 >0.5>0.5 0.2-0.50.2-0.5 >0.5>0.5
Swi as Swi as F(Perm)F(Perm)
StrongStrong NoneNone WeakWeak StrongStrong
SorwSorw >20%>20% >20%>20% <25%<25% <25%<25%
Specific Impact of Specific Impact of Wettability on Wettability on
Waterflood Waterflood PerformancePerformance
Concept of ‘Mobility Ratio’Concept of ‘Mobility Ratio’
M = x Krw
w x K roMobility Ratio
Viscosity ofDisplaced Phase
Rel Perm ofDisplacingPhase
Viscosity ofDisplacing Phase
Rel Perm ofDisplacedPhase
Favorable vs. Unfavorable Favorable vs. Unfavorable Mobility RatioMobility Ratio
Factors Improving MobilityFactors Improving Mobility
M = x Krw
w x K ro
Low Oil Visc Low Krw / Krg
High Displacing Phase Visc
High Kro
Example – Waterflood in a Example – Waterflood in a Favorable Mobility System Favorable Mobility System
(M=0.5)(M=0.5)
Example – Waterflood in a Example – Waterflood in a Unfavorable Mobility System Unfavorable Mobility System
(M=20)(M=20)
Wettability and Mobility Wettability and Mobility EffectsEffects
Since relative permeability endpoint values Since relative permeability endpoint values are strongly impacted by Wettability, oil vs. are strongly impacted by Wettability, oil vs. water wet systems may have order of water wet systems may have order of magnitude difference in water-oil mobility magnitude difference in water-oil mobility ratioratio
Can substantially impact the economics of Can substantially impact the economics of a natural or induced water drive processa natural or induced water drive process
Residual Oil Saturations in Residual Oil Saturations in WaterfloodsWaterfloods
BREAKTHROUGH BREAKTHROUGH SorSorECONOMICECONOMIC Sor SorULTIMATEULTIMATE Sor Sor
Breakthrough SorBreakthrough SorRefers to residual oil saturation in the Refers to residual oil saturation in the
swept pattern at the time of swept pattern at the time of firstfirst water water productionproduction
INJ PROD
Economic SorEconomic SorRefers to residual oil saturation in the Refers to residual oil saturation in the
swept pattern at the time of swept pattern at the time of Maximum Maximum EconomicEconomic water cut water cut
INJ PROD
Ultimate (True) SorUltimate (True) SorRefers to residual oil saturation in the Refers to residual oil saturation in the
swept pattern if a near swept pattern if a near Infinite Infinite volume of volume of water were displaced to near zero oil cutwater were displaced to near zero oil cut
INJ PROD
Lab Measurements of SorLab Measurements of SorLab measurements of Sor generally give a Lab measurements of Sor generally give a
reasonable approximation of the reasonable approximation of the ULTIMATE Sor since usually a very large ULTIMATE Sor since usually a very large number of pore volumes of displacement number of pore volumes of displacement are conducted (10-100 typical)are conducted (10-100 typical)
Waterflooding in Differing Waterflooding in Differing Wettability ReservoirsWettability Reservoirs
Cumulative Pore Volumes of Injection
Per
cent
Rec
over
y O
OIP Breakthrough Sor
Economic Sor
Ultimate Sor
Waterflooding in Differing Waterflooding in Differing Wettability ReservoirsWettability Reservoirs
Cumulative Pore Volumes of Injection
Per
cent
Rec
over
y O
OIP
Waterflooding in Differing Waterflooding in Differing Wettability ReservoirsWettability Reservoirs
Cumulative Pore Volumes of Injection
Per
cent
Rec
over
y O
OIP
Waterflooding in Differing Waterflooding in Differing Wettability ReservoirsWettability Reservoirs
Cumulative Pore Volumes of Injection
Per
cent
Rec
over
y O
OIP
Given this – What are the Given this – What are the Optimum Reservoir Wetting Optimum Reservoir Wetting
Conditions for a Waterflood?Conditions for a Waterflood?
