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Invitation To Psychology
Carol Wade and Carol TavrisPowerPoint Presentation by
H. Lynn BradmanMetropolitan Community College-Omaha
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What is Psychology?
Chapter 1
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What is Psychology?
• The Science of Psychology• What Psychologists Do• Critical and Scientific Thinking in Psychology• Descriptive Studies: Establishing the Facts• Correlational Studies: Looking for Relationships• The Experiment: Hunting for Causes• Evaluating the Findings
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The Science of Psychology
• Psychology, Pseudoscience, and Common Sense
• The Birth of Modern Psychology• Psychology's Present
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Defining Psychology
• Psychology is the discipline concerned with behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism's physical state, mental state, and external environment
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Empirical Evidence
• Evidence gathered by careful observation, experimentation, and measurement.
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Psychology, Pseudoscience, and Common Sense
• Scientific Psychology bears little relationship to "Pop" Psychology
• Fortune telling, numerology, graphology, and astronomy are not part of psychology
• Psychology is not just a fancy name for common sense
• Psychological research often produces findings that contradict popular beliefs
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Bumpy Logic
• Phrenology was a 19th-century pseudoscience– No scientific
basis• Phrenology linked
bumps on the skull with character traits
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The Birth of Modern Psychology
• Functionalism: An early psychological approach that emphasized the function or purpose of behavior and consciousness
• Psychoanalysis: A theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy, originally formulated by Sigmund Freud, which emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts
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Psychology's Present
• Biological Perspective• Learning Perspective• Cognitive Perspective• Sociocultural Perspective• Psychodynamic Perspective
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Biological Perspective
• A psychological approach that emphasizes bodily events and changes associated with actions, feelings, and thoughts
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Learning Perspective
• A psychological approach that emphasizes how the environment and experience affect a person's or animal's actions: It includes behaviorism and social-cognitive learning theories
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Cognitive Perspective
• A psychological approach that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior
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Sociocultural Perspective
• A psychological approach that emphasizes social and cultural influences on behavior
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Psychodynamic Perspective
• A psychological approach that emphasizes unconscious dynamics within the individual, such as inner forces, conflicts, or the movement of instinctual energy
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What Psychologists Do
• Psychological Research• Psychological Practice• Psychology in the Community
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Psychological Research
• Basic Psychology: The study of psychological issues in order to seek knowledge for its own sake rather than for its practical application
• Applied Psychology: The study of psychological issues that have direct practical significance; also the application of psychological findings.
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Psychological Practice
Psychotherapist Person who does psychotherapy; credentials and training vary
Clinical Psychologist
Has a doctoral degree: Ph.D., Ed.D., or Psy.D.
Psychoanalyst Has specific training in psychoanalysis after an advanced degree (usually M.D. or Ph.D.)
Psychiatrist A physician (M.D.) with specialization in psychiatry
Other professionals
Licensing requirements vary by state; generally at least an M.A. Can be social worker (LCSW), counselor (MFCC), or other.
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Critical and Scientific Thinking in Psychology
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Critical Thinking
• Critical Thinking: The ability and willingness to assess claims and make objective judgments on the basis of well-supported reasons and evidence, rather than emotion or anecdote
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Critical Thinking Guidelines
• Ask Questions: Be willing to wonder• Define Your Terms• Examine the Evidence• Analyze Assumptions and Biases• Avoid Emotional Reasoning• Don't Oversimplify• Consider Other Interpretations• Tolerate Uncertainty
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Hypothesis
• A statement that attempts to predict or to account for a set of phenomena; scientific hypotheses specify relationships among events or variables and are empirically tested.
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Operational Definition
• A precise definition of a term in a hypothesis, which specifies the operations for observing and measuring the process or phenomenon being measured.
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Principle of Falsifiability
• The principle that a scientific theory must make predictions that are specific enough to expose the theory to the possibility of disconfirmation; that is, the theory must predict not only what will happen, but also what will not happen.
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Principle of Falsifiability
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Theory
• An organized system of assumptions and principles that purports to explain a specified set of phenomena and their interrelationships.
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Descriptive Studies: Establishing the Facts
• Case Studies• Observational Studies• Tests• Surveys
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Case Studies
• A detailed description of a particular individual being studied or treated.
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Observational Studies
• Studies in which the researcher carefully and systematically observes and records behavior without interfering with that behavior; it may involve either naturalistic or laboratory observation.
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Tests
• Standardize: To develop uniform procedures for giving and scoring a test.
• Norms: Established standards of performance.
• Reliability: Consistency of scores derived from a test.
• Validity: The ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure.
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Surveys
• Survey: Questionnaires and interviews that ask people directly about their experiences, attitudes, or opinions.
• Representative Sample: A group of subjects, selected from a population, which matches the population on important characteristics.
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Correlational Studies: Looking for Relationships
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Correlation
• Correlation: A measure of how strongly two variables are related to one another
• Variables: Characteristics of behavior or experience that can be measured or described by a numeric scale
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Types of Correlations
• Positive correlation: Increases in one variable are associated with increases in the other; decreases are likewise associated
• Negative correlation: Increases in one variable are associated with decreases in the other
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The Experiment: Hunting for Causes
• Experimental Variables• Experimental and Control Conditions• Experimenter Effects• Advantages and Limitations of
Experiments
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Experimental Variables
• Independent Variable: A variable that an experimenter manipulates.
• Dependent Variable: A variable than an experimenter predicts will be affected by manipulations of the independent variable.
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Experiments
• Experiment: A controlled test of a hypothesis in which the researcher manipulates one variable to discover its effect on another.
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Experimental and Control Conditions
• Experimental Condition: In an experiment, a condition in which subjects are exposed to manipulations of the independent variable.
• Control Condition: A comparison condition in which subjects are not exposed to the same treatment as in the experimental condition.
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Experimental Design
• Hypothesis: Nicotine in cigarettes impairs driving.
• All conditions kept the same for both groups except nicotine.– Control condition is
given placebo (inactive) cigarettes
• Number of collisions is measured.
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Random Assignment
• A procedure for assigning people to experimental and control groups in which individuals have the same probability as an other of being assigned to either group.
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Placebo
• An inactive substance or fake treatment used as a control in an experiment or given by a practitioner to a patient.
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Experimenter Effects
• Unintended changes in subjects’ behavior due to cues inadvertently given by the experimenter
• Double-Blind Study: Experiment where neither subjects nor people running the study know which subjects are in the control group and which are in the experimental group until after results are tallied.
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Advantages and Limitations of Experiments
• Experiments allow conclusions about cause-effect relationships.
• Participants in experiments are not always representative of larger population.– Much psychology research is carried out
using colleges students as participants.• Field Research: Descriptive or experimental
research conducted in a natural setting outside the laboratory.
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Evaluating the Findings
• Why Psychologists Use Statistics• From the Laboratory to the Real World
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Why Psychologists Use Statistics
• Descriptive Statistics: Organize and summarize data
• Inferential Statistics: Assess how meaningful results are, such as differences between groups.– Significance tests assess how likely it
is that a study’s results occurred merely by chance
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From the Laboratory to the Real World
• Choosing the Best Explanation– Sometimes there are competing
explanations for the same events• Judging the Result’s Importance
– Statistical significance does not prove that a result is important, only that it is reliable
– Meta-analysis combines and analyzes data from many studies
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Different Research Methods
• Cross-Sectional Study: Subjects of different ages are compared at a given time.
• Longitudinal Study: Subjects are followed and periodically reassessed over a period of time