This Depends Strongly on Which This Depends Strongly on Which Criteria Dominate the EvaluationCriteria Dominate the EvaluationUltimate oil recovery?Ultimate oil recovery?Speed of oil recovery?Speed of oil recovery?Ease of injection?Ease of injection?Minimum water cycling and Minimum water cycling and
disposal costs?disposal costs?
Residual Oil Saturation at Infinite Residual Oil Saturation at Infinite PV of Oil Displacement vs. PV of Oil Displacement vs.
WettabilityWettability
USBM Wettability Index-1.5 +1.50
Oil Wet Water WetNeutral
For Maximum Ease of Water For Maximum Ease of Water InjectionInjection
OilWet!
For Maximum Oil Recovery and For Maximum Oil Recovery and Lowest Residual Oil SaturationLowest Residual Oil Saturation
Neutral/MixedWet
For Most Rapid Oil Recovery and For Most Rapid Oil Recovery and Minimum Water ProductionMinimum Water Production
WaterWet!
Optimum Conditions?Optimum Conditions? In most cases, optimum economic In most cases, optimum economic
recovery efficiency is achieved when the recovery efficiency is achieved when the wetting condition is a strongly water wet as wetting condition is a strongly water wet as possiblepossible
Does This Mean if my Reservoir Does This Mean if my Reservoir is is NOT NOT Water Wet Waterflooding Water Wet Waterflooding
Will Will NOTNOT be Economic? be Economic?
To Flood?
To Not to Flood?
???
Many Successful Waterfloods Many Successful Waterfloods have been Conducted in Oil Wet have been Conducted in Oil Wet
and Mixed Wet Reservoirsand Mixed Wet ReservoirsOverall economic benefit may be less than Overall economic benefit may be less than
if the reservoir had been strongly water if the reservoir had been strongly water wet, but may still represent substantial wet, but may still represent substantial improvement over straight primary improvement over straight primary depletiondepletion
Interfacial Tension Interfacial Tension ForcesForces
Interaction of Wettability, Interaction of Wettability, Interfacial Tension and Interfacial Tension and Pore Size DistributionPore Size Distribution
Pc=2(Cosr
Interfacial Tension Interfacial Tension
Water - Oil (0.2-40 dyne/cm)Water - Oil (0.2-40 dyne/cm)Gas-Water (2-70 dyne/cm)Gas-Water (2-70 dyne/cm)Gas-Oil (0-60 dyne/cm)Gas-Oil (0-60 dyne/cm)F(composition (H2S, CO2), temperature F(composition (H2S, CO2), temperature
and pressure)and pressure)
Global Effect of IFT on Water-Oil Relative Global Effect of IFT on Water-Oil Relative Permeability/Sor – IFT Dominated SystemPermeability/Sor – IFT Dominated System
Water Saturation - FractionWater Saturation - Fraction
Rel
ativ
e Pe
rmea
bilit
yR
elat
ive
Perm
eabi
lity
KroKro
KrwKrw
Global Effect of IFT on Water-Oil Relative Global Effect of IFT on Water-Oil Relative Permeability/Sor – IFT Dominated SystemPermeability/Sor – IFT Dominated System
Water Saturation - FractionWater Saturation - Fraction
Rel
ativ
e Pe
rmea
bilit
yR
elat
ive
Perm
eabi
lity
KroKro
KrwKrw
Global Effect of IFT on Water-Oil Relative Global Effect of IFT on Water-Oil Relative Permeability/Sor – IFT Dominated SystemPermeability/Sor – IFT Dominated System
Water Saturation - FractionWater Saturation - Fraction
Rel
ativ
e Pe
rmea
bilit
yR
elat
ive
Perm
eabi
lity
KroKro KrwKrw
Global Effect of IFT on Water-Oil Relative Global Effect of IFT on Water-Oil Relative Permeability/Sor – IFT Dominated SystemPermeability/Sor – IFT Dominated System
Water Saturation - FractionWater Saturation - Fraction
Rel
ativ
e Pe
rmea
bilit
yR
elat
ive
Perm
eabi
lity
KroKro KrwKrw
Why do some low IFTWhy do some low IFTinjections not result in injections not result in
large incremental oil recovery?large incremental oil recovery?
Sor – IFT Effects in Water Wet Sor – IFT Effects in Water Wet RockRock
Pore Throat Diameter Profile - Microns
Freq
uenc
y C
ount
Microporosity is WaterSaturated in WW Rock
Sor – IFT Effects in Water Wet Sor – IFT Effects in Water Wet RockRock
Pore Throat Diameter Profile - Microns
Freq
uenc
y C
ount
A Given IFT Level AllowsAccess to Pore Throats LargerThan a Certain Size AccessibleInaccessible
Sor – IFT Effects in Water Wet Sor – IFT Effects in Water Wet RockRock
Pore Throat Diameter Profile - Microns
Freq
uenc
y C
ount AccessibleInaccessible
Sor – IFT Effects in Water Wet Sor – IFT Effects in Water Wet RockRock
Pore Throat Diameter Profile - Microns
Freq
uenc
y C
ount AccessibleInaccessible
Sor – IFT Effects in Oil Wet RockSor – IFT Effects in Oil Wet Rock
Pore Throat Diameter Profile - Microns
Freq
uenc
y C
ount
Microporosity is OilSaturated in OW Rock
Small Sw Generally is In Center of Macropores in OW Rock
Sor – IFT Effects in Oil Wet RockSor – IFT Effects in Oil Wet Rock
Pore Throat Diameter Profile - Microns
Freq
uenc
y C
ount AccessibleInaccessible
Non Uniform Pore System – Non Uniform Pore System – Macropore DominatedMacropore Dominated
Pore Throat Diameter Profile - Microns
Freq
uenc
y C
ount AccessibleInaccessible
Non Uniform Pore System – Non Uniform Pore System – Micropore DominatedMicropore Dominated
Pore Throat Diameter Profile - Microns
Freq
uenc
y C
ount AccessibleInaccessible
The dominance of Wettability, The dominance of Wettability, IFT or Mobility controls recovery IFT or Mobility controls recovery
and injectivityand injectivity
Results of a Constant IFT Flood Results of a Constant IFT Flood in the Reservoir Dominated by in the Reservoir Dominated by
IFT EffectsIFT Effects
Water Saturation - Fraction
Rel
ativ
e P
erm
eabi
lity
Results of a Constant IFT Flood Results of a Constant IFT Flood in the Reservoir Dominated by in the Reservoir Dominated by
IFT EffectsIFT Effects
Water Saturation - Fraction
Rel
ativ
e P
erm
eabi
lity
Results of a Constant IFT Flood Results of a Constant IFT Flood in the Reservoir Dominated by in the Reservoir Dominated by
Mobility EffectsMobility Effects
Water Saturation - Fraction
Rel
ativ
e P
erm
eabi
lity
Results of a Constant IFT Flood Results of a Constant IFT Flood in the Reservoir Dominated by in the Reservoir Dominated by
Mobility EffectsMobility Effects
Water Saturation - Fraction
Rel
ativ
e P
erm
eabi
lity
Waterflood RequirementsWaterflood Requirements
#1 Suitable Reservoir
#2 Water!!!
Typical Water SourcesTypical Water SourcesProduced water(s) (Native and non native Produced water(s) (Native and non native
to formation)to formation)Surface water (Rivers, lakes, etc)Surface water (Rivers, lakes, etc)Shallow ground waterShallow ground waterWaste water streamsWaste water streamsOften a mixture of some of the aboveOften a mixture of some of the above
Surface Water
Shallow Aquifer
ProducingFormation
Deep Aquifer
Surface Water - Direct Intake
Surface Water
Shallow Aquifer
ProducingFormation
Deep Aquifer
Surface Water - Infiltration Gallery
Surface Water
Shallow Aquifer
ProducingFormation
Deep Aquifer
Shallow Aquifer
Surface Water
Shallow Aquifer
ProducingFormation
Deep Aquifer
Formation Water
Surface Water
Shallow Aquifer
ProducingFormation
Deep Aquifer
Deep Aquifer
Injection Water Quality IssuesInjection Water Quality IssuesSufficient volume for future requirements?Sufficient volume for future requirements?Reliable year round source?Reliable year round source?Total suspended solids content (TSS)Total suspended solids content (TSS)Oil and Grease Content (OGC)Oil and Grease Content (OGC)Total dissolved solids content (TDS)Total dissolved solids content (TDS)Scaling indexesScaling indexesSpecific ionic compositionSpecific ionic composition
Waterflooding Presentation – April 11, 2002Waterflooding Presentation – April 11, 2002
Waterflood Waterflood Screening and Screening and
Evaluation ProcessEvaluation Process
General ProcessGeneral Process
MacroscaleMacroscaleScreeningScreening
MicroscaleMicroscaleScreeningScreening
WaterWater SourceSource
AndAnd QualityQualityEvaluationEvaluation
Simulation,Simulation,ImplementationImplementation
Typical Screening Studies Conducted on Typical Screening Studies Conducted on a Lab Basis (Microscale and Water a Lab Basis (Microscale and Water
Quality Sections)Quality Sections) Pore size distributionPore size distribution WettabilityWettability Capillary pressureCapillary pressure Relative PermeabilityRelative Permeability Interfacial TensionInterfacial Tension Water qualityWater quality Injectivity studiesInjectivity studies Stimulation StudiesStimulation Studies Conformance controlConformance control
Pore Size DistributionPore Size DistributionMercury injection studiesMercury injection studiesThin section studiesThin section studies Image analysis studiesImage analysis studies
WettabilityWettabilityContact AngleContact AngleAmott/Combined Amott-USBM methodAmott/Combined Amott-USBM method
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Water Saturation, fraction of PV
Cap
illary
Pre
ssur
e, k
Pa
Capillary PressureCapillary PressurePorous PlatePorous PlateCentrifuge methodsCentrifuge methodsAir-Mercury conversionAir-Mercury conversion
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Oil Saturation, fraction of PV
Cap
illary
Pre
ssur
e, k
Pa
Relative PermeabilityRelative PermeabilitySteady StateSteady StateUnsteady StateUnsteady StateReservoir/Ambient conditionReservoir/Ambient condition
Gas/Oil Relative Permeability Profile
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Gas Saturation (fraction)
Rela
tive
Perm
eabi
lity
KrgKro
Interfacial TensionInterfacial TensionDunoue RingDunoue RingSpinning DropSpinning DropDrop PendantDrop Pendant
Water QualityWater QualityCompositionCompositionSuspended solidsSuspended solidsOil and grease contentOil and grease contentBacterial content/typingBacterial content/typingpHpH
Injectivity StudiesInjectivity StudiesWater sensitivityWater sensitivityCritical salinityCritical salinityCritical FiltrationCritical FiltrationPhase trappingPhase trappingBacterial growthBacterial growth
StimulationStimulationAcidization for scale removalAcidization for scale removalSolvent treatments (paraffin's, Solvent treatments (paraffin's,
asphaltenes, oil blocks, etc)asphaltenes, oil blocks, etc)Fracture optimizationFracture optimizationNear wellbore wettability alteration Near wellbore wettability alteration
evaluationsevaluations
Conformance ControlConformance ControlWater diversion and shutoff treatmentsWater diversion and shutoff treatments
GelsGelsPolymersPolymersRelative permeability modifiersRelative permeability modifiers
ConclusionsConclusions
ConclusionsConclusions Waterflooding can result in significant additional Waterflooding can result in significant additional
incremental oil recovery in many reservoir incremental oil recovery in many reservoir situationssituations
Not all reservoirs are prime waterflood Not all reservoirs are prime waterflood candidatescandidates
Macroscale features may control the Macroscale features may control the effectiveness of a waterfloodeffectiveness of a waterflood
Mobility dominates microscale sweep efficiencyMobility dominates microscale sweep efficiency A detailed protocol for evaluation has been A detailed protocol for evaluation has been
presentedpresented
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